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mRNA is co- or post-transcriptionally processed from a precursor mRNA to a mature mRNA. In addition to 5'capping and splicing, these modifications also include polyadenylation, the addition of a polyA tail to the 3'end of the mRNA. In recent years, alternative polyadenylation in particular has increasingly been taken into account as a mechanism for regulating gene expression. It is assumed that approximately 70-75 % of human protein coding genes contain alternative polyadenylation signals, which are often located within intronic sequences of protein-coding genes. The use of such polyadenylation signals leads to shortened mRNA transcripts and thus to the generation of C-terminal shortened protein isoforms.
Interestingly, the majority of microRNAs, small non-coding RNAs that play an essential role in post-transcriptional gene regulation, are also encoded in intronic sequences of protein-coding genes and are co-transcriptionally expressed with their host genes. The biogenesis of microRNA has been well studied and is well known, but mechanisms that may influence the expression regulation of mature microRNAs are just poorly understood.
In the presented work, I aimed to investigate the influence of alternative intronic polyadenylation on the biogenesis of microRNAs. The human ion channel TRPM1 could already be associated with melanoma pathogenesis and truncated isoforms of this protein have already been described in literature. In addition, TRPM1 harbors a microRNA, miR211, in its sixth intron, which is assumed to act as a tumor suppressor. Since both, TRPM1 and miR211 have already been associated with melanoma pathogenesis, the shift towards truncated transcripts during the development of various cancers is already known and it has been shown that certain microRNAs play a crucial role in the development and progression of melanoma, melanoma cell lines were used as an in vitro model for these investigations.
Despite accounting for only a small proportion of all skin cancers, malignant melanoma
displays a serious health risk with increasing incidence and high mortality rate. Fortunately,
advances in the treatment of malignant melanoma now prolong survival and enhance response
and treatment efficacy. Established biomarkers help evaluate disease progression and
facilitate choosing appropriate and individual treatment options. However, the need for easily
accessible and reliable biomarkers is rising to predict patient-specific clinical outcome.
Eosinophil infiltration into the tumor and high peripheral eosinophil counts prior and during
treatment have been associated with better response in patients for various cancer entities,
including melanoma. An analysis of a heterogeneous study cohort reported high serum ECP
levels in non-responders. Hence, eosinophil frequency and serum ECP as a soluble
eosinophil-secreted mediator were suggested as prognostic biomarkers in melanoma. We
examined whether melanoma patients treated with first-line targeted therapy could also benefit
from the effects of eosinophils. In total, 243 blood and serum samples from patients with
advanced melanoma were prospectively and retrospectively collected before and after drug
initiation. To link eosinophil function to improved clinical outcome, soluble serum markers and
peripheral blood counts were used for correlative studies using a homogeneous study cohort.
In addition, functional and phenotypical characterizations provided insights into the expression
profile and activity of freshly isolated eosinophils, including comparisons between patients and
healthy donors.
Our data showed a significant correlation between high pre-treatment blood eosinophil counts
and improved response to targeted therapy and by trend to combinatorial immunotherapy in
patients with metastatic melanoma. In accordance with previous studies our results links
eosinophil blood counts to better response in melanoma patients. High pre-treatment ECP
serum concentration correlated with response to immunotherapy but not to targeted therapy.
Eosinophils from healthy donors and patients showed functional and phenotypical similarities.
Functional assays revealed a strong cytotoxic potential of blood eosinophils towards
melanoma cells in vitro, inducing apoptosis and necrosis. In addition, in vitro cytotoxicity was
an active process of peripheral eosinophils and melanoma cells with bidirectional features and
required close cell-cell interaction. The extent of cytotoxicity was dose-dependent and showed
susceptibility to changes in physical factors like adherence. Importantly, we provide evidence
of an additive tumoricidal function of eosinophils and combinatorial targeted therapy in vitro. In
summary, we give valuable insights into the complex and treatment-dependent role of
eosinophils in melanoma. As a result, our data support the suggestion of eosinophils and their
secreted mediators as potential prognostic biomarkers. It will take additional studies to
examine the molecular mechanisms that underlie our findings.
Das maligne Melanom nimmt als Tumorerkrankung mit hoher Metastasierungsrate und steigenden Inzidenzraten bei höchster Mortalität aller Hauttumoren eine zunehmende Bedeutung in der modernen Onkologie ein. Frühzeitige Diagnosemöglichkeiten und moderne Behandlungen konnten das Überleben der Patienten bereits erheblich verbessern. Jedoch besteht nach wie vor Bedarf an geeigneten Modellen, um die Melanomprogression vollständig zu verstehen und neue wirksame Therapien zu entwickeln. Hierfür werden häufig Tiermodelle verwendet, diese spiegeln jedoch nicht die menschliche Mikroumgebung wider. Zweidimensionalen Zellkulturen fehlen dagegen entscheidende Elemente der Tumormikroumgebung. Daher wurde in dieser Arbeit ein dreidimensionales epidermales Tumormodell des malignen Melanoms, welches aus primären humanen Keratinozyten und verschiedenen Melanomzelllinien besteht, entwickelt. Die eingesetzten Melanomzelllinien variieren in ihren Treibermutationen, wodurch das Modell in der Lage ist, Wirkstoffe zu untersuchen, die spezifisch auf diese Mutationen wirken. Mit Techniken des Tissue Engineerings konnte ein dreidimensionales Hautmodell aufgebaut werden, das alle charakteristischen Schichten der Epidermis aufweist und im Bereich des stratum basale Melanomcluster ausbildet. Diese reichen je nach Größe und Ausdehnung bis in suprabasale Epidermisschichten hinein. Die Tumor-Histopathologie, der Tumorstoffwechsel sowie tumorassoziierte Proteinsekretionen ließen sich im in vitro Modell nachweisen. Darüber hinaus konnte ein Protokoll entwickelt werden, mit dem einzelne Zellen aus den Modellen reisoliert werden können. Dies ermöglichte es, den Proliferationszustand innerhalb des jeweiligen Modells zu charakterisieren und die Wirkung von Antitumortherapien gezielt zu bewerten. Die Anwendbarkeit als Testsystem im Bereich der Tumortherapeutika wurde mit dem in der Klinik häufig verwendeten v-raf-Maus-Sarkom-Virus-Onkogen-Homolog B (BRAF)-Inhibitor Vemurafenib demonstriert. Der selektive BRAF-Inhibitor reduzierte erfolgreich das Tumorwachstum in den Modellen mit BRAF-mutierten Melanomzellen, was durch eine Verringerung der metabolischen Aktivität, der proliferierenden Zellen und des Glukoseverbrauchs gezeigt wurde. Für die Implementierung des Modells in die präklinische Therapieentwicklung wurde B-B-Dimethylacrylshikonin, ein vielversprechender Wirkstoffkandidat, welcher einen Zellzyklusarrest mit anschließender Apoptose bewirkt, im Modell getestet.
Bei einer Anwendung der Modelle im Bereich der Testung topischer Behandlungen ist eine Barrierefunktion der Modelle notwendig, die der in vivo Situation nahe kommt. Die Barriereeigenschaften der Hautäquivalente wurden durch die Melanomzellen nachweislich nicht beeinflusst, sind aber im Vergleich zur in vivo Situation noch unzureichend. Eine signifikante Steigerung der Hautbarriere konnte durch die Bereitstellung von Lipiden und die Anregung hauteigener Regenerationsprozesse erreicht werden. Über den Nachweis des transepidermalen Wasserverlusts konnte eine Messmethode zur nicht-invasiven Bestimmung der Hautbarriere etabliert und über den Vergleich zur Impedanzspektroskopie validiert werden. Hierbei gelang es, erstmals die Korrelation der Hautmodelle zur in vivo Situation über ein solches Verfahren zu zeigen. Das entwickelte epidermale Modell konnte durch die Integration eines dermalen Anteils und einer Endothelzellschicht noch weiter an die komplexe Struktur und Physiologie der Haut angepasst werden um Untersuchungen, die mit der Metastierung und Invasion zusammenhängen, zu ermöglichen. Die artifizielle Dermis basiert auf einem Kollagen-Hydrogel mit primären Fibroblasten. Eine dezellularisierte Schweinedarmmatrix ließ sich zur Erweiterung des Modells um eine Endothelzellschicht nutzen. Dabei wanderten die primären Fibroblasten apikal in die natürliche Schweindarmmatrix ein, während die Endothelzellen basolateral eine geschlossene Schicht bildeten.
Die in dieser Arbeit entwickelten Gewebemodelle sind in der Lage, die Vorhersagekraft der in vitro Modelle und die in vitro - in vivo Korrelation zu verbessern. Durch die Kombination des Melanommodells mit einer darauf abgestimmten Analytik wurde ein neuartiges Werkzeug für die präklinische Forschung zur Testung von pharmazeutischen Wirkstoffen geschaffen.
Die Rolle transposabler Elemente in der Genese des malignen Melanom im Fischmodell Xiphophorus
(2023)
Der Name der transposablen Elemente beruht auf ihrer Fähigkeit, ihre genomische Position verändern zu können. Durch Chromosomenaberrationen, Insertionen oder Deletionen können ihre genomischen Transpositionen genetische Instabilität verursachen. Inwieweit sie darüber hinaus regulatorischen Einfluss auf Zellfunktionen besitzen, ist Gegenstand aktueller Forschung ebenso wie die daraus resultierende Frage nach der Gesamtheit ihrer biologischen Signifikanz. Die Weiterführung experimenteller Forschung ist unabdingbar, um weiterhin offenen Fragen nachzugehen. Das Xiphophorus-Melanom-Modell stellt hierbei eines der ältesten Tiermodelle zur Erforschung des malignen Melanoms dar. Durch den klar definierten genetischen Hintergrund eignet es sich hervorragend zur Erforschung des bösartigen schwarzen Hautkrebses, welcher nach wie vor die tödlichste aller bekannten Hautkrebsformen darstellt. Die hier vorliegende Arbeit beschäftigt sich mit der Rolle transposabler Elemente in der malignen Melanomgenese von Xiphophorus.
Malignant melanoma (MM) is the most dangerous type of skin cancer with rising incidences worldwide. Melanoma skin models can help to elucidate its causes and formation or to develop new treatment strategies. However, most of the current skin models lack a vasculature, limiting their functionality and applicability. MM relies on the vascular system for its own supply and for its dissemination to distant body sites via lymphatic and blood vessels. Thus, to accurately study MM progression, a functional vasculature is indispensable. To date, there are no vascularized skin models to study melanoma metastasis in vitro, which is why such studies still rely on animal experimentation.
In the present thesis, two different approaches for the vascularization of skin models are employed with the aim to establish a vascularized 3D in vitro full-thickness skin equivalent (FTSE) that can serve as a test system for the investigation of the progression of MM.
Initially, endothelial cells were incorporated in the dermal part of FTSEs. The optimal seeding density, a spheroid conformation of the cells and the cell culture medium were tested. A high cell density resulted in the formation of lumen-forming shapes distributed in the dermal part of the model. These capillary-like structures were proven to be of endothelial origin by staining for the endothelial cell marker CD31. The established vascularized FTSE (vFTSE) was characterized histologically after 4 weeks of culture, revealing an architecture similar to human skin in vivo with a stratified epidermis, separated from the dermal equivalent by a basement membrane indicated by collagen type IV. However, this random capillary-like network is not functional as it cannot be perfused.
Therefore, the second vascularization approach focused on the generation of a perfusable tissue construct. A channel was molded within a collagen hydrogel and seeded with endothelial cells to mimic a central, perfusable vessel. The generation and the perfusion culture of the collagen hydrogel was enabled by the use of two custom-made, 3D printed bioreactors. Histological assessment of the hydrogels revealed the lining of the channel with a monolayer of endothelial cells, expressing the cell specific marker CD31.
For the investigation of MM progression in vitro, a 3D melanoma skin equivalent was established. Melanoma cells were incorporated in the epidermal part of FTSEs, representing the native microenvironment of the tumor. Melanoma nests grew at the dermo-epidermal junction within the well stratified epidermis and were characterized by the expression of common melanoma markers. First experiments were conducted showing the feasibility of combining the melanoma model with the vFTSE, resulting in skin models with tumors at the dermo-epidermal junction and lumen-like structures in the dermis.
Taken together, the models presented in this thesis provide further steps towards the establishment of a vascularized, perfusable melanoma model to study melanoma progression and metastasis.
The transcription factor NRF2 is considered as the master regulator of cytoprotective and ROS-detoxifying gene expression. Due to their vulnerability to accumulating reactive oxygen species, melanomas are dependent on an efficient oxidative stress response, but to what extent melanomas rely on NRF2 is only scarcely investigated so far. In tumor entities harboring activating mutations of NRF2, such as lung adenocarcinoma, NRF2 activation is closely connected to therapy resistance. In melanoma, activating mutations are rare and triggers and effectors of NRF2 are less well characterized.
This work revealed that NRF2 is activated by oncogenic signaling, cytokines and pro-oxidant triggers, released cell-autonomously or by the tumor microenvironment. Moreover, silencing of NRF2 significantly reduced melanoma cell proliferation and repressed well-known NRF2 target genes, indicating basal transcriptional activity of NRF2 in melanoma. Transcriptomic analysis showed a large set of deregulated gene sets, besides the well-known antioxidant effectors. NRF2 suppressed the activity of MITF, a marker for the melanocyte lineage, and induced expression of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), thereby stabilizing the dedifferentiated melanoma phenotype and limiting pigmentation markers and melanoma-associated antigens. In general, the dedifferentiated melanoma phenotype is associated with a reduced tumor immunogenicity. Furthermore, stress-inducible cyclooxygenase 2 (COX2) expression, a crucial immune-modulating gene, was regulated by NRF2 in an ATF4-dependent manner. Only in presence of both transcription factors was COX2 robustly induced by H2O2 or TNFα. COX2 catalyzes the first step of the prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) synthesis, which was described to be associated with tumor immune evasion and reduction of the innate immune response.
In accordance with these potentially immune-suppressive features, immunocompetent mice injected with NRF2 knockout melanoma cells had a strikingly longer tumor-free survival compared to NRF2-proficient cells. In line with the in vitro data, NRF2-deficient tumors showed suppression of COX2 and induction of MITF. Furthermore, transcriptomic analyses of available tumors revealed a strong induction of genes belonging to the innate immune response, such as RSAD2 and IFIH1. The expression of these genes strongly correlated with immune evasion parameters in human melanoma datasets and NRF2 activation or PGE2 supplementation limited the innate immune response in vitro.
In summary, the stress dependent NRF2 activation stabilizes the dedifferentiated melanoma phenotype and facilitates the synthesis of PGE2. As a result, NRF2 reduces gene expression of the innate immune response and promotes the generation of an immune-cold tumor microenvironment. Therefore, NRF2 not only elevated the ROS resilience, but also strongly contributed to tumor growth, maintenance, and immune control in cutaneous melanoma.
These days, treatment of melanoma patients relies on targeted therapy with BRAF/MEK inhibitors and on immunotherapy. About half of all patients initially respond to existing therapies. Nevertheless, the identification of alternative therapies for melanoma patients with intrinsic or acquired resistance is of great importance. In melanoma, antioxidants play an essential role in the maintenance of the redox homeostasis. Therefore, disruption of the redox homeostasis is regarded as highly therapeutically relevant and is the focus of the present work.
An adequate supply of cysteine is essential for the production of the most important intracellular antioxidants, such as glutathione. In the present work, it was investigated whether the depletion of cysteine and glutathione is therapeutically useful. Depletion of glutathione in melanoma cells could be achieved by blocking cysteine supply, glutathione synthesis, and NADPH regeneration. As expected, this led to an increased level of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Surprisingly, however, these changes did not impair the proliferation and survival of the melanoma cells. In contrast, glutathione depletion led to cellular reprogramming which was characterized by the induction of mesenchymal genes and the repression of differentiation markers (phenotypic switch). This was accompanied by an increased migration and invasion potential which was favored by the induction of the transcription factor FOSL1. To study in vivo reprogramming, Gclc, the first and rate-limiting enzyme in glutathione synthesis, was knocked out by CRISPR/Cas9 in murine melanoma cells. The cells were devoid of glutathione, but were fully viable and showed a phenotypic switch, the latter only in MITF-expressing B16F1 cells and not in MITF-deficient D4M3A.781 cells. Following subcutaneous injection into immunocompetent C57BL/6 mice, Gclc knockout B16F1 cells grew more aggressively and resulted in an earlier tumor onset than B16F1 control cells.
In summary, this work demonstrates that inhibition of cysteine supply and thus, glutathione synthesis leads to cellular reprogramming in melanoma. In this context, melanoma cells show metastatic capabilities, promoting a more aggressive form of the disease.
In dieser Dissertation wird der MEK5/ERK5- Signalweg als möglicher Angriffspunkt in der zielgerichteten Melanomtherapie identifiziert. Die Adressierung von ERK5 bietet eine Alternative, um einer Resistenzentwicklung gegenüber Inhibitoren des MAPK- Signalwegs entgegenzuwirken. Das maligne Melanom ist ein hochaggressiver Tumor mit steigender Inzidenz. Zunehmende Sonnenstunden im Rahmen des Klimawandels mit erhöhter Belastung der Haut durch UV-Strahlung werden die Problematik des malignen Melanoms für den Menschen in den nächsten Jahren weiter zunehmen lassen.
Die Aktivierung des MEK5/ERK5- Signalwegs scheint eine Reaktion von Tumorzellen auf Therapiestress zu sein. Diese Aktivierung liefert den Melanomzellen einen Überlebensvorteil und verhindert ein langfristiges Therapieansprechen. ERK5 beeinflusst den Zellzyklus von Melanomzellen und ist somit möglicherweise von wichtiger Bedeutung in der Tumorgenese des malignen Melanoms.
Patienten mit NRAS- Mutation profitieren auffallend weniger von einer gezielten MEKi-Therapie als solche mit BRAF Mutation. Für ersteres Patientenkollektiv steht aktuell lediglich die Immuntherapie zur Verfügung, wodurch oft nur ein kurzes, progressionsfreies Intervall erreicht werden kann und die Patienten häufig unter schweren Nebenwirkungen leiden. Grund für die problematische Behandlung könnte das häufige Auftreten einer basalen ERK5- Aktivierung in NRAS- mutierten Melanomen sein. Diese Arbeit liefert eine positive Prognose über den Nutzen einer ERK5- Inhibition als Erweiterung des Therapieschemas. Diese These gilt auch für Melanompatienten mit einer BRAF- Mutation. Patienten, die an einem malignen Melanom erkrankt sind, weisen zu 80% eine Mutation in einem dieser beschriebenen Onkogene auf. Die Arbeit lässt darauf schließen, dass eine ERK5- Inhibition in der Therapie von beiden Gruppen erfolgreich sein könnte und somit das Leben nahezu aller Melanompatienten betrifft.
Melanoma and Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) are highly aggressive cancers of the skin that frequently escape immune recognition and acquire resistance to chemotherapeutic agents, which poses a major obstacle to successful cancer treatment. Recently, a new class of therapeutics targeting the programmed cell death-1 (PD-1) immune checkpoint receptor has shown remarkable efficacy in the treatment of both cancers. Blockade of PD-1 on T cells activates cancer-specific immune responses that can mediate tumor regression. The data presented in this Ph.D. thesis demonstrates that PD-1 is also expressed by subsets of cancer cells in melanoma and MCC. Moreover, this work identifies PD-1 as a novel tumor cell-intrinsic growth receptor, even in the absence of T cell immunity. PD-1 is expressed by tumorigenic cell subsets in melanoma patient samples and established human and murine cell lines that also co-express ABCB5, a marker of immunoregulatory tumor- initiating cells in melanoma. Consistently, melanoma-expressed PD-1 downmodulates T effector cell functions and increases the intratumoral frequency of tolerogenic myeloid- derived suppressor cells. PD-1 inhibition on melanoma cells by RNA interference, blocking antibodies, or mutagenesis of melanoma-PD-1 signaling motifs suppresses tumor growth in immunocompetent, immunocompromised, and PD-1-deficient tumor graft recipient mice. Conversely, melanoma-specific PD-1 overexpression enhances tumorigenicity, including in mice lacking adaptive immunity. Engagement of melanoma- PD-1 by its ligand PD-L1 promotes tumor growth, whereas melanoma-PD-L1 inhibition or knockout of host-PD-L1 attenuates growth of PD-1-positive melanomas. Mechanistically, the melanoma-PD-1 receptor activates mTOR signaling mediators, including ribosomal protein S6. In a proof-of-concept study, tumoral expression of phospho-S6 in pretreatment tumor biopsies correlated with clinical responses to anti-PD-1 therapy in melanoma patients. In MCC, PD-1 is similarly co-expressed by ABCB5+ cancer cell subsets in clinical tumor specimens and established human cell lines. ABCB5 renders MCC cells resistant to the standard-of-care chemotherapeutic agents, carboplatin and etoposide. Antibody-mediated ABCB5 blockade reverses chemotherapy resistance and inhibits tumor xenograft growth by enhancing chemotherapy-induced tumor cell killing. Furthermore, engagement of MCC-expressed PD-1 by its ligands, PD-L1 and PD-L2, promotes proliferation and activates MCC-intrinsic mTOR signaling. Consistently, antibody- mediated PD-1 blockade inhibits MCC tumor xenograft growth and phosphorylation of mTOR effectors in immunocompromised mice. In summary, these findings identify cancer cell-intrinsic functions of the PD-1 pathway in tumorigenesis and suggest that blocking melanoma- and MCC-expressed PD-1 might contribute to the striking clinical efficacy of anti-PD-1 therapy. Additionally, these results establish ABCB5 as a previously unrecognized chemoresistance mechanism in MCC.
LIM and SH3 protein 1 (LASP1) is a nucleocytoplasmic scaffolding protein. LASP1 interacts with various cytoskeletal proteins via its domain structure and is known to participate in physiological processes of cells. In the present study, a detailed investigation of the expression pattern of LASP1 protein in normal skin, melanocytic nevi and melanoma was carried out and the melanocyte–specific function of LASP1 was analyzed. LASP1 protein was identified in stratum basale of skin epidermis and a very high level was detected in nevi, the benign tumor of melanocyte. In the highly proliferative basal cells, an additional distinct nuclear localization of the protein was noted. In different tumor entities, an elevated LASP1 expression and nuclear localization, correlated positively with malignancy and tumor grade. However, LASP1 level was determined to be very low in melanoma and even reduced in metastases. Melanoma is distinguished as the first tumor tested to date – that displayed an absence of elevated LASP1 expression. In addition no significant relation was observed between LASP1 protein expression and clinicopathological parameters in melanoma.
The epidermal melanin unit of skin comprises of melanocytes and keratinocytes. Melanocytes are specialized cells that synthesize the photo protective coloring pigment, melanin inside unique organelles called melanosomes. The presence of LASP1 in melanocytes is reported for the first time through this study and the existence was confirmed by immunoblotting analysis in cultured normal human epidermal melanocyte (NHEM) and in melanoma cell lines, along with the immunohistostaining imaging in normal skin and in melanocytic nevi. LASP1 depletion in MaMel2 cells revealed a moderate increase in the intracellular melanin level independently of de novo melanogenesis, pointing to a partial hindrance in melanin release. Immunofluorescence images of NHEM and MaMel2 cells visualized co-localization of LASP1 with dynamin and tyrosinase concomitant with melanosomes at the dendrite tips of the cells. Melanosome isolation experiments by sucrose density gradient centrifugation clearly demonstrated the presence of LASP1 and the melanosome specific markers tyrosinase and TRP1 in late stage melanosomes.
The study identified LASP1 and dynamin as novel binding partners in melanocytes and provides first evidence for the existence of LASP1 and dynamin (a protein well–known for its involvement in vesicle formation and budding) in melanosomes. Co-localization of LASP1 and dynamin along the dendrites and at the tips of the melanocytes indicates a potential participation of the two proteins in the membrane vesicle fission at the plasma membrane.
In summary, a possible involvement of LASP1 in the actin–dynamin mediated membrane fission and exocytosis of melanin laden melanosome vesicles into the extracellular matrix is suggested.
Melanoma arises from the malignant transformation of melanocytes and is one of the most aggressive forms of human cancer. In fish of the genus Xiphophorus, melanoma development, although very rarely, happens spontaneously in nature and can be induced by interspecific crossing. The oncogenic receptor tyrosine kinase, Xmrk, is responsible for melanoma formation in these fishes. Since Xiphophorus are live-bearing fishes and therefore not compatible with embryonic manipulation and transgenesis, the Xmrk melanoma model was brought to the medaka (Oryzias latipes) system. Xmrk expression under the control of the pigment cell specific mitf promoter leads to melanoma formation with 100% penetrance in medaka. Xmrk is an orthologue of the human epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and activates several downstream signaling pathways. Examples of these pathways are the direct phosphorylation of BRAF and Stat5, as well as the enhanced transcription of C-myc. BRAF is a serine-threonine kinase which is found mutated at high frequencies in malignant melanomas. Stat5 is a transcription factor known to be constitutively activated in fish melanoma. C-myc is a transcription factor that is thought to regulate the expression of approximately 15% of all human genes and is involved in cancer progression of a large number of different tumors. To gain new in vivo information on candidate factors known to be involved in melanoma progression, I identified and analysed BRAF, Stat5 and C-myc in the laboratory fish model system medaka. BRAF protein motifs are highly conserved among vertebrates and the results of this work indicate that its function in the MAPK signaling is maintained in medaka. Transgenic medaka lines carrying a constitutive active version of BRAF (V614E) showed more pigmented skin when compared to wild type. Also, some transiently expressing BRAF V614E fishes showed a disrupted eye phenotype. In addition, I was able to identify two Stat5 copies in medaka, named Stat5ab/a and Stat5ab/b. Sequence analysis revealed a higher similarity between both Stat5 sequences when compared to either human Stat5a or Stat5b. This suggests that the two Stat5 copies in medaka arose by an independent duplication processes. I cloned these two Stat5 present in medaka, produced constitutive active and dominant negative gene versions and successfully established transgenic lines carrying each version under the control of the MITF promoter. These lines will help to elucidate questions that are still remaining in Stat5 biology and its function in melanoma progression, like the role of Stat5 phosphorylation on tumor invasiveness. In a third project during my PhD work, I analysed medaka C-myc function and indentified two copies of this gene in medaka, named c-myc17 and c-myc20, according to the chromosome where they are located. I produced conditional transgenic medaka lines carrying the c-myc17 gene coupled to the hormone binding domain of the estrogen receptor to enable specific transgene activation at a given time point. Comparable to human C-myc, medaka C-myc17 is able to induce proliferation and apoptosis in vivo after induction. Besides that, C-myc17 long-term activation led to liver hyperplasia. In summary, the medaka models generated in this work will be important to bring new in vivo information on genes involved in cancer development. Also, the generated transgenic lines can be easily crossed to the melanoma developing Xmrk medaka lines, thereby opening up the possibility to investigate their function in melanoma progression. Besides that, the generated medaka fishes make it possible to follow the whole development of melanocytes, since the embryos are transparent and can be used for high throughput chemical screens.
Melanoma is the most aggressive skin cancer with very limited treatment options. Upon appearance of metastases chemotherapeutics are used to either kill or slow down the growth of cancer cells by inducing apoptosis or senescence, respectively. With melanomas originating from melanocytes, it is vital to elucidate the mechanisms that distinguish senescence induction from proliferation and tumourigenicity. Xmrk (Xiphophorus melanoma receptor kinase), the fish orthologue of the human epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), causes highly aggressive melanoma in fish. Using an inducible variant, HERmrk, I showed that high receptor levels result in melanocyte senescence, whereas low and medium expression allows for cell proliferation and tumourigenicity. Mechanistically, HERmrk leads to increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels, which trigger a DNA damage response. Consequently, multinucleated, senescent cells develop by both endomitosis and fusion. Furthermore, oncogenic N‐RAS (N-‐RAS61K) induces a similar multinucleated phenotype in melanocytes. In addition, I found that both overexpression of C‐MYC and the knockdown of miz‐1 (Myc‐interacting zinc finger protein 1) diminished HERmrk‐induced senescence entry. C‐MYC prevent ROS induction, DNA damage and senescence, while acting synergistically with HERmrk in conveying tumourigenic features to melanocytes. Further analyses identified cystathionase (CTH) as a novel target gene of Myc and Miz-1 crucial for senescence prevention. CTH encodes an enzyme involved in the synthesis of cysteine from methionine, thereby allowing for increased ROS detoxification. Even though senescence was thought to be irreversible and hence tumour protective, I demonstrated that prolonged expression of the melanoma oncogene N‐RAS61K in pigment cells overcomes initial OIS by triggering the emergence of tumour‐initiating, mononucleated stem‐like cells from multinucleated senescent cells. This progeny is dedifferentiated, highly proliferative, anoikis‐resistant and induces fast‐growing, metastatic tumours upon transplantation into nude mice. Our data demonstrate that induction of OIS is not only a cellular failsafe mechanism, but also carries the potential to provide a source for highly aggressive, tumour‐initiating cells.