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Das DNA-Mismatch-Reparatur-(MMR-) System ist das einzig bekannte postreplikativ arbeitende DNA-Reparatur-System. Es wurde gezeigt, dass die MMR-Aktivität für den Erhalt der genomischen Stabilität in Prokaryoten und Eukaryoten notwendig ist. Defekte in Genen des MMR-Systems (wie beispielsweise MLH1 oder MSH2) wurden als Ursache für die Entstehung des hereditären nicht-polypösen kolorektalen Karzinoms (HNPCC) und anderen Tumorarten beschrieben. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde die Tumorgenese in Mlh1 defizienten Mäusen (Mlh1-/-) untersucht und eine umfassende Charakterisierung der hier auftretenen Lymphome vorgenommen und die Bedeutung des Immunsystems für die Tumorgenese in Mlh1 defizienten Mäusen durch Einkreuzen zusätzlicher Immundefizienzen erruiert. Die auf einen reinen genetischen Hintergrund zurückgekreuzten Mlh1-/--Mäuse zeigten eine in zwei Wellen ablaufende Tumorgenese: Eine frühe Phase, in der Mäuse lymphoide Tumoren entwickelten und eine spätere Phase, in der die Mlh1-/--Tiere vorwiegend an Gastrointestinaltumoren erkrankten. Wir konnten zeigen, dass die Mlh1 defizienten Mäuse ein breiteres Lymphomspektrum, als beispielsweise Msh2 defiziente Tiere aufweisen. Eine Vielzahl der untersuchten Lymphome Mlh1 defizienter Mäuse war mikrosatelliteninstabil (MSI). Die Tatsache, dass mikrosatellitenstabile (MSS) Lymphome in den Mlh1-/--Tieren vorkamen, impliziert aber auch, das MMR-Defizienz nicht zwingend durch Mikrosatelliteninstabilität gekennzeichnet sein muss. Es ist möglich, dass sich eine Mikrosatelliteninstabilität erst zu einem späteren Zeitpunkt der Tumorentwicklung in MMR-defizienten Zellen manifestiert. Darauf deuten auch die MSI-Analysen der in den Rag-/-/Mlh1-/--Mäusen frühzeitiger als in Mlh1-/--Mäusen auftretenden Gastrointestinaltumoren hin. Einige dieser untersuchten Gastrointestinaltumoren in den Rag-/-/Mlh1-/--Mäusen waren mikrosatellitenstabil, wohingegen sämtliche Gastrointestinaltumoren der Mlh1 defizienten Mauspopulation Mikrosatelliteninstabilität aufwiesen. In einigen der untersuchten Lymphome fehlte die MHC Klasse I-Molekülexpression, was auf deutet den Einfluss des Immunsystems auf die Erkennung und Eliminierung von (durch MMR-Defizienz entstandenen) Tumoren hindeutet. Um die Art der Immunantwort und die verantwortlichen Komponenten des Immunsystems für die Abwehr MMR-defizienter Tumoren einzugrenzen, wurden verschiedene immunkompromitierte oder immundefiziente Mauslinien in Mlh1 defiziente Mäuse eingekreuzt. Dieses waren Mauslinien mit beta2Mikroglobulin- (b2m-/--), Perforin- (pfp-/--), beta2Mikroglobulin/Perforin- (b2m-/-/pfp-/--) und Recombination activation gene- (Rag-/--) Defizienz. Häufig wurde in diesen Tieren eine Verschiebung im Tumorspektrum und ein beschleunigtes zeitliches Auftreten der Tumoren beobachtet. Anhand dieser Modelle konnten wir demonstrieren, dass insbesondere die Regulierung der MHC Klasse I-Molekülexpression ein bedeutsamer Schritt für die Ausprägung verschiedener Lymphomarten ist, welcher das „Überleben“ der Tumorzellen gewährleistet. Auch die Notwendigkeit einer balancierten Expression von NK-Zell-stimulatorischen und –inhibitorischen Liganden auf der Tumorzelloberfläche, welche die Erkennung und Eliminierung von Tumorzellen durch Nicht-MHC Klasse I-abhängige Immunzellen (wie z.B. den Natürliche Killerzellen) reguliert, liess sich mit Hilfe der beta2Mikroglobulin- und Perforin-Mausmodelle aufzeigen. Offensichtlich sind für die in Mlh1 defizienten Mäusen vorkommenden verschiedenen Tumorarten unterschiedliche zelluläre Komponenten und Abwehrmechanismen des Immunsystems für die Erkennung und Eliminierung verantwortlich. So beeinflussen insbesondere cytotoxische T-Zellen (CTLs) die Entstehung von Gastrointestinaltumoren in Mlh1 defizienten Mäusen. Für die lymphoiden Tumoren ergab sich ein divergentes Bild. Hier beschränkte sich der Einfluss der CTLs bei der Lymphomabwehr auf die Erkennung und Eliminierung disseminierter T- und B-Zell-Lymphome. Die in den Mlh1-/--Mäusen nachgewiesenen thymischen T-Zell Lymphome dagegen unterlagen der perforin-vermittelten Zellabwehr durch Nicht-MHC Klasse I-beschränkte Immunzellen (z.B. Natürlichen Killerzellen). Die Relevanz der vorliegenden Mausmodelle wird deutlich, wenn man sich die Situation von immunsupprimierten Posttransplantationspatienten und immundefizienten HIV-Patienten vor Augen führt. Häufig beobachtet man in diesen Patientengruppen das Auftreten lymphoider Tumoren. Diese sind oftmals Mikrosatelliteninstabil, was auf eine vorliegende MMR-Defizienz hindeutet. Zudem zeigen diese Lymphome ähnliche Merkmale, wie die durch Mlh1-Defizienz entstandenen lymphoiden Tumoren. Insbesondere für Studien solcher Lymphome stellt die Mlh1-defiziente Maus mit den verschiedenen eingekreuzten Immundefizienzen ein geeignetes in vivo Model dar.
Hey1, Hey2 and HeyL are downstream effectors of the Notch signalling pathway. Hey genes play decisive roles during embryonic development for example in cardiovascular development. However, the precise transcriptional programmes and genes, which are affected by each single Hey gene, are still poorly understood. One drawback for the analysis of Hey1, Hey2 or HeyL single gene function is that these genes are co-expressed in many tissues and share a high degree of functional redundancy. Thus, it was necessary to establish a system, which is either devoid of Hey expression, or just comprises one single Hey gene family member. For this, Hey1(fl/fl)/Hey2(-/-)/HeyL(-/-)- as well as Hey-triple- knock out (KO)-ES cells (embryonic stem cells) were generated in this work, because ES cells and their differentiation as EBs (embryoid bodies) represent a valuable tool for the in vitro analysis of embryonic developmental processes. After the establishment of Hey1(fl/fl)/Hey2(-/-)/HeyL(-/-)- and Hey-triple- KO-ES cells, it could be seen by ALP staining and pluripotency marker expression that loss of Hey expression did not affect ES cell pluripotency features. Thus, these ES cells represent bona fide ES cells and could be further used for the differentiation as EBs. Here, differences in gene expression between Hey1(fl/fl)/Hey2(-/-)/HeyL(-/-)- and Hey-triple- KO-ES cells (after the loss of Hey1) could be observed in realtime-RT-PCR analysis for the endodermal marker AFP as well as for neural and myogenic markers in d10 EBs. However, the establishment of inducible Hey1, Hey2 or HeyL ES cell lines will be essential to confirm these findings and to search for novel Hey target genes. To get further insight into the mode of Hey action, the analysis of Hey interaction partners is necessary. One such binding partner, the Bre protein, has previously been found in a yeast-two-hybrid screen. Bre has been described to be a member of two distinct complexes (i.e. the nuclear BRCA1-A complex with a function in DNA damage response and the cytoplasmic BRISC complex), to directly interact with the TNF-receptor and Fas and to interfere with apoptotic signalling. The Hey-Bre interaction could be further corroborated in this work; yet, it was not possible to narrow down the interaction site of Bre with Hey1. It rather seems that non-overlapping parts of the Bre protein may bind to Hey. This interaction may be direct– pointing to more than one interaction site inside the Bre protein – or via a common binding partner such as the endogenous Bre protein itself. Besides the interaction studies, functional assays were performed for a more detailed characterisation of Hey1 and Bre interaction. Here, it could be shown that Hey1 over-expression did not have any influence on Bre sub-cellular localisation. Interestingly, it could be demonstrated that Bre positively interfered with Hey1 repressive function in luciferase assays at three of four promoters analysed. Moreover, interaction with Bre seems to lead to a stabilisation of Hey1. As Bre has been described to modulate the E3-ligase activity intrinsic to the BRCC complex it was analysed whether Bre over-expression results in an ubiquitination of Hey1. Yet, this could not be observed in the present work. Furthermore, an interaction of Bre with ubiquitinated proteins could not be demonstrated in an ubiquitin binding assay. To obtain a better insight into Bre function, Bre LacZ gene trap-ES cells and animals were generated. However, realtime-RT-analyses revealed that these cells and mice did not show a loss of Bre expression on mRNA level indicating that insertion mutagenesis did not occur as expected. However, embryos derived from these mice could nevertheless be used for the detection of tissues with Bre expression by β-galactosidase staining. Bre deficiency on mRNA levels was only achieved after the deletion of the floxed exon 3 resulting in the generation of Bre del-mice. Bre del-mice were fertile and without any obvious phenotype and they were used for the generation of Bre del- and wt-MEFs (murine embryonic fibroblasts). Characterisation of these cells showed that proliferation was not affected after loss of Bre (neither under normal nor under stress conditions). However, loss of Bre notably resulted in a reduction in the BRCA1 DNA damage response, in a slightly increased sensitivity towards apoptosis induction by FasL treatment and in an increase in the K63-poly-ubiquitin content in Bre del-cytoplasmic fractions, probably linked to a change in the BRISC de-ubiquitinase activity. Even though these results have the same tendencies as observed in former studies, the effects in the present work are less striking. Further studies as well as intercrossing of Bre del- to Hey KO-animals will be necessary to further understand the functional relevance of Hey and Bre interaction.
Die zellulären Rho GTPasen kontrollieren und regulieren zentrale elementare Zellvorgänge wie Phagozytose, Migration und epitheliale Integrität. Aufgrund ihrer zentralen Stellung, interagiert eine Vielzahl von bakteriellen Cytotoxinen und Modulinen mit den Rho GTPasen und wirken so als Pathogenitätsfaktoren. Die zur W-xxx-E Familie gehörenden Effektoren IpgB1 und IpgB2 von Shigella und Map von E. coli (Pathotypen EHEC und EPEC) werden über ein Typ 3 Sekretionssystem (T3SS) in Wirtszellen injiziert und wirken als Rac1, RhoA bzw. Cdc42 GEF Mimetikum. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurden die Effektor Funktionen von IpgB1 IpgB2 und Map mit Hilfe des Yersinia (Ysc)-T3SS untersucht, was zur Etablierung der „Yersinia-Toolbox“ führte. Damit können heterologe Effektoren isoliert im physiologischen Kontext der Erreger-Zell-Interaktion zellbiologisch untersucht werden unter Vermeidung von simultaner Injektion redundanter oder unbekannter Effektoren. Zur Etablierung der Yersinia-Toolbox wurden zunächst die Gene für die Rho GTPasen modulierenden Shigella Effektoren IpgB1 und IpgB2 sowie der E. coli (EHEC)-Effektor Map mit unterschiedlich langen Gensequenzen der N-terminalen Bereiche des Yersinia-Effektorproteins YopE fusioniert (Hybridproteine: YopEi-X:i = 18, 53 bzw. 138 Aminosäurereste, X = IpgB1, IpgB2 bzw. Map). In der vorliegenden Arbeit wird gezeigt, dass die Hybridproteine YopE53-X und YopE138-X (X=IpgB1, IpgB2, Map) in den Kulturüberstand sezerniert bzw. in Zielzellen injiziert wurden. In einem weiteren Schritt konnte die zellbiologische Aktivität der heterologen Proteine fluoreszenzmikroskopisch durch Aktinzytoskelettumlagerungen gezeigt werden. So wurden „Membrane Ruffles“ (Rac1-Aktivierung) durch YopE138-IpgB1, Stressfasern (RhoA-Aktivierung) durch E138-IpgB2 und „Mikrospikes“ (Cdc42-Aktivierung) durch YopE138-Map nachgewiesen. Invasionstudien zeigten, dass YopEi-IpgB1 (i = 53, 138) die Yersinia-Invasion induzierte, wohingegen YopEi-IpgB2 die Invasionsrate der Stämme WA (pT3SS, pEi-IpgB2) (i=53, 138) verglichen mit dem Stamm WA (pT3SS) reduziert war. Durch Kombination verschiedener Yersinia-Toolbox-Stämme konnte im Co-Infektionsmodell mit HeLa-Zellen gezeigt werden, dass (1) die YopE138-IpgB1 vermittelte Invasion durch YopE138-IpgB2 signifikant inhibiert werden kann, was auf eine antagonistische Wirkung zwischen IpgB1 und IpgB2 schließen lässt, dass (2) YopT ebenfalls die IpgB1 vermittelte Invasionsrate reduziert (inhibitorische Wirkung auf Rac1), und dass (3) YopE als GAP für RhoG/Rac1 (bevorzugt RhoG) praktisch nicht die IpgB1-vermittelte Invasion hemmt. Durch Klonierung der YopE138-IpgB1 und YopE138-IpgB2 kodierenden Fusionsgene in zwei kompatible Plasmidvektoren konnten die Hybridproteine simultan transloziert werden und die Co-Infektionsergebnisse bestätigt werden. In der Literatur ist beschrieben, dass die Ysc-Translokationspore YopB/YopD Rho-abhängig Membranporen-bedingte Zellschädigungen verursacht (LDH-Freisetzung, PI-Kernfärbung). Mit der Yersinia-Toolbox konnte mit dem Stamm WA (pT3SS) Zytoplasmamembranschädigung / Zytotoxizität nachgewiesen werden, nicht aber mit den Stämmen WA (pE138-X) X = IpgB1, IpgB2 oder Map. Co-Infektionen jedoch zeigen, dass vermehrt LDH bei der Infektion mit WA (pT3SS) + WA (pT3SS, pE138-IpgB1) detektiert wurde, wohingegen dieser Effekt von YopE138-IpgB2 in einer Co-Infektion von WA (pT3SS) + WA (pT3SS, pE138-IpgB2) inhibiert wurde. Auch hier wurde der Antagonismus zwischen IpgB1 und IpgB2 erneut sichtbar. Diese Befunde widersprechen publizierten Daten, die eine RhoA-Aktivierung/Aktinpolymerisierung mit verstärkter Porenbildung in einen Zusammenhang bringen. Rho GTPasen sind beteiligt an der Erhaltung der polarisierten Eipthelzellschichtintegrität über Adhäsionskomplexbildung. Mittels Infektion von polarisierten MDCK-Zellschichten mit verschiedenen Yersinia-Stämmen und Messung des transepithelialen elektrischen Widerstandes/Resistenz (TER) konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Ysc-T3SS vermittelte Injektion von YopE138-IpgB1 (Rac1-Aktivierung) oder YopE138-Map (Cdc42-Aktivierung) zur Abnahme der TER und damit Schädigung der Zellschichtintegrität führt, wogegen bei YopE138-IpgB2-Injektion der TER-Wert unverändert blieb. Um bakterielle Rho GTPasen-modulierende Effektorproteine detailliert untersuchen zu können und um die Rolle von Rho GTPasen im Mausinfektionsmodell mit Yersinia enterocolitica und Salmonellen zu bestimmen, wurden Mäuse mit deletierten Genen für RhoA, Rac1 bzw. Cdc42 in Makrophagen hergestellt.
To unravel the role of single genes underlying certain biological processes, scientists often use amorphic or hypomorphic alleles. In the past, such mutants were often created by chance. Enormous approaches with many animals and massive screening effort for striking phenotypes were necessary to find a needle in the haystack. Therefore at the beginning chemical mutagens or radiation were used to induce mutations in the genome. Later P-element insertions and inaccurate jump-outs enabled the advantage of potential larger deletions or inversions. The mutations were characterized and subsequently kept in smaller populations in the laboratories. Thus additional mutations with unknown background effects could accumulate.
The precision of the knockout through homologous recombination and the additional advantage of being able to generate many useful rescue constructs that can be easily reintegrated into the target locus made us trying an ends-out targeting procedure of the two core clock genes period and timeless in Drosophila melanogaster. Instead of the endogenous region, a small fragment of approximately 100 base pairs remains including an attP-site that can be used as integration site for in vitro created rescue constructs. After a successful ends-out targeting procedure, the locus will be restored with e.g. flies expressing the endogenous gene under the native promoter at the original locus coupled to a fluorescence tag or expressing luciferase.
We also linked this project to other research interests of our work group, like the epigenetic related ADAR-editing project of the Timeless protein, a promising newly discovered feature of time point specific timeless mRNA modification after transcription with yet unexplored consequences. The editing position within the Timeless protein is likewise interesting and not only noticed for the first time. This will render new insights into the otherwise not-satisfying investigation and quest for functional important sequences of the Timeless protein, which anyway shows less homology to other yet characterized proteins.
Last but not least, we bothered with the question of the role of Shaggy on the circadian clock. The impact of an overexpression or downregulation of Shaggy on the pace of the clock is obvious and often described. The influence of Shaggy on Period and Timeless was also shown, but for the latter it is still controversially discussed. Some are talking of a Cryptochrome stabilization effect and rhythmic animals in constant light due to Shaggy overexpression, others show a decrease of Cryptochrome levels under these conditions. Also the constant light rhythmicity of the flies, as it was published, could not be repeated so far. We were able to expose the conditions behind the Cryptochrome stabilization and discuss possibilities for the phenomenon of rhythmicity under constant light due to Shaggy overexpression.
SPRED proteins are inhibitors of the Ras/ERK/MAPK signaling pathway, an evolutionary highly conserved and very widespread signaling cascade regulating cell proliferation, differentiation, and growth. To elucidate physiological consequences of SPRED2 deficiency, SPRED2 KO mice were generated by a gene trap approach. An initial phenotypical characterization of KO mice aged up to five months identified SPRED2 as a regulator of chondrocyte differentiation and bone growth. Here, the loss of SPRED2 leads to an augmented FGFR-dependent ERK activity, which in turn causes hypochondroplasia-like dwarfism. However, long term observations of older KO mice revealed a generally bad state of health and manifold further symptoms, including excessive grooming associated with severe self-inflicted wounds, an abnormally high water uptake, clear morphological signs of kidney deterioration, and a reduced survival due to sudden death. Based on these observations, the aim of this study was to discover an elicitor of this complex and versatile phenotype.
The observed kidney degeneration in our SPRED2 KO mice was ascribed to hydronephrosis characterized by severe kidney atrophy and apoptosis of renal tubular cells. Kidney damage prompted us to analyze drinking behavior and routine serum parameters. Despite polydipsia, which was characterized by a nearly doubled daily water uptake, the significantly elevated Na+ and Cl- levels and the resulting serum hyperosmolality could not be compensated in SPRED2 KOs. Since salt and water balance is primarily under hormonal control of aldosterone and AVP, we analyzed both hormone levels. While serum AVP was similar in WTs and KOs, even after experimental water deprivation and an extreme loss of body fluid, serum aldosterone was doubled in SPRED2 KO mice. Systematic investigation of contributing upstream hormone axes demonstrated that hyperaldosteronism developed independently of an overactivated Renin-Angiotensin system as indicated by halved serum Ang II levels in KO mice. However, aldosterone synthase expression in the adrenal gland was substantially augmented. Serum corticosterone, which is like aldosterone released from the adrenal cortex, was more than doubled in SPRED2 KOs, too. Similar to corticosterone, the production of aldosterone is at least in part under control of pituitary ACTH, which is further regulated by upstream hypothalamic CRH release. In fact, stress hormone secretion from this complete hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis was upregulated because serum ACTH, the mid acting pituitary hormone, and hypothalamic CRH, the upstream hormonal inductor of HPA axis activity, were also elevated by 30% in SPRED2 KO mice. This was accompanied by an upregulated ERK activity in paraventricular nucleus-containing hypothalamic brain regions and by augmented hypothalamic CRH mRNA levels in our SPRED2 KO mice. In vitro studies using the hypothalamic cell line mHypoE-44 further demonstrated that both SPRED1 and SPRED2 were able to downregulate CRH promoter activity, CRH secretion, and Ets factor-dependent CRH transcription. This was in line with the presence of various Ets factor binding sites in the CRH promoter region, especially for Ets1.
Thus, this study shows for the first time that SPRED2-dependent inhibition of Ras/ERK/MAPK signaling by suppression of ERK activity leads to a downregulation of Ets1 factor-dependent transcription, which further results in inhibition of CRH promoter activity, CRH transcription, and CRH release from the hypothalamus. The consecutive hyperactivity of the complete HPA axis in our SPRED2 KO mice reflects an elevated endogenous stress response becoming manifest by excessive grooming behavior and self-inflicted skin lesions on the one hand; on the other hand, in combination with elevated aldosterone synthase expression, this upregulated HPA hormone release explains hyperaldosteronism and the associated salt and water imbalances. Both hyperaldosteronism and polydipsia very likely contribute further to the observed kidney damage.
Taken together, this study initially demonstrates that SPRED2 is essential for the appropriate regulation of HPA axis activity and of body homeostasis.
To further enlighten and compare consequences of SPRED2 deficiency in mice and particularly in humans, two follow-up studies investigating SPRED2 function especially in heart and brain, and a genetic screen to identify human SPRED2 loss-of-function mutations are already in progress.
The actin cytoskeleton is essential for many cellular functions, such as the regulation of cell morphology, cell migration and vesicle transport processes. The functional diversity of actin structures is reflected in a variety of distinct molecular mechanisms regulating the polymerization of actin filaments. The spontaneous polymerization of actin however is inhibited, by both the instability of small actin oligomers and by actin monomer binding proteins, which prevent the formation of such oligomers. Actin nucleation factors help to overcome this kinetic barrier of filament initiation and are essential for the generation of novel actin filaments at specified subcellular compartments. Spir proteins are the founding members of the novel class of WH2 domain containing actin nucleation factors. They initiate actin polymerization by binding of actin monomers to four WH2 domains in the central part of the protein. Despite their ability to nucleate actin polymerization in vitro by themselves, Spir proteins form a regulatory complex with the distinct actin nucleators of the formin subgroup of formins. Spir functions in the regulation of vesicular originated filamentous actin structures, vesicle transport processes and the assembly of the cleavage furrow during asymmetric meiotic cell divisions. The mammalian genome encodes two spir genes, spir-1 and spir-2. The corresponding proteins have an identical structural array and share a high degree of homology. In order to elucidate the Spir function in developing and adult mouse tissues, the yet unknown expression of the mouse spir-2 gene was addressed. Real-time PCR analysis revealed highest expression of spir-2 in oocytes, the brain, throughout the gastrointestinal tract, testis and kidney of adult mice. In situ hybridizations were performed to substantiate the cellular nature of spir gene expression. During embryogenesis in situ hybridizations show spir-2 to be expressed in the developing nervous system and intestine. In adult mouse tissues highest expression of spir-2 was detected in the epithelial cells of the digestive tract, in neuronal cells of the nervous system and in spermatocytes. In contrast to the more restricted expression of the mouse spir-1 gene, which is mainly found in the nervous system, oocytes and testis, the data presented here show a distinct and broader expression pattern of the spir-2 gene and by this support a more general cell biological function of the novel actin nucleators. In order to address the function of Spir proteins in the developing and adult nervous system, Spir-1 deficient mice were generated by a gene trap method. Spir-1 deficient mice are viable and provide a perfect tool to address the neurobiological function of the Spir-1 protein. Analyses of primary cortical neurons from Spir-1 deficient mice revealed a specific reduction of dendritic branchpoints and are the first description of a neuronal Spir-1 function. Further, a transgenic mouse line (thy1-GFP-M) was employed that expresses the green fluorescent protein (GFP) under the control of neuron specific elements from the thy1 promoter. GFP is thereby expressed in only a subset of neurons and labels the neurons in their entirety. Spir-1 deficient mice carrying the GFP transgene were generated and analyzed. It was found that Spir-1 deficient mice exhibit a reduced number of dendritic spines in the entorhinal cortex compared to wildtype littermates. All together this study gives novel information about the cell biological function of Spir and provides insights how cytoskeletal functions structure the mammalian neuronal network.
LINC, the human homologue of an evolutionary conserved complex, regulates the transcription of a set of genes essential during the G2/M transition (Osterloh et al., 2007; Schmit et al., 2007). One component of the LINC core module is LIN-9. LIN-9 is essential for the transcriptional activation of LINC target genes and also promotes differentiation in association with pRB (Gagrica et al., 2004). However, nothing is known about its function in vivo. Histological and molecular analysis revealed that Lin9 is ubiquitously expressed throughout embryonic development and in all examined adult organs. Additionally, Lin9 mRNA is expressed in ES cells and blastocysts. Moreover the analogous distribution of the other LINC components suggested that they all function in the same cells and most likely in the same pathway. To deeper investigate the role of LIN9 in cell cycle and differentiation in vivo, a Lin9 gene trap mouse model (GT) was successfully generated and examined. Heterozygouse Lin9GT/+ mice were inconspicuous and develop normally. However, homozygouse knockout embryos were never obtained. The Lin9GT/GT embryos die at peri-implantation, probably due to a defect in the development of the epiblast, which could be shown with in situ hybridization with specific lineage markers. In vitro, the ICM of Lin9-deficient blastocysts did not develop properly. These data suggest that the loss of Lin9 leads to embryonic lethality at peri-implantation, and indicates that LIN9 is required for proper formation of the epiblast. In parallel, the first conditional Lin9 mouse model based on the Cre-loxP technology was generated. The Lin9fl/fl allele can be deleted by Cre-recombinase, in vivo and in vitro. Therefore an inducible system with Lin9fl/fl mice harboring Cre-ERT2 was established. The MEFs generated from these transgenic mice carried a nearly complete knockout upon induction with tamoxifen. Deletion of LIN9 in MEFs had a major impact upon the cell cycle and growth rates. Specifically, they arrested in G2/M phase and stopped to proliferate. Taken together, I was able to generate a lin9 gene trap and a lin9 conditional knockout mouse model. All results obtained so far demonstrate, that Lin9 is an essential gene for embryonic development and cell cycle control. It will be of great interest to further investigate Lin9-deficiency to gain insights into the mechanism of cell cycle control in early embryonic development and cell differentiation.