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The respiratory system is amongst the most important compartments in the human body. Due to its connection to the external environment, it is one of the most common portals of pathogen entry. Airborne pathogens like measles virus (MV) carried in liquid droplets exhaled from the infected individuals via a cough or sneeze enter the body from the upper respiratory tract and travel down to the lower respiratory tract and reach the alveoli. There, pathogens are captured by the resident dendritic cells (DCs) or macrophages and brought to the lymph node where immune responses or, as in case of MV, dissemination via the hematopoietic cell compartment are initiated. Basic mechanisms governing MV exit from the respiratory tract, especially virus transmission from infected immune cells to the epithelial cells have not been fully addressed before. Considering the importance of these factors in the viral spread, a complex close-to-in-vivo 3D human respiratory tract model was generated. This model was established using de-cellularized porcine intestine tissue as a biological scaffold and H358 cells as targets for infection. The scaffold was embedded with fibroblast cells, and later on, an endothelial cell layer seeded at the basolateral side. This provided an environment resembling the respiratory tract where MV infected DCs had to transmigrate through the collagen scaffold and transmit the virus to epithelial cells in a Nectin-4 dependent manner. For viral transmission, the access of infected DCs to the recipient epithelial cells is an essential prerequisite and therefore, this important factor which is reflected by cell migration was analyzed in this 3D system.
The enhanced motility of specifically MV-infected DCs in the 3D models was observed, which occurred independently of factors released from the other cell types in the models. Enhanced motility of infected DCs in 3D collagen matrices suggested infection-induced cytoskeletal remodeling, as also verified by detection of cytoskeletal polarization, uropod formation. This enforced migration was sensitive to ROCK inhibition revealing that MV infection induces an amoeboid migration mode in DCs. In support of this, the formation of podosome structures and filopodia, as well as their activity, were reduced in infected DCs and retained in their uninfected siblings. Differential migration modes of uninfected and infected DCs did not cause differential maturation, which was found to be identical for both populations. As an underlying mechanism driving this enforced migration, the role of sphingosine kinase (SphK) and sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) was studied in MV-exposed cultures. It was shown in this thesis that MV-infection increased S1P production, and this was identified as a contributing factor as inhibition sphingosine kinase activity abolished enforced migration of MV-infected DCs. These findings revealed that MV infection induces a fast push-and-squeeze amoeboid mode of migration, which is supported by SphK/S1P axis. However, this push-and-squeeze amoeboid migration mode did not prevent the transendothelial migration of MV-infected DCs.
Altogether, this 3D system has been proven to be a suitable model to study specific parameters of mechanisms involved in infections in an in vivo-like conditions.
Alveolar echinococcosis (AE) is a severe and life-threatening disease caused by the metacestode larva of the fox-tapeworm Echinococcus multilocularis. Parasite entry into the host evokes an early and potentially parasiticidal Th1 immune response that is gradually replaced by a permissive Th2 response. An immunoregulatory environment has also been reported in the host as the disease progresses. As a result of immunomodulation, E. multilocularis larvae persist in the host for decades without being expelled, and thus almost act like a perfect transplant. Very little is currently known on the molecular basis of the host immunomodulation by E. multilocularis. In this work, in vitro cultivation systems were used to assess the influence of metabolites released by the parasite larvae (E/S products) on host immune effector cells. E/S products of cultivated larvae that respresent the early (primary cells) and chronic (metacestode vesicles) phase of AE induced apoptosis and tolerogenic properties (poor responsiveness to LPS stimulation) in host dendritic cells (DC) whereas those of control larvae (protoscoleces) failed to do so. These findings show that the early infective stage of E. multilocularis induces tolerogenicity in host DC, which is most probably important for generating an immunosuppressive environment at an infection phase in which the parasite is highly vulnerable to host attacks. Interestingly, metacestode E/S products promoted the conversion of naïve CD4+ T-cells into Foxp3+ regulatory T-cells in vitro, whereas primary cell and protoscolex E/S products failed to do it. Since Foxp3+ regulatory T-cells are generally known to mediate immunosuppression, the present finding indicates that Foxp3+ regulatory T-cells, expanded by E/S products of the metacestode larva, could play a role in the parasite-driven immunomodulation of the host observed during AE. Furthermore, a substantial increase in number and frequency of suppressive Foxp3+ regulatory T-cells could be observed within peritoneal exudates of mice following intraperitoneal injection of E. multilocularis metacestodes, indicating that Foxp3+ regulatory T-cells could also play an important role in E. multilocularis-driven immunomodulation in vivo. Interestingly, a parasite activin ortholog, EmACT, secreted by metacestodes, was shown to expand host regulatory T-cells in a TGF-β-dependent manner, similarly to mammalian activin A. This observation indicated that E. multilocularis utilizes evolutionarily conserved TGF-β superfamily ligands, like EmACT, to expand host regulatory T-cells. Taken together, the present findings suggest EmACT, a parasite activin secreted by the metacestode and capable of expanding host regulatory T-cells, as an important player in the host immunomodulation by E. multilocularis larvae. Another parasite factor EmTIP, homologous to mammalian T-cell immunomodulatory protein (TIP) was characterized in this work. EmTIP could be detected in the secretions of the parasite primary cells and localized to the intercellular space within the parasite larvae. EmTIP blockade inhibited the proliferation of E. multilocularis primary cells and the formation of metacestode vesicles indicating a major role for parasite development. Furthermore, EmTIP evoked a strong release of IFN-γ by CD4+ T-cells hence suggesting that the secretion of this factor as a result of its role in parasite development could “secondarily” induce a potentially protective Th1 response. In conclusion, this work identified two molecules, EmACT and EmTIP, with high immunomodulatory potential that are released by E. multilocularis larvae. The data presented do provide insights into the mechanisms of parasite-driven host immunomodulation during AE that are highly relevant for the development of anti-parasitic immune therapies.
Effective T cell immunity was believed to occur by mature DC, whereas tolerogenicity was attributed strictly to immature DC phenotypes. However, intermediate DC maturation stages were identified conditioned by inflammatory mediators like TNF. Furthermore, the T cell tolerance mechanisms are dependent on distinct modes and intensities of co-stimulation. Therefore, in this study it was addressed how distinct DC maturation signatures instruct CD4+ T cell tolerance mechanisms. DC acquire antigens from apoptotic cells for self-peptide-MHC presentation and functionally adapt presumed tolerogenic DC phenotypes. Here, immature murine bone-marrow derived DC representing both inflammatory and conventional DC subsets adapted a maturationresistant DC signature upon apoptotic cell recognition but no additional tolerogenic features. Immature DC instruct CD4+ FoxP3+ regulatory T cells in a TGF-β prone micro-environment or generate anergic CD4+ T cells hampered in the TCR-induced proliferation and IL-2 secretion. Secondary stimulation of such anergic CD4+ T cells by immature DC increased primarily IL-10 production and conferred regulatory function. These IL-10+ regulatory T cells expressed high levels of CTLA-4, which is potently induced by immature DC in particular. Data in this work showed that anergic T cells can be re-programmed to become IL-10+ regulatory T cells upon ligation of CTLA-4 and CD28 signalling cascades by B7 costimulatory ligands on immature DC. In contrast, semi-mature DC phenotypes conditioned by the inflammatory mediator TNF prevented autoimmune disorders by induction of IL-10+ Th2 responses as demonstrated previously. Here, it was shown that TNF as an endogenous maturation stimulus and pathogenic Trypanosoma brucei variant-specific surface glycoproteins (VSG) induced highly similar DC gene expression signatures which instructed default effector Th2 responses. Repetitive administration of the differentially conditioned semi-mature DC effectively skewed T cell immunity to IL-10+ Th2 cells, mediating immune deviation and suppression. Collectively, the data presented in this work provide novel insights how immature and partially mature DC phenotypes generate T cell tolerance mechanisms in vitro, which has important implications for the design of effective DC-targeted vaccines. Unravelling the DC maturation signatures is central to the long-standing quest to break tolerance mimicked by malignant tumours or re-establish immune homeostasis in allergic or autoimmune disorders.
Dendritic cell-based vaccination is a well established technique for preventive and therapeutic instruction of the immune system where conservative vaccine formulations fail to cure or prevent diseases, respectively. Efficiency of this technique already was demonstrated in infectious diseases as well as for cancer in animal or human studies. Well controlled manipulation and antigen-loading of immature DC is most beneficial to this technique. But, time-consuming and cost-extensive procedures for preparation of DC precursors, expansion and stimulation of DC and inpatient administration are big disadvantages regarding vaccine development for pandemic infectious diseases that occur mainly in underdeveloped countries. Therefore vaccines are needed that are pathogen-tailored and able to induce equal immune responses as their DC-based vaccine models. For vaccination against Leishmania parasites such a DC-based vaccine is feasible and its efficacy to induce protective Th1-based immune responses was already demonstrated in several animal studies. But, one of our own studies indicated supportive activity of host cells exceeding the allocation of T cells to become activated by transferred DC. IL-12, an important cytokine for the induction of Th1-related immune responses, has to be produced by host cells. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the mechanism of BMDC-based vaccination with regard to simplification of the vaccine formulation. Key questions that have been addressed are: Which cells process the information that is transferred by the injected DC and what are the key components of this information? Further more, it was looked at whether altered vaccine formulations are able to induce protective immunity and whether they share equal molecular mechanisms. The current paradigm of BMDC-based vaccination proposes direct interaction of transferred BMDC with host T cells. These BMDC have to be antigen-loaded for stimulation via antigen-peptide-MHC molecule-complexes and they have to be activated for proper co-stimulation of T cells. Here, this study demonstrates that neither activation for co-stimulation nor direct interaction with adequate MHC molecules is needed for the induction of protective immunity against infection with Leishmania-parasites. Disrupted antigen-loaded BMDC are able to induce protective immunity in BALB/c mice without pre-stimulation via CpG ODN. Beyond, if BMDC were used with a different MHC-background than recipient mice then the vaccine still would be efficient in terms of reduction of footpad swelling and parasite load in draining lymph nodes. Even more, DC-specific features are no key component that leads to protective immunity as vaccination with disrupted antigen-loaded MΦ shows equal properties than before mentioned vaccine formulations. Further more, it was found that host DC play a major role in transforming the incoming signal, received from transferred antigen-loaded DC, into Th1-related stimuli and Leishmania-antigen-specific T cell activation. Suspensions of disrupted antigen-loaded DC resemble a combination of laid off soluble molecules together with exosome-like vesicles that formed after disruption of membranes. Here it was shown that separation of the membranous and soluble fractions and subsequent transfer into BALB/c mice will lead to protection of these mice against infection with L. major promastigotes only if the membranous fraction is used as vaccine. More, this vaccine formulation takes advantage of easy storage at -80°C with no need of fresh production. This clearly demonstrates that the immunity-inducing principle of disrupted DC-based vaccination lies within the membrane enclosed fraction. On a molecular level, disrupted antigen-loaded DC induce Th1-related cytokines during vaccination and as response on pathogen encounter. In vivo assays revealed IL-12 production and antigen-specific T cell proliferation among splenocytes that were stimulated with disrupted antigen-loaded DC. Splenocytes of accordingly vaccinated mice produce tremendous amounts of IFNγ after stimulation with Leishmania parasites. In summary, disrupted antigen-loaded BMDC fulfil all characteristics of DC-based vaccination against Leishmania major. But, while purification of membranes of antigen-loaded DC and subsequent transfer to BALB/c mice leads to control of the disease in the animal model, only slight levels of Th1-related cytokines are seen in the in vivo assays. Whether this points towards a loss of vaccine activity on unseen levels or unknown sites where Th1-related immunity is induced by both, complete solution and purified membranes, still has to be determined.