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Because of growth and development, plant tissues are characterised by a permanent change in source-sink relations. Tissues with a net carbohydrate export (source) or import (sink) have to adopt their actual demand for assimilates according to the developmental status. Furthermore, plants, as sessile life forms, have developed regulatory mechanisms that enable a flexible response of assimilate partitioning to specific requirements of the habitat, like biotic and abiotic stress factors and changing light conditions. The distribution of assimilates involves specific enzyme functions including sugar transporters and sucrose cleaving enzymes and is regulated by a variety of stimuli. Extracellular invertases cover an essential function in apoplastic phloem unloading and play an important role in regulating source-sink relations. This property is reflected by the occurrence of different invertase isoenzymes with specific expression and regulation patterns that enable a co-ordination of the carbohydrate metabolism in diverse tissues, at different developmental stages, and under varying environmental conditions. Improved knowledge of extracellular invertase function might allow altering growth, development or pathogen resistance of crop plants in a specific way. The present study is aimed at elucidating the regulation patterns and functions of three members of the extracellular invertase gene family of tomato, Lin5, Lin6, and Lin7. Detailed promoter analysis revealed a tissue- and developmental-specific expression of isoenzymes and corresponding regulation patterns. Lin5 shows a developmental regulated expression in fruits. Lin6 is expressed in early developmental stages starting in germinating seeds; in grown up plants Lin6 is solely expressed in pollen and upon wound-stimulation. Lin7 is exclusively expressed in tapetum and pollen tissue. The hormonal regulation of all three isogenes was analysed in detail, whereby known GA- and JA-mediated flower phenotypes could be correlated with invertase functions. In addition, an important role of Lin7 invertase in pollen germination was demonstrated in a functional approach. This is the most profound analysis of extracellular invertases in the delicate process of floral organ development that includes three tomato isoenzymes. In particular, dissection of the individual roles of Lin5, Lin6, and Lin7 reveals novel insights in carbohydrate supply during flower and fruit development. The analysed tissue-specific promoters are profitable tools in plant biotechnology, which in particular applies to the pollen-specific Lin7 promoter. It has been demonstrated that the Lin6 promoter serves as target for hormonal-, sugar-, and wound-mediated signalling pathways. Moreover, a functional interaction of circadian oscillator elements of A. thaliana with the Lin6 promoter and a diurnal rhythm of Lin6 expression have been substantiated. This complex regulation pattern is reflected by the identification of many well-defined cis-acting elements within the Lin6 promoter. This feature supports an integration of various stimuli mediated via extracellular invertase expression resulting in a co-ordinated cellular response to changing internal and external conditions. As sugars on their part induce Lin6 expression, this could result in signal amplification via a positive feedback loop. Furthermore, the extensive appearance and constellation of cisacting elements within the Lin6 promoter provides the basis to answer questions in signal cross-talk and signal integration in plant gene expression. In addition, the Lin6 promoter was successfully used as an inducible expression system. In transgenic tobacco lines an invertase inhibitor was expressed under control of the cytokinin-inducible Lin6 promoter. Thereby, a causal relationship between cytokinin and extracellular invertase for the delay of senescence was demonstrated. This study emphasises the importance of inducible expression systems to address specific questions on a molecular basis. The above-mentioned promoter sequences were obtained via sequential genome walks. Hereby two interesting structural features appeared. First, Lin5 and Lin7 genes are arranged in a direct tandem repeat on the genome. Second, a CACTA-like transposon insertion in intron I of the Lin5 gene was revealed. A primer pair deduced from the transposase region of this transposon allowed the amplification of similar sequences of various Solanaceae species.
Summary Using the facultative root hemiparasite Rhinanthus minor and Hordeum vulgare as a host, several aspects of water relations, the flows and partitioning of mineral nutrients, the flows, depositions and metabolism of abscisic acid (ABA) and zeatin type cytokinins (zeatin Z, zeatin riboside ZR, zeatin nucleotide ZN) within the host, the parasite and between host and parasite and the flows and partitioning of the transport metabolites mannitol in the parasite, and of sucrose in the host, have been studied during the study period 41 to 54 days after planting, i.e about 30 to 43 days after successful attachment of the parasite to the host. Water relations Extraction of xylem sap by the parasite from the host’s roots is facilitated by considerably higher transpiration per leaf area in the parasite than in the host and by the fact that stomata of attached Rhinanthus were wide open all day and night despite extremely high ABA concentrations in the leaves. By comparison, another related root hemiparasite, Melampyrum arvense, parasitising on various grasses in the field (botanic garden), showed normal diurnal stomatal behaviour. The abnormal behaviour of Rhinanthus stomata was not due to anatomical reasons as closure could be induced by applying high external ABA concentrations. Remarkable differences have been detected between the hydraulic conductance of barley seminal roots showing relatively low values, and that of Rhinanthus the seminal root showing very high values. The latter could be related to the observed high ABA concentrations in these roots. Whole plant water uptake, transpirational losses, growth-dependent deposition and the flows of water within the plants have been measured in singly growing Rhinanthus and Hordeum plants and in the parasitic association between the two. Water uptake, deposition and transpiration in Rhinanthus were dramatically increased after attachment to the barley host; most of the water used by the parasite was extracted as xylem sap from the host, thereby scavenging 20% of the total water taken up by the host’s roots. This water uptake by the parasitised host, however, due to a parasite induced reduction in the hosts growth, was decreased by 22% as compared to non- parasitised barley. The overall changes in growth-related water deposition in host and parasite pointed to decreased shoot and relatively favoured root growth in the host and to strongly favoured shoot growth and less strongly increased root growth only in the parasite. These changes in the host became more severe, when more than one Rhinanthus was parasitising one barley plant. Mineral nutrients relations 5 mM NO3- supply In parasitising Rhinanthus shoot growth was 12-fold, but root growth only twofold increased compared to the non-parasitising (very small) plants. On the other hand, in the Hordeum host, shoot dry matter growth was clearly reduced, by 33% in leaf laminae and by 52% in leaf sheaths, whereas root growth was only slightly reduced as a consequence of parasitism. Growth-dependent increments of total N and P and of K, Ca and Mg in parasitising Rhinanthus shoot were strongly increased, particularly increments of total N and P, which were 18 and 42 times, respectively, higher than in the small solitary Rhinanthus. On the other hand, increments of the above mineral nutrients in leaf sheaths of parasitised Hordeum vulgare were more strongly decreased than in leaf laminae in response to parasitic attack. Estimation of the flows of nutrients revealed that Rhinanthus withdrew from the host xylem sap about the same percentage of each nutrients: 18% of total N, 22% of P and 20% of K. Within the host almost all net flows of nutrient ions were decreased due to parasitism, but retranslocation from shoot to root-as related to xylem flow-was somewhat increased for all nutrients. Quantitative information is provided to show that the substantially increased growth in the shoot of attached Rhinanthus and the observed decrease in Hordeum shoot growth after infection were related to strongly elevated supply of nitrogen and phosphorus in the parasite and to incipient deficiency of these nutrients in the parasitised host. The flows of nutrients between host and parasite are discussed in terms of low selectivity of nutrient abstraction from the host xylem by the hemiparasite Rhinanthus minor. 1 mM NO3- or 1 mM NH4+ supply Rhinanthus shoot growth as measured by dry matter increase, was 19-fold (1 mM NO3-) and 15-fold (1 mM NH4+), but root growth only twofold (1 mM NO3-) and 2.9-fold (1 mM NH4+) increased-relative to singly growing Rhinanthus-when parasitising on host barley. In the Hordeum host, shoot dry matter growth was clearly reduced, whereas root growth was only slightly affected. Growth-dependent increments of total N and P and of K, Ca and Mg in parasitising Rhinanthus shoot were strongly increased, particularly increments of total N or of P, which were 20 or 53 times (1 mM NO3-) and 18 or 51 times (1 mM NH4+) , respectively, higher than those in solitary Rhinanthus. Within the host almost all net flows of nutrient ions were decreased due to parasitism. Flows of mannitol in parasite and sucrose flows in host barley When the plants were supplied with 5 mM NO3-, the biosynthesis of mannitol in Rhinanthus shoots increased 16-fold by parasitism, resulting in a 15-fold higher mannitol flow in the phloem and a 10-fold higher deposition in the shoot. Also the backward transport of mannitol in the xylem were increased 10-fold after attachment. Lower level nitrogen supply increased the deposition of mannitol in both single and attached Rhinanthus shoot and root. No mannitol was found in barley roots even in the direct vicinity of the haustoria. This indicates there are no backward transport of xylem sap from parasite to host. Compared to unparasitised barley, the net biosynthesis and deposition of sucrose in the shoot and the phloem flow was decreased substantially when plants were supplied with 5 mM NO3- or 1 mM NO3-. No sucrose has been detected in barley xylem sap and consequently there was no indication of a sucrose transfer from the host to the parasite. A possible involvement of mannitol in the abscisic acid relations of the parasite is discussed. ABA relations When the plants were supplied with 5 mM NO3-, there were weak or no effects of parasitism on ABA flows, biosynthesis and ABA degradation in barley. However, ABA growth-dependent deposition was significantly increased in the leaf laminae (3 fold) and in leaf sheath (2.4 fold), but not in roots. Dramatic changes in ABA flows, metabolism and deposition on a per plant basis, however, have been observed in Rhinanthus. Biosynthesis in the roots was 12-fold higher after attachment resulting in 14-fold higher ABA flows in the xylem. A large portion of this ABA was metabolised, a small portion was deposited. Phloem flows of ABA were increased 13-fold after attachment. The concentrations of ABA in tissues and xylem sap were higher in attached Rhinanthus by an order of magnitude than in host tissues and xylem sap. Similar dramatic difference existed when comparing the high concentrations in the xylem sap of single Rhinanthus with unparasitised barley. As compared to 5 mM NO3-, lower NO3- or 1 mM NH4+ supply doubled the ABA concentrations in barley leaf laminae, while having only small or no significant effects in the other organs. The possible special functions of ABA for the parasite are discussed. Zeatin type cytokinins relations Parasitism decreased, in the case of zeatin (Z), the synthesis (by 57%) in the root, xylem flows (by 56%) and metabolism (by 71%) in leaf laminae, however, increased the phloem flows of zeatin massively (3-fold) in host barley. The deposition of zeatin in the root of Rhinanthus and the flowing in xylem and phloem were 24, 12, 29-fold, respectively, increased after successfully attaching to the host barley. However, net biosynthesis of zeatin in Rhinanthus roots decreased by 39% after attachment. This indicates that a large portion (70%) of xylem flow of zeatin in attached Rhinanthus was extracted from the host. In singly growing Rhinanthus plants, the balance of zeatin deposition in the shoot was negative, i.e. zeatin was metabolised and exported back to root in the phloem. The xylem flows of zeatin riboside (ZR) in barley decreased by 39% after infected by Rhinanthus; phloem flow, which was 117% relative to xylem flow was less decreased (by 13%) after infection. Deposition of ZR has not been significantly affected in the leaf laminae, in leaf sheaths and roots. After parasitising on the host barley depositions in root, xylem flow and phloem flow increased 12, 18, 88–fold respectively in Rhinanthus. A large portion (57%) of xylem flow of ZR in attached Rhinanthus was extracted from the host. In single Rhinanthus increament of shoot zeatin riboside was negative and a substantial portion was degraded in shoot and the rest was retranslocated back to the root in the phloem. A significant depositions of Z and ZR were detected in the haustoria of the Rhinanthus/barley association. Flows and deposition of zeatin nucleotides also have been investigated. The possible physiological functions of the large quantities of Z and ZR derived from the host barley, for the improved growth and the stomatal opening in the parasitising Rhinanthus are discussed.
Nitric oxide production by tobacco plants and cell cultures under normal conditions and under stress
(2004)
Nitric oxide (NO) is a gaseous free radical involved in the regulation of diverse biochemical and physiological processes in animals. During the last decade, evidence has accumulated that NO might also play an important role as a second messenger in plants. Of special interest were observations that NO was involved in a signal chain leading to the hypersensitive response (HR) in incompatible plant-pathogen interactions. In contrast to animals, plants have probably several enzymes that may produce NO. Potential candidates are: Cytosolic nitrate reductase (NR; EC 1.6.6.1), plasma-membrane (PM)-nitrite: NO reductase (Ni:NOR), nitric oxide synthase (NOS; EC 1.14.13.39) and Xanthine dehydrogenase (XDH; EC 1.1.1.204). The major goal of this work was to quantify NO production by plants, and to identify the enzymes responsible for NO production. As a major method, NO production by tobacco leaves or cell suspensions was followed under normal, non-stress conditions, and under biotic stress, through on-line measurement of NO emission into the gas phase (chemiluminescence). Plants used were tobacco wild-type (N. tabacum cv Xanthi or cv Gatersleben), NR-free mutants grown on ammonium in order to prevent NR induction, plants grown on tungstate to inhibit synthesis of functional MoCoenzymes, and a NO-overproducing nitrite reductase (NiR)-deficient transformant. Induction of HR in tobacco leaves and in cell suspensions was achieved using the fungal peptide elicitor cryptogein. Non-elicited leaves from nitrate-grown plants showed a typical NO-emission pattern where NO-emission was low in dark, higher in the light and very high under dark-anaerobic conditions. Even at maximum rates, NO production in vivo was only a few percent of total NR activity (NRA). Consistent with that, with a solution of purified NR as a simple, “low quenching” system, NO-emission was also about 1 % of NRA. Thus, NO scavenging by leaves and stirred cell suspensions appeared small and NO-emission into purified air should give a reliable estimate of NO production. NO-emission was always high in a NiR-deficient transformant which accumulated nitrite, and NO-emission was completely absent in plants or cell suspensions which did not contain NR. Thus, in healthy plants or cell suspensions, NO-emission was exclusively due to the reduction of nitrite to NO, mainly by cytosolic NR. In addition to nitrite, cytosolic NADH appears as an important factor limiting NO production. Unexpectedly, plants (in absence of NR) were able to reduce nitrite to NO under anaerobic conditions through an unknown enzyme system that was not a MoCo-enzyme and was cyanide-sensitive. When infiltrated into leaves at nanomolar concentrations, the fungal elicitor cryptogein provoked cell death in tobacco leaves and cell suspensions. The HR could be prevented by the NO-scavengers PTIO or c-PTIO, suggesting that NO production was indeed required for the HR. However, the product of the reaction of c-PTIO with NO, c-PTI, also prevented cell death without quenching NO emission. Thus, prevention of cell death by c- PTIO is no proof for an involvement of NO. No differences were found in the HR induction between NR-free plants and/or cell suspensions and WT plants. Thus, NR appears not necessary for the HR. Further, and in contrast to literature suggestions, a continuously high NO-overproduction by a NiR-free mutant did not interfere with the development of the HR. Most surprisingly, no additional NO-emission from tobacco leaves was induced by cryptogein at any phase of the HR. In contrast, some NO-emission, paralleled by nitrite accumulation, was detected 3-6 h after cryptogein addition with nitrate grown cell suspensions, but not with NR free, ammonium- grown cells. Thus, induction of NO-emission by cryptogein appeared somehow correlated with NR and nitrite, at least in cell suspensions. But since cryptogein induced the HR even in NR-free cell suspensions, this nitrite-related NO- emission was not required for cell death. NOS inhibitors neither prevented cell death nor did they affect nitrite-dependent NO-emission. Thus, in total these data question the often proposed role of NO as a signal in the HR, and of NOS as source for NO.