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Institute
- Institut für Pharmazie und Lebensmittelchemie (208) (remove)
Sonstige beteiligte Institutionen
- Universität Belgrad, Serbien (2)
- ACC GmbH Analytical Clinical Concepts (1)
- Apotheke, Universitätsklinikum Würzburg (1)
- Bundesinstitut für Arzneimittel und Medizinprodukte (1)
- Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena (1)
- Helmholtz Institute for RNA-based Infection Biology (HIRI), Josef-Schneider-Straße 2/D15, DE-9708 Wuerzburg, Germany (1)
- Helmholtz Institute for RNA-based Infection Biology (HIRI), Josef-Schneider-Straße 2/D15, DE-97080 Wuerzburg, Germany (1)
- IBMP - Institut für Biomedizinische und Pharmazeutische Forschung in Nürnberg-Heroldsberg (1)
- Johns Hopkins School of Medicine (1)
- Krankenhaushygiene und Antimicrobial Stewardship, Universitätsklinikum Würzburg (1)
- Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry, Am Faßberg 11, DE-37077 Goetingen, Germany (1)
- Novartis AG (1)
- Novartis Pharma AG, Lichtstrasse 35, CH-4056 Basel, Switzerland (1)
- Novartis Pharma AG, Switzerland (1)
- Pharmakologie, Universität Bonn (1)
- Pharmazie, Universität Mailand (1)
- Spectral Service AG (1)
- Tanzania Food and Drugs Authority (1)
- Universitätsklinikum Würzburg (1)
- Zentraleinheit Klinische Massenspektrometrie (1)
- Zentrallabor, Universitätsklinikum Würzburg (1)
EU-Project number / Contract (GA) number
- 26230120009 (1)
- 296679 (1)
- 314911 (1)
- 701983 (1)
Development of Novel Quinolone Amides Against the African Sleeping Sickness - A Fluorine Walk
(2019)
In recent years the transmission of the Human African Trypanosomiasis could be significantly reduced. The reported cases in 2016 reached a historic low level of 2184 cases and these achievements can be ascribed to intense control and surveillance programmes.118 However, most of the reported cases (>1000 in 2015) occurred in the Democratic Republic of the Congo and thus, need to be treated adequately. In particular, when the parasites have traversed the blood-brain barrier (BBB), treatment proved to be even more difficult. In addition, the number of cases always came in waves due to many reasons, e.g., development of resistances. Thus, it can be expected from experiences of the past that the number of cases will increase again. Hence, novel chemical entities are desperately needed in order to overcome the drawbacks which are associated with the current treatment options.
Our drug discovery approach included an initial drug repurposing strategy combined with a phenotypic screening. S. Niedermeier found novel active compounds derived from commercial fluoroquinolones. The most promising hit compound was further developed by G. Hiltensperger resulting in the lead quinolone amide GHQ168 (IC50 = 0.047 µM).
This doctoral thesis is about new insights into the SAR of the quinolone amides and the enhancement of the lead compound. Special consideration was given to the fluorine atom in the quinolone amides and how certain fluorine substitution patterns influence the antitrypanosomal activity, physicochemical properties and pharmacokinetics (i.e. ‘fluorine walk’). Moreover, the ability of the compound class crossing the BBB should be investigated. This feature is inevitable necessary in order to potentially treat African sleeping sickness stage II.
The Gould-Jacobs protocol was predominantly used for the synthesis of the quinolone core. Since former SAR studies mainly concentrated on the variation in positions 1, 3 and 7, quinolone scaffolds (2a-i) with diverse substitution patterns regarding positions 5, 6, 7 and 8 were synthesised in this thesis. The resulting quinolone amides were evaluated for their antitrypanosomal activity.
Voluminous residues in position C-5 resulted in diminished activities (compounds 13, 16 and 18) and solely small-sized moieties were tolerated. In particular the fluorine atom in position 5 revealed beneficial trypanocidal effects as shown for compounds 6 (IC50 = 0.05 µM), 8 (IC50 = 0.04 µM), and 24 (IC50 = 0.02 µM). Furthermore, having fluorine only in position 5 of the quinolone core could considerably reduce the cytotoxic effects (CC50 >100 µM, SI = >2000 for 6). Hence, the 5-fluoro-substituted quinolone amides were considered superior to GHQ168.
Regarding the C-6 position all other moieties (e.g., H in 9, OCH3 in 10, CF3 in 12) except of a fluorine atom decreased the activity against Trypanosoma brucei brucei. A double fluorination in C-6 and C-8 was not beneficial (IC50 = 0.06 µM for 7) and a single fluorine atom in C-8 even showed a negative effect (IC50 = 0.79 µM for 5).
The logP value is considered a surrogate parameter for lipophlicity and thus, affecting permeability and solubility processes. In particular the fluorine atom influences the lipophilicity due to versatile effects: Lipophilicity is increased by additional fluorine atoms on aromatic rings (7, 23) and reduced by fluorine atoms at an alkyl chain (49), respectively. Additionally, the 5-fluoro-substituted quinolone amides (6, 8, and 24) could prove the contrary effect of decreasing lipophilicity when the aromatic fluorine substituent is in vicinity to a carbonyl group.
For the most promising drug candidates 6, 23, and 24 the respective metabolites and the metabolic turnover were investigated by C. Erk. In comparison to GHQ168 the hydroxylation of the benzylamide was prevented by the para-fluorine atom. Hence, half-life was extended for compound 23 (t1/2 = 6.4 h) and N-desalkylation was the predominant pathway. Moreover, the respective fluorine substitution pattern of the quinolone core affected the metabolism of compound 6. The 5-fluoro-substituted quinolone amide was less prone for biotransformation (t1/2 = 7.2 h) and half-life could even be further prolonged for compound 24 (t1/2 = 7.7 h).
Due to the most appropriate safety profile of compound 6, this particular drug candidate was considered for in vivo study. Its poor solubility made a direct intraperitoneal administration unfeasible. Thus, an amorphous solid dispersion of 6 was generated using the spray-drying method according to the previous protocol. Unfortunately, the required solubility for the predicted in vivo study was not achieved.
Furthermore, the compound class of the quinolone amide was evaluated for its ability for brain penetration. The methanesulfonyl precursor 48 was synthesised and subsequently radiofluorinated in the group of Prof. Dr. Samnick (Department of Nuclear Medicine, University Hospital of Würzburg). The labelled compound [18F]49 was administered to mice, and its distribution throughout the body was analysed using positron emission tomography and autoradiography, respectively. The autoradiography of the murine brains revealed medium to high concentrations of [18F]49. Therefore, the quinolone amides are generally suitable for treating Human African Trypanosomiasis stage II.
A scaffold hopping approach was performed starting from the quinolone amides and concluding with the compound class of pyrazoloquinolin-3-ones. The intramolecular hydrogen bond between the sec. amide and the C-4 carbonyl moiety was replaced by a covalent bond. The two compound classes were comparable regarding the antitrypanosomal activity to some degree (IC50 = 7.9 µM (EK02) vs. 6.37 µM (53a)). However, a final evaluation of 59 was not possible due to poor solubility.
Upon approval of a drug, the stability of the API and the FPP has to be studied intensively because it determines the shelf-life. If a drug is found to be stable, the expiry date is arbitrary set to five years at the maximum, if a drug tends to undergo degradation, the expiry date is set shorter. The drug product must comply with predefined specifications in accordance with the ICH guidelines Q6A and Q6B during its entire market life. The content of the active substance is required to be within a specification of 95–105% of its labeled claim until expiry corresponding to the ICH guideline Q1A(R2). However, there is little or scattered literature information addressing the stability of drug products beyond their expiry dates. The objective of this thesis was to study and assess the long-term stability of a collection involving numerous pure drug substances and ampoules manufactured in the 20th century. The content and the impurity profile were examined by means of appropriate analytical methods, mainly using liquid chromatography. The results were compared to data being available in the literature. Assessing the stability regarding the dosage form and the affiliation of the drug class was conducted.
The experimental studies comprise the examination of 50 drug substances manufactured 20–30 years ago and 14 long expired ampoules which were older than 40 years in the time of analysis, exceeding many times the maximum shelf life of five years.
For investigation of the solid drug substances, pharmacopoeial methods were applied as far as possible. Indeed, results of the study showed that 44 tested substances still complied with the specification of the Ph. Eur. with regard to the content and impurity profile, even after more than two decades of storage.
For analysis of the injection solutions, HPLC-UV and HPLC-ESI/MS techniques were applied, commonly based on liquid chromatography methods of the Ph. Eur. for determination of related substances. Each method was further validated for its application to ensure accurate API quantification corresponding to ICH Q2(R1). Quite a few ampoules were identified to show surprisingly high stability. In spite of their age of 53–72 years, APIs such as caffeine, etilefrine, synephrine, metamizole sodium, furosemide, and sodium salicylate complied with the specified content that is valid nowadays, respectively. Nevertheless, typical degradation reaction, e.g. hydrolysis, oxidation, or isomerization, was observed in all remaining ampoules. Various degrees of hydrolysis were revealed for scopolamine, procaine, and adenosine triphosphate, the contents were decreased to 71%, 70%, and 15% of the declared concentrations, respectively. In the epinephrine and dipyridamole ampoules, oxidative degradation has been occurred, finding respective API contents of more or less 70%. For dihydroergotamine, excessive decomposition by epimerization was observed, resulting in an API content of 21% and degradation by isomerization was found in lobeline, still containing 64% of the labeled claim.
In conclusion, supported by the data of the present studies and the literature, defining and authorizing a longer shelf-life may be applicable to numerous pharmaceuticals which should be considered by pharmaceutical manufacturers and regulatory authorities, if justified based on stability studies. A general extension of the shelf-lives of drug products and the abolishment or extension of the maximum shelf-life limit of five years would prevent disposing of still potent medications and save a lot of money to the entire health care system.
Articular cartilage lesions that occur upon intensive sport, trauma or degenerative disease represent a severe therapeutic problem. At present, osteoarthritis is the most common joint disease worldwide, affecting around 10% of men and 18% of women over 60 years of age (302). The poor self-regeneration capacity of cartilage and the lack of efficient therapeutic treatment options to regenerate durable articular cartilage tissue, provide the rationale for the development of new treatment options based on cartilage tissue engineering approaches (281). The integrated use of cells, biomaterials and growth factors to guide tissue development has the potential to provide functional substitutes of lost or damaged tissues (2,3). For the regeneration of cartilage, the availability of mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) or their recruitment into the defect site is fundamental (281). Due to their high proliferation capacity, the possibility to differentiate into chondrocytes and their potential to attract other progenitor cells into the defect site, bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stromal cells (BMSCs) are still regarded as an attractive cell source for cartilage tissue engineering (80). However, in order to successfully engineer cartilage tissue, a better understanding of basic principles of developmental processes and microenvironmental cues that guide chondrogenesis is required.
The aim of this thesis was the application of the functional prepolymer NCO-sP(EO-stat-PO) for the development of new biomaterials. First, the influence of the star-shaped polymers on the mechanical properties of biocements and bone adhesives was investigated. 3-armed star-shaped macromers were used as an additive for a mineral bone cement, and the influence on the mechanical properties was studied. Additionally, a previously developed bone adhesive was examined regarding cytocompatibility. The second topic was the examination of novel functionalization steps which were performed on the surface of electrospun fibers modified with NCO-sP(EO-stat-PO). This established method of functionalizing electrospun meshes was advanced regarding the modification with proteins which was then demonstrated in a biological application. Two different kinds of antibodies were immobilized on the fiber surface in a consecutive manner and the influence of these proteins on the cell behavior was investigated. The final topic involved the quantification of surface-bound peptide sequences. By functionalization of the peptides with the UV-reactive molecule 2-mercaptopyridine it was possible to quantify this compound via UV measurements by cleavage of disulfide bridges and indirectly draw conclusions about the number of immobilized peptides.
In the field of mineral biocements and bone adhesives, NCO-sP(EO-stat-PO) was able to influence the setting behavior and mechanical performance of mineral bone cements based on calcium phosphate chemistry. The addition of NCO-sP(EO-stat-PO) resulted in a pseudo-ductile fracture behavior due to the formation of a hydrogel network in the cement, which was then mineralized by nanosized hydroxyapatite crystals following cement setting. Accordingly, a commercially available aluminum silicate cement from civil engineering could be modified.
In addition, it could be shown that the use of NCO-sP(EO-stat-PO) is beneficial for adjusting specific material properties of bone adhesives. Here, the crosslinking behavior of the prepolymer in an aqueous medium was exploited to form an interpenetrating network (IPN) together with a photochemically curing poly(ethylene glycol) dimethacrylate (PEGDMA) matrix. This could be used for the development of a bone adhesive with an improved adhesion to bone in a wet environment. The developed bone adhesive was further investigated in terms of possible influences of the initiator systems. In addition, the material system was tested for cytocompatibility by using different cell lines.
Moreover, the preparation of electrospun fiber meshes via solution electrospinning consisting of poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) as a backbone polymer and NCO-sP(EO-stat-PO) as functional additive is an established method for the application of the meshes as a replacement of the native extracellular matrix (ECM). In general, these fibers reveal diameters in the nanometer range, are protein and cell repellent due to the hydrophilic properties of the prepolymer and show a specific biofunctionalization by immobilization of peptide sequences. Here, the isocyanate groups presented on the fiber surface after electrospinning were used to carry out various functionalization steps, while retaining the properties of protein and cell repellency. The modification of the electrospun fibers involved the immobilization of analogs or antagonists of tumor necrosis factor (TNF) and the indirect detection of these by interaction with a light-producing enzyme. Here, a multimodal modification of the fiber surface with RGD to mediate cell adhesion and two different antibodies could be achieved. After culturing the cell line HT1080, the pro- or anti-inflammatory response of cells could be detected by IL-8 specific ELISA measurements.
Furthermore, the quantification of molecules on the surface of electrospun fibers was investigated. It was tested whether the detection by means of super-resolution microscopy would be possible. Therefore, experiments were performed with short amino acid sequences such as RGD for quantification by fluorescence microscopy. Based on earlier results, in which a UV-spectrometrically active molecule was used to detect the quantification of RGD, it was shown that short peptides can also be quantified in a small scale on flat functional substrates (2D) such as NCO-sP(EO-stat-PO) hydrogel coatings, and modified electrospun fibers produced from PLGA and NCO-sP(EO-stat-PO) (3D). In addition, a collagen sequence was used to prove that a successful quantification can be carried out as well for longer peptide chains.
These studies have revealed that NCO-sP(EO-stat-PO) can serve as a functional additive for many applications and should be considered for further studies on the development of novel biomaterials. The rapid crosslinking reaction, the resulting hydrogel formation and the biocompatibility are to be mentioned as positive properties, which makes the prepolymer interesting for future applications.
Functionalization of cells, extracellular matrix components and proteins for therapeutic application
(2019)
Glycosylation is a biochemical process leading to the formation of glycoconjugates by linking glycans (carbohydrates) to proteins, lipids and various small molecules. The glycans are formed by one or more monosaccharides that are covalently attached, thus offering a broad variety depending on their composition, site of glycan linkage, length and ramification. This special nature provides an exceptional and fine tunable possibility in fields of information transfer, recognition, stability and pharmacokinetic. Due to their intra- and extracellular omnipresence, glycans fulfill an essential role in the regulation of different endogenous processes (e.g. hormone action, immune surveillance, inflammatory response) and act as a key element for maintenance of homeostasis. The strategy of metabolic glycoengineering enables the integration of structural similar but chemically modified monosaccharide building blocks into the natural given glycosylation pathways, thereby anchoring them in the carbohydrate architecture of de novo synthesized glycoconjugates. The available unnatural sugar molecules which are similar to endogenous sugar molecules show minimal perturbation in cell function and - based on their multitude functional groups - offer the potential of side directed coupling with a target substance/structure as well as the development of new biological properties. The chemical-enzymatic strategy of glycoengineering provides a valuable complement to genetic approaches.
This thesis primarily focuses on potential fields of application for glycoengineering and its further use in clinic and research. The last section of this work outlines a genetic approach, using special Escherichia coli systems, to integrate chemically tunable amino acids into the biosynthetic pathway of proteins, enabling specific and site-directed coupling with target substances. With the genetic information of the methanogen archaea, Methanosarcina barkeri, the E. coli. system is able to insert a further amino acid, the pyrrolysine, at the ribosomal site during translation of the protein. The natural stop-codon UAG (amber codon) is used for this newly obtained proteinogenic amino acid.
Chapter I describes two systems for the integration of chemically tunable monosaccharides and presents methods for characterizing these systems. Moreover, it gives a general overview of the structure as well as intended use of glycans and illustrates different glycosylation pathways. Furthermore, the strategy of metabolic glycoengineering is demonstrated. In this context, the structure of basic building blocks and the epimerization of monosaccharides during their metabolic fate are discussed.
Chapter II translates the concept of metabolic glycoengineering to the extracellular network produced by fibroblasts. The incorporation of chemically modified sugar components in the matrix provides an innovative, elegant and biocompatible method for site-directed coupling of target substances. Resident cells, which are involved in the de novo synthesis of matrices, as well as isolated matrices were characterized and compared to unmodified resident cells and matrices. The natural capacity of the matrix can be extended by metabolic glycoengineering and enables the selective immobilization of a variety of therapeutic substances by combining enzymatic and bioorthogonal reaction strategies. This approach expands the natural ability of extracellular matrix (ECM), like the storage of specific growth factors and the recruitment of surface receptors along with synergistic effects of bound substances. By the selection of the cell type, the production of a wide range of different matrices is possible.
Chapter III focuses on the target-oriented modification of cell surface membranes of living fibroblast and human embryonic kidney cells. Chemically modified monosaccharides are inserted by means of metabolic glycoengineering and are then presented on the cell surface. These monosaccharides can later be covalently coupled, by “strain promoted azide-alkyne cycloaddition“ (SPAAC) and/or “copper(I)-catalyzed azide-alkyne cycloaddition“ (CuAAC), to the target substance. Due to the toxicity of the copper catalysator in the CuAAC, cytotoxicity analyses were conducted to determine the in vivo tolerable range for the use of CuAAC on living cell systems. Finally, the efficacy of both bioorthogonal reactions was compared.
Chapter IV outlines two versatile carrier – spacer – payload delivery systems based on an enzymatic cleavable linker, triggered by disease associated protease. In the selection of carrier systems (i) polyethylene glycol (PEG), a well-studied, Food and Drug Administration approved substance and very common tool to increase the pharmacokinetic properties of therapeutic agents, was chosen as a carrier for non-targeting systems and (ii) Revacept, a human glycoprotein VI antibody, was chosen as a carrier for targeting systems. The protease sensitive cleavable linker was genetically inserted into the N-terminal region of fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF-2) without jeopardizing protein activity. By exchanging the protease sensitive sequence or the therapeutic payload, both systems represent a promising and adaptable approach for establishing therapeutic systems with bioresponsive release, tailored to pre-existing conditions.
In summary, by site-specific functionalization of various delivery platforms, this thesis establishes an essential cornerstone for promising strategies advancing clinical application. The outlined platforms ensure high flexibility due to exchanging single or multiple elements of the system, individually tailoring them to the respective disease or target site.
Molecular Effects of Polyphenols in Experimental Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus and Metabolic Syndrome
(2019)
The growing prevalence of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) demands novel therapeutic and adjuvant strategies. Polyphenols (PPs) are plant secondary metabolites. Epidemiological studies demonstrate an inverse relationship between their increased intake and the risk of development of T2DM and cardiovascular complications. However, the PPs’ mechanism of action remains largely unknown. The present work aimed to expand knowledge regarding the effects of PPs on diabetes relevant molecular targets.
Pycnogenol® (PYC) is a standardized pine bark extract which consists of oligomeric and monomeric PPs. Its anti-diabetic effects have been demonstrated in clinical trials. As a part of a human study involving 20 healthy volunteers, the extract’s effects on dipeptidyl peptidase IV (DPP IV) were investigated. This protease terminates the insulin secretagogue action of incretins. Its inhibition is a promising strategy in T2DM treatment. This study uncovered that PYC-intake of 100 mg daily over 14 days statistically significantly reduced DPP IV serum concentrations by 8.2 % (n= 38, p= 0.032). Contrary to expectations, this decrease was not paralleled by a reduction in the serum DPP IV enzymatic activity. To the best of our knowledge, the present study was the first investigating the effects of PPs on DPP IV serum concentrations and activities in humans. The finding that PYC is capable of reducing DPP IV serum concentrations might be important with regard to diabetes, where DPP IV levels are increased.
Screenings for PPs’ in vitro effects on DPP IV activity were performed employing a purified enzyme. The effects of tested PPs (among which PYC ingredients) at a physiologically relevant concentration of 5 µM were weak (< 10 %) and too small compared to the reference compound sitagliptin, and thus not likely to be clinically relevant. This result is in discordance with some published data, but consistent with the outcome from the present human study. In addition, fluorescence interactions with the experimental setup were registered: under certain conditions urolithin B exhibited an autofluorescence which might mask eventual inhibitory activity. Quercetin quenched the fluorescence slightly which might contribute to false positive results. No statistically significant effects of selected constituents and metabolites of PYC on the total DPP IV protein expression were observed in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. Thus, the lower DPP IV in vivo concentrations after intake of PYC cannot be explained with down-regulation of the DPP IV expression in adipocytes.
Akt kinase is responsible for the transmission of insulin signals and its dysregulation is related to insulin resistance and plays an important role in development of cardiovascular complications in T2DM. Thus, the modulation of the phosphorylation status of endothelial Akt-kinase, respectively its activity, might be a promising strategy in the management of these pathologies. This work aimed to uncover the effects of PPs from different structural subclasses on Akt-phosphorylation (pAkt) in endothelial cells (Ea.hy926). Short-term effects (5 – 30 min) were investigated at a concentration of 10 µM. In a pilot study two model PPs induced a moderate, but reproducible inhibition of pAkt Ser473 of 52.37 ± 21.01 % (quercetin; p= 0.006, n= 3) and 37.79 ± 7.14 % (resveratrol; p= 0.021, n= 4) compared to the negative control. A primary screening with Western blot analysis investigated the effects of eight compounds from different subclasses on pAkt Ser473 and Thr308 to reveal whether the observed inhibition PPs a group effect or specific to certain compounds. In addition to resveratrol and quercetin, statistically significant inhibitions of pAkt Ser473 were induced by luteolin (29.96 ± 11.06 %, p< 0.01, n= 6) and apigenin (22.57 ± 10.30 %, p< 0.01, n= 6). In contrast, genistein, 3,4,5-trimethoxystilbene, taxifolin and (+)-catechin caused no inhibition. A strong positive and statistically significant correlation between the mean inhibitory effects of the tested PPs on both Akt-residues Ser473 and Thr308 (r= 0.9478, p= 0.0003) was determined. A comprehensive secondary screening via ELISA involving 44 compounds from nine structural groups quantified the effects of PPs on pAkt Ser473 to uncover potential structure-activity features. The most potent inhibitors were luteolin (44.31 ± 17.95 %), quercetin (35.71 ± 8.33 %), urolithin A (35.28 ± 11.80 %), apigenin (31.79 ± 6.16 %), fisetin (28.09 ± 9.09 %), and resveratrol (26.04 ± 5.58 %). These effects were statistically significant (p< 0.01, n= 3 to 6). Further lead structure optimization might be based on the fact that the effects of luteolin and resveratrol also differed statistically significantly from each other (p= 0.008).
To the best of our knowledge, the present study is the first to compare quantitatively the short term effects of PPs from different subclasses on pAkt in endothelial cells. Basic structure-activity relationships revealed that for flavones and flavonols the presence of a C2=C3 double bond (ring C) was essential for inhibitory activity and hydroxylation on the m- and p- positions in the ring B contributed to it. For stilbenoids, three free OH-groups appeared to be optimal. The comparison of the inhibitory potentials of ellagic acid and its microbial metabolites showed that urolithin A was statistically significantly more effective than its progenitor compound. Despite their structural similarities, the only active compound among all urolithins tested was urolithin A, hydroxylated at the C3 and C8 positions. This suggested a specific effect for urolithin A. Based on the common structural determinants and molecular geometry of the most active PPs a pharmacophore model regarding Akt-inhibition was proposed.
In summary, the effects of a wide variety of PPs from diverse structural subclasses on the in vitro phosphorylation of endothelial Akt were quantitatively analyzed for the first time, the effects of previously undescribed compounds were determined and structure activity relationships were elucidated. The inhibitory potential of individual PPs might be beneficial in cases of sustained over-activation of Akt-kinase and its substrates such as S6 kinase as reported for certain T2DM-related pathological states, such as insulin resistance, endothelial dysfunction, excessive angiogenesis, vascular calcification, and insulin triggered DNA-damage. The results of the present work suggest potential molecular mechanisms of action of PP involving Akt-inhibition and DPP IV-down-regulation and thus contribute to the understanding of anti-diabetic effects of these compounds on the molecular level.
In the „Position Paper of the Division of Clinical Pharmacy of the German Pharmaceutical Society (DPhG)” clinical pharmacy is defined as the science and practice of the rational use of drugs1, which includes the individualization of drug therapy. Clinical pharmacists therefore need a profound knowledge of the pharmacokinetic properties of relevant drugs, and clinical factors that are influencing these properties.
Against the background of individualizing drug therapy, pharmacokinetic and clinical factors are studied in this thesis.
In order to obtain an overview of the existing data on the pharmacokinetics of imipenem / cilastatin and meropenem in critically ill patients, a literature review for each of these carbapenem antibiotics was performed. These reviews included studies in critically ill patients as well as studies in healthy volunteers. While the reported results of studies in healthy volunteers had a small variability, studies in critically ill patients show significant differences in the resulting pharmacokinetics. These differences were not only between, but also within these studies, resulting in a high variability of the pharmacokinetic parameters of the carbapenems in critically ill patients. Furthermore, the results of studies in critically ill patients indicate that clinical factors and in particular renal function have different effects on the pharmacokinetics of imipenem and cilastatin.
A therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM) program for antibiotics was initiated in an intensive care unit. The calculation of the pharmacokinetics of imipenem / cilastatin and meropenem was carried out with a population pharmacokinetic approach (POP-PK) and in addition with a non-compartmental approach (NCA).
The POP-PK analysis showed that the pharmacokinetics of imipenem and cilastatin could be described adequately with a 1-compartment model. The resulting mean total body clearance (CL) of imipenem and cilastatin was 11.6 L/h (4.24 to 27.5) and 6.14 L/h (0.520 to 26.6 L/h). The nonrenal clearance was estimated to be 5.30 L / h (24.9% CV) for imipenem and 0.138 L / h (33.3% CV) for cilastatin.
The results of the NCA were in good agreement with the results of the POP-PK approach, as the NCA resulted in an imipenem clearance of 15.5 ± 7.3 L / hr and cilastatin clearance of 10.1 ± 9.9 L / h. The individual clearances resulting from the different pharmacokinetic approaches were in good correlation showing correlation coefficients (r) of 0.882 (p <0.001) and 0.908 (p <0.001) for imipenem and cilastatin.
In summary, this study identified and quantified significant differences between the individual clearance mechanisms of imipenem and cilastatin. This is particularly true for patients with impaired renal function and sepsis. As imipenem / cilastatin is only available in a fixed dose combination, those patients might be treated inadequately with this combination. The great variability in the pharmacokinetics of imipenem and cilastatin in septic patients underscores the importance of a TDM program of both substances.
For meropenem, a PK/PD model was developed that predicts the concentration gradients of meropenem, serum creatinine, C-reactive protein and procalcitonin simultaneously. A non-linear relationship between the clearance of creatinine and meropenem was identified and the resulting equation for the calculation of the total body clearance of meropenem (for a 70 kg patient) was: 0.480 L/h + 9.86 L/h. (CLCR/6L/h)0.593, with 0.480 L/h representing the nonrenal clearance of meropenem.
The resulting mean meropenem clearance of the NCA was 11.9 ± 8.7 L/h. The individual clearances resulting from the different pharmacokinetic approaches were poorly correlated showing a correlation coefficient (r) of 0.502 (p <0.001).
In summary, this study showed a non-linear relationship of meropenem clearance and creatinine clearance. The model shows that the renal function may change rapidly and to a significant extent in patients with sepsis and septic shock, which in turn, underscores that creatinine concentrations are not in steady state in these patients. Conversely, dose adjustment based on creatinine values might lead to inappropriate therapy. This underlines the importance of a TDM program for meropenem in critically ill patients.
The two most important considerations when choosing an antibiotic for the prophylaxis of postoperative bone infections are its activity against the whole spectrum of bacteria, which might be involved in bone infections, and its ability to penetrate bone tissue and thus to achieve concentrations above the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of the corresponding pathogens.
In order to gain information on this data, a study was conducted which investigated the pharmacokinetics of ampicillin / sulbactam in plasma, cortical and cancellous bone. Pharmacokinetic parameters in plasma were determined using NCA. The bone penetration represents the ratio of the concentration in the bone tissue to plasma concentration at the time of bone removal. The resulting half-life of ampicillin and sulbactam in plasma was 1.60 0.37 h and 1.70 0.42 h. The elimination of both substances was in a good correlation with creatinine clearance and resulted in correlation coefficients (r) of 0.729 (p = 0.003) for ampicillin and 0.699 (p = 0.005) for sulbactam. The mean clearance and the mean volume of distribution of ampicillin and sulbactam were 10.7 3.9 and 10.3 3.3 L/h, and 23.9 7.9 and 24.3 6.8 L. The mean concentrations of ampicillin in the cortical and cancellous bone were 6.60 4.22 and 10.15 7.40 µg/g, resulting in bone penetration ratios of 9.1 5.7 and 16.2 16.9 %. For sulbactam the corresponding concentrations were 3.91 2.52 and 5.73 4.20 µg/g, resulting in bone penetration ratios of 10.6 6.3 and 17.5 16.1 %.
In summary, this study shows that the bone penetration of both substances is on average rather unsatisfactory and has a high variability, which can lead to inadequate bone concentrations for the prophylaxis of bone infections. One factor that could be identified for the penetration of both substances into cancellous bone was the period between the application of the drug and the removal of the bone. Therefore, a time interval between the administration of the antibiotic and the incision should be considered.
Immunosuppression is a risk factor for the development of various malignancies, including hematologic diseases. While the relationship between the use of immunosuppressive therapy with methotrexate and the development of an Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) associated lymphoproliferative disease (LPD) has been well established, this connection is less evident for immunosuppressive therapy with azathioprine.
The patient presented by us was immunosuppressed with azathioprine for autoimmune hepatitis. The development of an EBV-associated Hodgkin-like lymphoma under this immunosuppressive therapy and especially the regression of the lymphoma after cessation of azathioprine confirms the relationship between this immunosuppressant, EBV-infection and the development of Hodgkin-like lymphoma. Therefore, albeit in rare cases, azathioprine-related lymphomas may respond to mere cessation of immunosuppressive therapy without need for chemotherapy.
Apart from viral infections, drugs are a major cause of acute liver failure. Due to the lack of specific symptoms or tests, it is difficult to diagnose a drug-induced liver injury. We report a case of a young patient in whom different antibiotics, the analgesic and antipyretic acetaminophen or a combination of these drugs may have led to DILI resulting in life-threatening ALF. Based on this case report, we describe a procedure to exclude non-drug related causes and discuss the hepatotoxic potential of the involved drugs in this case.
Assay and impurity profiling of the pharmaceuticals are the key routine quality control methods employed worldwide for which High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) is the most widely used technique. The ability to carry out these routine laboratory procedures in low- and middle- income countries (LMICs) need the methods to be based upon simple instruments manageable with moderate levels of personnel skill and costs involved.
Simple, convenient, and cost effective reverse phase HPLC methods were developed using phosphate buffer and methanol as mobile phase with C18 column as stationary phase for the impurity profiling and assay of beta lactam antibiotics. Isocratic elution and UV detection was employed in these methods. Impurity profiling method was developed for coamoxiclav tablets and ceftriaxone bulk drug. The method for ceftriaxone included a supplementary method to quantify one of its known impurity (Impurity D of ceftriaxone). This method involved use of acetonitrile where as the two main methods were achieved on the targeted method design, described above. With the exception of impurity A of ceftriaxone, the methods developed can successfully quantify impurities to the concentration as low as ≤0.05%, which is in accordance with the current guidelines for the impurity profiling of antibiotics issued by European Medicines Agency.
As ensuring cost reduction was one of the key objectives of carrying out the method development exercise, in situ methods for the preparation of impurities were also identified and some new methods were introduced. The stability of beta lactam antibiotics and the choice of solvent were given due attention during the process of method development revealing information on the presence of new impurities. Deacetyl cefotaxime and 2-mercaptobenzathiazole were identified in this process as new impurities of ceftriaxone currently not listed under known impurities by United States Pharmacopoeia and European Pharmacopoeia. However, deacetyl cefotaxime is a known impurity of cefotaxime whereas the latter molecule is a degradation product of one of the synthesis impurities of ceftriaxone. This substance is reported to be carcinogenic and is resolved using the supplementary method developed for ceftriaxone, hence making its detection and quantification possible. A known inactive impurity of ceftriaxone (Impurity A, E-isomer of ceftriaxone) was` also shown to be produced by exposure to day light, thus warranting the light protection of the ceftriaxone solution, an information that is of critical importance in the clinical settings.
A series of experimentation was carried out on the finished products of beta lactam antibiotics sampled from Pakistan and few other countries, to identify key quality issues in the samples. Though the limited sample size and convenient sampling did not provide results that could yield a decisive figure for the country status for prevalence of substandard and falsified medical products, but the experiments have clearly indicated that the problems in drug quality do exist and beta lactam antibiotics form a class of high-risk medicine with respect to surveillance for poor-quality medicines. Isolation of unknown impurities was also carried out along with the introduction of new and modified methods for preparation of impurities of beta-lactam antibiotics.
In addition, detailed literature survey was carried out for understanding the complex problem of the poor-quality medicine, impact of poor quality antimicrobials on health care system and the magnitude of the problem at the global level. The country status of Pakistan regarding quality of medicines was recorded based upon the available documentary evidence. The current technologies and strategic options available for low- and middle-income countries in aiding fight for combating poor quality medicines was also laid down to design recommendations for Pakistan. A comprehensive review of the information technology tools used for identification and control of substandard and falsified medicines was also conducted.
The pharmacokinetics in patients with cystic fibrosis (CF) has long been thought to differ considerably from that in healthy volunteers. For highly protein bound β-lactams, profound pharmacokinetic differences were observed between comparatively morbid patients with CF and healthy volunteers. These differences could be explained by body weight and body composition for β-lactams with low protein binding. This study aimed to develop a novel population modeling approach to describe the pharmacokinetic differences between both subject groups by estimating protein binding. Eight patients with CF (lean body mass [LBM]: 39.8 ± 5.4kg) and six healthy volunteers (LBM: 53.1 ± 9.5kg) received 1027.5 mg cefotiam intravenously. Plasma concentrations and amounts in urine were simultaneously modelled. Unscaled total clearance and volume of distribution were 3% smaller in patients with CF compared to those in healthy volunteers. After allometric scaling by LBM to account for body size and composition, the remaining pharmacokinetic differences were explained by estimating the unbound fraction of cefotiam in plasma. The latter was fixed to 50% in male and estimated as 54.5% in female healthy volunteers as well as 56.3% in male and 74.4% in female patients with CF. This novel approach holds promise for characterizing the pharmacokinetics in special patient populations with altered protein binding.
Insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) is a 70-amino acid polypeptide with a molecular weight of approximately 7.6 kDa acting as an anabolic effector. It is essential for tissue growth and remodeling. Clinically, it is used for the treatment of growth disorders and has been proposed for various other applications including musculoskeletal diseases. Unlike insulin, IGF-I is complexed to at least six high-affinity binding proteins (IGFBPs) exerting homeostatic effects by modulating IGF-I availability to its receptor (IGF-IR) on most cells in the body as well as changing the distribution of the growth factor within the organism.1-3 Short half-lived IGF-I have been the driving forces for the design of localized IGF-I depot systems or protein modification with enhanced pharmacokinetic properties. In this thesis, we endeavor to present a versatile biologic into which galenical properties were engineered through chemical synthesis, e.g., by site-specific coupling of biomaterials or complex composites to IGF-I. For that, we redesigned the therapeutic via genetic codon expansion resulting in an alkyne introduced IGF-I, thereby becoming a substrate for biorthogonal click chemistries yielding a site-specific decoration.
In this approach, an orthogonal pyrrolysine tRNA synthetase (PylRS)/tRNAPyl CUA pair was employed to direct the co-translational incorporation of an unnatural amino acid—¬propargyl-L-lysine (plk)—bearing a clickable alkyne functional handle into IGF-I in response to the amber stop codon (UAG) introduced into the defined position in the gene of interest. We summarized the systematic optimization of upstream and downstream process alike with the ultimate goal to increase the yield of plk modified IGF-I therapeutic, from the construction of gene fusions resulting in (i) Trx-plk-IGF-I fusion variants, (ii) naturally occurring pro-IGF-I protein (IGF-I + Ea peptide) (plk-IGF-I Ea), over the subsequent bacterial cultivation and protein extraction to the final chromatographic purification. The opportunities and hurdles of all of the above strategies were discussed. Evidence was provided that the wild-type IGF-I yields were pure by exploiting the advantages of the pHisTrx expression vector system in concert with a thrombin enzyme with its highly specific proteolytic digestion site and multiple-chromatography steps. The alkyne functionality was successfully introduced into IGF-I by amber codon suppression. The proper folding of plk-IGF-I Ea was assessed by WST-1 proliferation assay and the detection of phosphorylated AKT in MG-63 cell lysate. The purity of plk-IGF-I Ea was monitored with RP-HPLC and SDS-PAGE analysis. This work also showed site-specific coupling an alkyne in plk-IGF-I Ea by copper (I)-catalyzed azide-alkyne cycloaddition (CuAAC) with potent activities in vitro. The site-specific immobilization of plk-IGF-I Ea to the model carrier (i.e., agarose beads) resulted in enhanced cell proliferation and adhesion surrounding the IGF-I-presenting particles. Cell proliferation and differentiation were enhanced in the accessibility of IGF-I decorated beads, reflecting the multivalence on cellular performance.
Next, we aimed at effectively showing the disease environment by co-delivery of fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF2) and IGF-I, deploying localized matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) upregulation as a surrogate marker driving the response of the drug delivery system. For this purpose, we genetically engineered FGF2 variant containing an (S)-2-amino-6-(((2-azidoethoxy)carbonyl)amino)hexanoic acid incorporated at its N-terminus, followed by an MMPs-cleavable linker (PCL) and FGF2 sequence, thereby allowing site-directed, specific decoration of the resultant azide-PCL-FGF2 with the previously mentioned plk-IGF-I Ea to generate defined protein-protein conjugates with a PCL in between. The click reaction between plk-IGF-I Ea and azide-PCL-FGF2 was systematically optimized to increase the yield of IGF-FGF conjugates, including reaction temperature, incubation duration, the addition of anionic detergent, and different ratios of the participating biopharmaceutics. The challenge here was that CuAAC reaction components or conditions might oxidize free cysteines of azide-PCL-FGF2 and future work needs to present the extent of activity retention after conjugation. Furthermore, our study provides potential options for dual-labeling of IGF-I either by the introduction of unnatural amino acids within two distinct positions of the protein of interest for parallel “double-click” labeling of the resultant plk-IGF-I Ea-plk or by using a combination of enzymatic-catalyzed and CuAAC bioorthogonal coupling strategies for sequentially dual-labeling of plk-IGF-I Ea.
In conclusion, genetic code expansion in combination with click-chemistry provides the fundament for novel IGF-I analogs allowing unprecedented site specificity for decoration. Considerable progress towards IGF-I based therapies with enhanced pharmacological properties was made by demonstrating the feasibility of the expression of plk incorporated IGF-I using E. coli and retained activity of unconjugated and conjugated IGF-I variant. Dual-labeling of IGF-I provides further insights into the functional requirements of IGF-I. Still, further investigation warrants to develop precise IGF-I therapy through unmatched temporal and spatial regulation of the pleiotropic IGF-I.
GPCRs, particularly muscarinic receptors (mAChRs), are significant therapeutic targets in many physiological conditions. The significance of dualsteric hybrids selectively targeting mAChR subtypes is their great advantage in avoiding undesired side effects. This is attained by exploitation of the high affinity of ligand-binding to the orthosteric site and the structural diversity of the allosteric site to target an individual mAChR subtype, as well as offering signal bias to avoiding undesired transduction pathways. Furthermore, dualsteric targeting of mAChR subtypes helps in the elucidation of the physiological role of each individual mAChR subtype.
The first project was the attempt of synthesis of the M2-preferring ligand AFDX-384. AFDX-384 is known to preferentially bind to the M2 receptor subtype as an orthosteric antagonist, with partial interaction with residues in the allosteric site. This project aimed to re-trace the synthesis route of AFDX-384, to open the door to its upscaling and the future synthesis of AFDX-type dualsteric ligands. The multi-step synthesis of AFDX-384 is achieved through the synthesis of its 2 precursors, the chloro acyl derivative VIII and the piperidinyl derivative IV. Upscaled synthesis of the piperidinyl derivative IV was attained. Synthesis of the chloro acyl compound VIII was attempted. Several trials to synthesize the benzopyridodiazepine nucleus as well as its chloro-acylation resulted in the production of the novel crystal structures V and VI. X-ray crystallography was also done for crystallized molecules of the closed-ring benzopyridodiazepine VII that was previously synthesized. Chloro-acylation reactions of compound VII using phosgene seem to be attainable when done using reflux overnight. However, the use of methanol to aid in elution during silica gel column chromatography converted the expected product to the carbamate analogue IX. Hence, further attempts in purification should refrain from the use of methanol. The use of triphosgene instead of phosgene demonstrates a cleaner route for further upscaled synthesis.
The second project was the synthesis of dualsteric ligands involving variable orthosteric and allosteric moieties. Four different types of hybrids have been created over multiple steps. Dualsteric ligands have been synthesized using either a phthalimido- or 1,8-naphthalimidopropylamino moiety as the allosteric-binding group, coupled to either N-desmethyl pirenzepine or N-desmethyl clozapine using variable chain lengths. Furthermore, the synthesis of the dualsteric ligands involving N-desmethyl clozapine linked to either the super-agonist iperoxo or acetylcholine, and being connected using variable alkane chain lengths. Several reaction conditions have been investigated throughout the analysis of the optimal condition to conduct the critical final step of synthesis of these dualsteric hybrids, which involves the linking of the two segments of the hybrid together. The optimal method, which produced the least side products and highest yield, was to connect the two intermediates of the compound in absence of base, catalyst or microwaves while stirring at 35 °C for several days using acetonitrile as solvent (silica gel TLC monitoring, 0.2 M aqueous KNO3/MeOH 2:3). The ideal purification methods for the final compounds were found to be either crystallization from the reaction medium or using C18 reverse phase silica gel flash chromatography (using H2O/MeOH solvent system). All the hybrids will be subjected to pharmacological testing using the appropriate FRET assays.
Polyphenols exert beneficial effects in type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). However, their mechanism of action remains largely unknown. Endothelial Akt-kinase plays a key role in the pathogenesis of cardiovascular complications in T2DM and therefore the modulation of its activity is of interest. This work aimed to characterize effects of structurally different polyphenols on Akt-phosphorylation (pAkt) in endothelial cells (Ea.hy926) and to describe structure-activity features. A comprehensive screening via ELISA quantified the effects of 44 polyphenols (10 µM) on pAkt Ser473. The most pronounced inhibitors were luteolin (44 ± 18%), quercetin (36 ± 8%), urolithin A (35 ± 12%), apigenin, fisetin, and resveratrol; (p < 0.01). The results were confirmed by Western blotting and complemented with corresponding experiments in HUVEC cells. A strong positive and statistically significant correlation between the mean inhibitory effects of the tested polyphenols on both Akt-residues Ser473 and Thr308 (r = 0.9478, p = 0.0003) was determined by immunoblotting. Interestingly, the structural characteristics favoring pAkt inhibition partially differed from structural features enhancing the compounds’ antioxidant activity. The present study is the first to quantitatively compare the influence of polyphenols from nine different structural subclasses on pAkt in endothelial cells. These effects might be advantageous in certain T2DM-complications involving over-activation of the Akt-pathway. The suggested molecular mode of action of polyphenols involving Akt-inhibition contributes to understanding their effects on the cellular level.
Sacha inchi oil is a premier raw material with highly nutritional and functional features for the foodstuff, pharmaceutical, beauty, and personal care industries. One of the most important facts about this oil is the huge chemical content of unsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids. However, the current available information on the characterization of the triglyceride composition and the advance physicochemical parameters relevant to emulsion development is limited. Therefore, this research focused on providing a detailed description of the lipid composition using high-resolution tandem mass spectrometry and thorough physicochemical characterization to find the value of the required hydrophilic–lipophilic balance (HLB). For this, a study in the interfacial tension was evaluated, followed by the assessment of different parameters such as creaming index, droplet size, viscosity, zeta potential, pH, and electrical conductivity for a series emulsified at thermal stress condition. The results show that fatty acids are arranged into glycerolipids and the required HLB to achieve the maximum physical stability is around 8.
A series of photoactivatable CO‐releasing molecules (PhotoCORMs) was prepared from manganese pentacarbonyl bromide and 1H‐benzimidazol‐2‐ylmethyl‐(N‐phenyl)amine ligands (L) bearing different electron‐donating and electron‐withdrawing groups R = H, 4‐CH\(_3\), 4‐OCH\(_3\), 4‐Cl, 4‐NO\(_2\), 2‐, 3‐, and 4‐COOCH\(_3\) on the phenyl substituent to give octahedral manganese(I) complexes of the general formula [MnBr(CO)\(_3\)(L)]. Aerated DMSO solutions of the compounds are stable in the dark for 16 h with no CO release. However, the compounds rapidly release CO upon illumination at 412–525 nm, depending on the substitution pattern. Its influence on the photophysical and photochemical properties was systematically explored using UV/Vis spectroscopy and CO release measurements with a commercial gas sensor system. In the nitro‐substituted compound, the electronically excited state switched from benzimidazole‐ to phenyl‐centered, leading to a markedly different photochemical behavior of this visible‐light activated PhotoCORM.
Detailed insight into the internal structure of drug‐loaded polymeric micelles is scarce, but important for developing optimized delivery systems. We observed that an increase in the curcumin loading of triblock copolymers based on poly(2‐oxazolines) and poly(2‐oxazines) results in poorer dissolution properties. Using solid‐state NMR spectroscopy and complementary tools we propose a loading‐dependent structural model on the molecular level that provides an explanation for these pronounced differences. Changes in the chemical shifts and cross‐peaks in 2D NMR experiments give evidence for the involvement of the hydrophobic polymer block in the curcumin coordination at low loadings, while at higher loadings an increase in the interaction with the hydrophilic polymer blocks is observed. The involvement of the hydrophilic compartment may be critical for ultrahigh‐loaded polymer micelles and can help to rationalize specific polymer modifications to improve the performance of similar drug delivery systems.
Quinolone antibiotics present an attractive oral treatment option in patients with cystic fibrosis (CF). Prior studies have reported comparable clearances and volumes of distribution in patients with CF and healthy volunteers for primarily renally cleared quinolones. We aimed to provide the first pharmacokinetic comparison for pefloxacin as a predominantly nonrenally cleared quinolone and its two metabolites between both subject groups. Eight patients with CF (fat-free mass [FFM]: 36.3 ± 6.9 kg, average ± SD) and ten healthy volunteers (FFM: 51.7 ± 9.9 kg) received 400 mg pefloxacin as a 30 min intravenous infusion and orally in a randomized, two-way crossover study. All plasma and urine data were simultaneously modelled. Bioavailability was complete in both subject groups. Pefloxacin excretion into urine was approximately 74% higher in patients with CF compared to that in healthy volunteers, whereas the urinary excretion of metabolites was only slightly higher in patients with CF. After accounting for body size and composition via allometric scaling by FFM, pharmacokinetic parameter estimates in patients with CF divided by those in healthy volunteers were 0.912 for total clearance, 0.861 for nonrenal clearance, 1.53 for renal clearance, and 0.916 for volume of distribution. Nonrenal clearance accounted for approximately 90% of total pefloxacin clearance. Overall, bioavailability and disposition were comparable between both subject groups.
A major problem regarding public health is the emergence of antibiotic resistant bacterial strains, especially methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). This is mainly attributed to the unnecessary overuse of antimicrobial drugs by patients; however, one aspect that is often neglected is their untargeted mechanism of action, affecting not only the infection itself but also commensal bacteria which are often opportunistic pathogens causing many diseases as well. Therefore, our goal was to develop a bioresponsive antibiotic delivery system triggered by virulence factors. The designed system is comprised of a polymer to enhance its pharmacokinetic profile, a peptide cleavable linker, and the antibiotic agent itself. The bacterial protease aureolysin which is expressed by S. aureus during infections would cleave the linker and partially release the antibiotic which would be still attached to a remaining tetrapeptide. These would be cleaved by a group of proteases naturally present in plasma called aminopeptidases, finally releasing the compound.
In the first part of this project, we searched for a suitable sequence to serve as a cleavable linker. It should be sensitive towards the target bacterial protease but not be cleaved by any human enzymes to guarantee the specificity of the system. Therefore, we synthesized three peptide sequences via Solid Phase Peptide Synthesis and incubated them with aureolysin as well as with many human matrix Metalloproteases. The analysis and quantification of enzymatic activity was monitored chromatographically (RP-HPLC). The plasminogen originated sequence was chosen since it was not sensitive towards MMPs, but cleaved by aureolysin.
In the second part, we tried to incorporate the chosen peptide sequences as crosslinkers in hydrogel formulations. The purpose was to physically incorporate the antibiotic within the hydrogel, which would be released by the cleavage of those sequences and the consequent loosening the hydrogel net. For that purpose we used a commercially available hydrogel kit with a PVA matrix modified with maleimide, which allows a conjugation reaction with thiol functionalized crosslinkers. Three fluorophores were chosen to serve as antibiotic models and a diffusion assay was performed. Only the glomerular structured Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP) presented a low diffusion rate, thus the aureolysin release assays were performed only using this prototype. Assays showed that with a low hydrogel polymer concentration, the fluorophore either quickly diffused into the medium or was not released at all. The physical incorporation of the antibiotic within the hydrogel pores was therefore abolished as a suitable release approach. For a second attempt, we covalently bound a fluorophore to the linker, which was conjugated to the hydrogel matrix. The incubation with aureolysin and subsequent RP-HPLC analysis showed a peak with the same retention time correspondent to the fragment product after cleavage of the free linker. This is a proof that the concept of linking the peptide sequence to the antibiotic is a promising strategy for its bioresponsive release.
Within the third part of this study, we analyzed the degradation of the resulted fragment after aureolysin activity and subsequent full release of the antibiotic by human aminopeptidases. We determined the concentration of those enzymes in human plasma and synthesized the fragment by conjugating the tetrapeptide sequence to aminofluorescein via EDC/NHS reaction. By incubating the construct with the lowest aminopeptidase concentration measured in plasma, the fluorophore was completely released within two hours, showing the efficacy of these enzymes as bioresponsive agents.
The last part was the construction of the PEGylated linker-antibiotic. For this purpose we chose the tetracycline like antibiotic chelocardin (CHD) as our prototype. The conjugation of the linker- CHD to the polymer was performed by copper free click chemistry. The cleavage rate of the linker by aureolysin was very similar to the one obtained for the free peptide, indicating that the PEGylation does not interfere on the enzymatic activity. However, by trying to increase the loading ratio of chelocardin onto the polymer, we observed a very low cleavage rate for the system, indicating the formation of aggregates by those constructs.
The designed system has proved to be a smart strategy for the delivery on demand of antibiotics in which the drug is only released by the presence of S. aureus during their virulent state.
While life expectancy increases worldwide, treatment of neurodegenerative diseases such as AD becomes a major task for industrial and academic research. Currently, a treatment of AD is only symptomatical and limited to an early stage of the disease by inhibiting AChE. A cure for AD might even seem far away. A rethinking of other possible targets is therefore necessary. Addressing targets that can influence AD even at later stages might be the key. Even if it is not possible to find a cure for AD, it is of great value for AD patients by providing an effective medication. The suffering of patients and their families might be relieved and remaining years may be spent with less symptoms and restrictions.
It was shown that a combination of hCB2R agonist and BChE inhibitor might exactly be a promising approach to combat AD. In the previous chapters, a first investigation of dual-acting compounds that address both hCB2R and BChE was illustrated (figure 6.1).
A set of over 30 compounds was obtained by applying SARs from BChE inhibitors to a hCB2R
selective agonist developed by AstraZeneca. In a first in vitro evaluation compounds showed
selectivity over hCB1R and AChE. Further investigations could also prove agonism and showed
that unwanted off-target affinity to hMOP receptor could be designed out. The development of
a homology model for hCB2R (based on a novel hCB1R crystal) could further elucidate the
mode of action of the ligand binding. Lastly, first in vivo studies showed a beneficial effect of
selected dual-acting compounds regarding memory and cognition.
Since these first in vivo studies mainly aim for an inhibition of the BChE, it should be the aim
of upcoming projects to proof the relevance of hCB2R agonism in vivo as well. In addition,
pharmacokinetic as well as solubility studies may help to complete the overall picture.
Currently, hybrid-based dual-acting hCB2R agonists and selective BChE inhibitors are under
investigation in our lab. First in vitro evaluations showed improved BChE inhibition and
selectivity over AChE compared to tacrine.78 Future in vitro and in vivo studies will clarify their
usage as drug molecules with regard to hepatotoxicity and blood-brain barrier penetration.
Since the role of hCB2R is not yet completely elucidated, the use of photochromic toolcompounds
becomes an area of interest. These tool-compounds (and their biological effect) can
be triggered upon irradiation with light and thus help to investigate time scales and ligand
binding.
A set of 5-azobenzene benzimidazoles was developed and synthesized. In radioligand binding
studies, affinity towards hCB2R could be increased upon irradiation with UV-light (figure 6.2).
This makes the investigated compounds the first GPCR ligands that can be activated upon
irradiation (not vice versa).
The aim of upcoming research will be the triggering of a certain intrinsic activity by an
“efficacy-switch”. For this purpose, several attempts are currently under investigation: an
introduction of an azobenzene moiety at the 2-position of the benzimidazole core already led to
a slight difference in efficacy upon irradiation with UV light. Another approach going on in our
lab is the development of hCB1R switches based on the selective hCB1R inverse agonist
rimonabant. First in vitro results are not yet available (figure 6.3).
Since four decades, high-throughput screenings have been conducted in drug discovery, fuelling the identification of potential new drug candidates. This approach, however, often promotes the detection of compounds with undesired physico-chemical properties like poor aqueous solubility or low membrane permeability. Indeed, dissolution and absorption of a drug are prerequisites for systemic exposure and therapeutic effects. Therefore, innovative strategies to optimize unfavourable performance of new drug candidates are in great demand in order to increase drug concentrations at the site of action whilst simultaneously reducing drug variability.
In chapter I of this research work, hydrophobic ion pairing (HIP) is discussed as a promising strategy to improve the bioavailability of BCS class III compounds, which have high aqueous solubility and low permeability. The review points out the limitations of poorly absorbable drugs and details the approach of pairing these APIs with hydrophobic counterions. Apart from the motivation to tailor physico-chemical, biopharmaceutical and toxicological properties of BCS class III compounds, the hydrophobic ion pairing facilitates their formulation into drug delivery systems. Besides advantageous effects, disadvantages of the ion pair formation, such as the decreased aqueous solubility of the ions pair, are critically outlined. Finally, the review covers an overview of non-invasive administration routes permitted after ion pair formation, including oral/enteral, buccal, nasal, ocular and transdermal drug administration. Overall, the HIP approach offers substantial benefits regarding the bioavailability enhancement of BCS class III compounds.
Chapter II concerns GHQ168 developed by Holzgrabe et al., a BCS class II compound characterized by low aqueous solubility and high permeability. GHQ168 was developed for the treatment of human African trypanosomiasis (HAT), a tropical disease for which novel active compounds are urgently needed. This lead compound was found to be very active against trypanosoma brucei brucei and trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense in cell
culture assays, however, the low aqueous solubility prevented further preclinical development. To target this drawback, two different approaches were selected, including (I) the chemical modification and (II) the spray drying of GHQ168. The newly synthesized set of derivatives as well as the spray dried GHQ168 were subjected to a physico-chemical and microbiological characterization. It turned out that both approaches successfully improved aqueous solubility, however, for the derivatives of GHQ168 at the expense of activity. Furthermore, the pharmacokinetic parameters of GHQ168 and of the most active derivatives, GHQ242 and GHQ243, were evaluated. Elimination half-lives between 1.5 to 3.5 h after intraperitoneal administration and modest to strong serum albumin binding for GHQ243 (45%) and GHQ168 (80%) and very high binding (> 99%) for GHQ242 were detected. The spray dried formulation of GHQ168, as well as GHQ242 and GHQ243 were investigated in two in vivo studies in mice infected with t. b. rhodesiense (STIB900), referred to as (I) stringent model and (II) early-treatment model. In the stringent model (2 applications/day on day 3-6 after infection) the mean survival duration (MSD) of mice treated with spray dried GHQ168 exceeded the MSD of the untreated control group (17 days versus 9 days), a difference that was statistically significant. In contrast, no statistical difference was observed for GHQ242 (14 days) and GHQ243 (12 days). GHQ168 was further assessed in the early-treatment model (2 applications/day on day 1-4 after infection) and again a statistically significant improvement of MSD (32 days (end of observation period) versus 7 days) was observed. Finally, exciting antitrypanosomal efficacy for the spray dried formulation of GHQ168 was demonstrated.
NADPH oxidases (NOX) were found to be the main source of endothelial reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation. Chapter III reports on the formulation studies on triazolopyrimidine derivatives from the VAS library, a set of NADPH oxidase inhibitors. These were developed for the treatment of elevated ROS levels, which contribute to the development of cardiovascular diseases. Although in vitro results from numerous studies indicated promising efficacy and selectivity for the VAS-compounds, the low water solubility impeded the in vivo translation and further preclinical development. For this reason, three derivatives, VAS2870, VAS3947, and VAS4024 were physico-chemically characterized and VAS3947, the most soluble compound, was selected for further formulation studies. These approaches included (I) spray drying, (II) microemulsification and (III) complexation with cyclodextrins in order to develop formulations for oral and parenteral application. Solubility improvement of VAS3947 was successfully demonstrated for all preparations as expressed by supersaturation ratios in comparison to the solubility of the unformulated compound. For seven spray dried formulations, the ratio ranged from 3-9, and the ratio for four microemulsions was 8-19 after 120 min, respectively. The six cyclodextrin formulations achieved the highest supersaturation ratio between 3 and 174 after 20 hours. NMR measurements elucidated the inclusion of VAS3947 within the CD’s cavity as well as the interaction with its outer surface. Ultimately, NOX inhibitors were opened for oral and parenteral administration for the first time.
After successful solubility improvement of VAS3947, further investigations towards in vivo studies were conducted including stability studies with a focus on stability in solution and in plasma as presented in chapter IV. Furthermore, permeability and cytotoxicity assays were performed for the first time. It turned out that VAS3947 was instable in buffer and when exposed to light. Moreover, the compound showed decomposition in the presence of mouse microsomes and in human plasma. The VAS compounds contain an oxazol moiety linked to the triazolopyrimidine skeleton via a thioether. This structural element is responsible for the efficacy of the compound class, however it is susceptible to hydrolysis and to further degradation reactions. Moreover, VAS3947 harmed membrane integrity in the cell permeability assays and cytotoxicity investigations in HEK-293 and HEP-G2 cells revealed IC50 values in the same concentration range as reported for efficacy assays. Summarized, it was demonstrated that substances from the VAS library were no appropriate model compounds for ROS investigations nor suitable candidates for further preclinical development.
In resent years the rate of biologics (proteins, cytokines and growth-factors) as newly registered drugs has steadily risen. The greatest challenge for pharmaceutical biologics poses its arrival at the desired target location due to e.g. proteolytic and pH dependent degradation, plasma protein binding, insolubility etc. Therefore, advanced drug delivery systems, where biologics are site directed immobilized to carriers mimicking endogenous storage sites such as the extra cellular matrix can enormously assist the application and consequently the release of exogenous administered pharmaceutical biologics. We have resorted to the fibroblast growth factor 2/ heparansulfate/ fibroblast growth factor bindingprotein 1 system as a model.
Phase I deals with the selection and subcloning of a wild type murine FGF-2 construct into the bacterial pHis-Trx vector system for high yields of expression and fast, feasible purification measurements. This first step enables the provision of mFGF-2, which plays a pivotal part as a growth factor in the wound healing process as well as the vascularization of tumors, for future investigations. Therefore, the correct expression of mFGF-2 was monitored via MALDI-MS and SDS-PAGE, whereas the proper folding of the tertiary beta-trefoil structure was assessed by fluorescence spectroscopy. The MTT assay allowed us to ensure that the bioactivity was comparable to sourced FGF-2. In the last step, the purity; a requirement for future binding- and protein-protein interaction assays was monitored chromatographically (RP-HPLC). In addition, a formulation for freeze-drying was developed to ensure protein stability and integrity over a period of 60 days. Altogether, the bacterial expression and purification proved to be suitable, leading to bioactive and stable production of mFGF-2.
In Phase II the expression, purification and characterization of FGFBP1, as the other key partner in the FGF-2/ HS/ FGFBP1 system is detailed. As FGFBP1 exhibits a complex tertiary structure, comprised of five highly conserved disulfide bonds and presumably multiple glycosylation sites, a eukaryotic expression was used. Human embryonic kidney cells (HEK 293F) as suspension cells were transiently transfected with DNA-PEI complexes, leading to expression of Fc-tagged murine FGFBP1. Different PEI to DNA ratios and expression durations were investigated for optimal expression yields, which were confirmed by western blot analysis and SDS-PAGE. LC-MS/MS analysis of trypsin and elastase digested FGFBP1 gave first insights of the three O-glycosylation sites. Furthermore, the binding protein was modified by inserting a His6-tag between the Fc-tag (for purification) and the binding protein itself to enable later complexation with radioactive 99mTc as radio ligand to track bio distribution of administered FGFBP1 in mice. Overall, expression, purification and characterization of mFGFBP1 variants were successful with a minor draw back of instability of the tag free binding protein.
Combining the insights and results of expressed FGF-2 as well as FGFBP1 directed us to the investigation of the interaction of each partner in the FGF-2/ HS/ FGFBP1 system as Phase III. Thermodynamic behavior of FGF-2 and low molecular weight heparin (enoxaparin), as a surrogate for HS, under physiological conditions (pH 7.4) and pathophysiological conditions, similar to hypoxic, tumorous conditions (acidic pH) were monitored by means of isothermal titration calorimetry. Buffer types, as well as the pH influences binding parameters such as stoichiometry (n), enthalpy (ΔH) and to some extent the dissociation constant (KD). These findings paved the way for kinetic binding investigations, which were performed by surface plasmon resonance assays. For the first time the KD of full length FGFBP1 and FGF-2 was measured. Furthermore the binding behavior of FGF-2 to FGFBP1 in the presence of various heparin concentrations suggest a kinetic driven release of bound FGF-2 by its chaperone FGFBP1.
Having gathered multiple data on the FGF-2 /HS /FGFBP1 system mainly in solution, our next step in Phase IV was the development of a test system for immobilized proteins. With the necessity to better understand and monitor the cellular effects of immobilized growth factors, we decorated glass slides in a site-specific manner with an RGD-peptide for adhesion of cells and via the copper(I)-catalyzed-azide-alkyne cycloaddition (CuAAC) a fluorescent dye (a precursor for modified proteins for click chemistry). Human osteosarcoma cells were able to grow an the slides and the fluorescence dye was immobilized in a biocompatible way allowing future thorough bioactivity assay such as MTT-assays and phospho-ERK-assays of immobilized growth factors.
Although the prevalence of substandard and counterfeit pharmaceutical products is a global problem, it is more critical in resource-constrained countries. The national medicines regulatory authorities (MNRA) in these countries have limited resources to cater for regular quality surveillance programmes aimed at ensuring that medicines in circulation are of acceptable quality. Among the reasons explained to hinder the implementation of these strategies is that compendial monographs are too complicated and require expensive infrastructures in terms of environment, equipment and consumables. In this study it was therefore aimed at developing simple, precise, and robust HPLC and HPTLC methods utilizing inexpensive, readily available chemicals (methanol and simple buffers) that can determine the APIs, other API than declared one, and which are capable of impurity profiling. As an outcome of this study, three isocratic and robust HPLC and two HPTLC methods for sulfadoxine, sulfalene, pyrimethamine, primaquine, artesunate, as well as amodiaquine have been developed and validated. All HPLC methods are operated using an isocratic elution mode which means they can be implemented even with a single pump HPLC system and standard C18 columns. The densitometric sulfadoxine/sulfalene and pyrimethamine method utilizes standard TLC plates as well as inexpensive, readily available and safe chemicals (toluene, methanol, and ethyl acetate), while that for artesunate and amodiaquine requires HPTLC plates as well as triethylamine and acetonitrile due to challenges associated with the analysis of amodiaquine and poorly the detectable artesunate. These HPTLC methods can be implemented as alternative to those requiring HPLC equipment e.g. in countries that already have acquired densitometer equipment. It is understood that HPTLC methods are less sensitive, precise and accurate when compared to HPLC methods, but this hindrance can easily be addressed by sending representative samples to third party quality control laboratories where the analytical results are verified using compendial HPLC methods on a regular basis.
It is therefore anticipated that the implementation of these methods will not only address the problem of limited resources required for medicines quality control but also increase the number of monitored targeted antimalarial products as well as the number of resource- constrained countries participating in quality monitoring campaigns. Moreover, the experiences and skills acquired within this work will be applied to other API groups, e. g. antibiotics, afterwards.
Renin–angiotensin system (RAS) plays an important role in the regulation of blood pressure and hormonal balance. Using positron emission tomography (PET) technology, it is possible to monitor the physiological and pathological distribution of angiotensin II type 1 receptors (AT\(_1\)), which reflects the functionality of RAS. A new \(^{18}\)F-labeled PET tracer derived from the clinically used AT\(_1\) antagonist valsartan showing the least possible chemical alteration from the valsartan structure has been designed and synthesized with several strategies, which can be applied for the syntheses of further derivatives. Radioligand binding study showed that the cold reference FV45 (K\(_i\) 14.6 nM) has almost equivalent binding affinity as its lead valsartan (K\(_i\) 11.8 nM) and angiotensin II (K\(_i\) 1.7 nM). Successful radiolabeling of FV45 in a one-pot radiofluorination followed by the deprotection procedure with 21.8 ± 8.5% radiochemical yield and >99% radiochemical purity (n = 5) enabled a distribution study in rats and opened a path to straightforward large-scale production. A fast and clear kidney uptake could be observed, and this renal uptake could be selectively blocked by pretreatment with AT\(_1\)-selective antagonist valsartan. Overall, as the first \(^{18}\)F-labeled PET tracer based on a derivation from clinically used drug valsartan with almost identical chemical structure, [\(^{18}\)F]FV45 will be a new tool for assessing the RAS function by visualizing AT\(_i\) receptor distributions and providing further information regarding cardiovascular system malfunction as well as possible applications in inflammation research and cancer diagnosis.
During the last decades the number of biologics increased dramatically and several biopharmaceutical drugs such as peptides, therapeutic proteins, hormones, enzymes, vaccines, monoclonal antibodies and antibody-drug conjugates conquered the market. Moreover, administration and local delivery of growth factors has gained substantial importance in the field of tissue engineering. Despite progress that has been made over the last decades formulation and delivery of therapeutic proteins is still a challenge. Thus, we worked on formulation and delivery strategies of therapeutic proteins to improve their biological performance.
Phase I of this work deals with protein stability with the main focus on a liquid protein formulation of the dimeric fusion protein PR-15, a lesion specific platelet adhesion inhibitor. In order to develop an adequate formulation ensuring the stability and bioactivity of PR-15 during storage at 4 °C, a pH screening, a forced degradation and a Design of Experiments (DoE) was performed. First the stability and bioactivity of PR-15 in 50 mM histidine buffer in relation to pH was evaluated in a short-term storage stability study at 25 °C and 40 °C for 4 and 8 weeks using different analytical methods. Additionally, potential degradation pathways of PR-15 were investigated under stressed conditions such as heat treatment, acidic or basic pH, freeze-thaw cycles, light exposure, induced oxidation and induced deamidation during the forced degradation study. Moreover, we were able to identify the main degradation product of PR-15 by performing LC/ESI-MS analysis. Further optimization of the injectable PR 15 formulation concerning pH, the choice of buffer and the addition of excipients was studied in the following DoE and finally an optimal PR-15 formulation was found.
The growth factors BMP-2, IGF-I and TGF-β3 were selected for the differentiation of stem cells for tissue engineering of cartilage and bone in order to prepare multifunctionalized osteochondral implants for the regeneration of cartilage defects.
Silk fibroin (SF) was chosen as biomaterial because of its biocompatibility, mechanical properties and its opportunity for biofunctionalization. Ideal geometry of SF scaffolds with optimal porosity was found in order to generate both tissues on one scaffold.
The growth factors BMP-2 and IGF-I were modified to allow spatially restricted covalent immobilization on the generated porous SF scaffolds. In order to perform site-directed covalent coupling by the usage of click chemistry on two opposite sides of the scaffold, we genetically engineered BMP-2 (not shown in this work; performed by Barbara Tabisz) and IGF-I for the introduction of alkyne or azide bearing artificial amino acids. TGF β3 was immobilized to beads through common EDC/NHS chemistry requiring no modification and distributed in the pores of the entire scaffold.
For this reason protein modification, protein engineering, protein immobilization and bioconjugation are investigated in phase II. Beside the synthesis the focus was on the characterization of such modified proteins and its conjugates. The field of protein engineering offers a wide range of possibilities to modify existing proteins or to design new proteins with prolonged serum half-life, increased conformational stability or improved release rates according to their clinical use.
Site-directed click chemistry and non-site-directed EDC/NHS chemistry were used for bioconjugation and protein immobilization with the aim to underline the preferences of site-directed coupling.
We chose three strategies for the incorporation of alkyne or azide functionality for the performance of click reaction into the protein of interest: diazonium coupling reaction, PEGylation and genetic engineering. Azido groups were successfully introduced into SF by implementation of diazonium coupling and alkyne, amino or acid functionality was incorporated into FGF-2 as model protein by means of thiol PEGylation. The proper folding of FGF-2 after PEGylation was assessed by fluorescence spectroscopy, WST-1 proliferation assay ensured moderate bioactivity and the purity of PEGylated FGF-2 samples was monitored with RP-HPLC. Moreover, the modification of native FGF-2 with 10 kDa PEG chains resulted in enhanced thermal stability.
Additionally, we genetically engineered one IGF-I mutant by incorporating the unnatural amino acid propargyl-L-lysine (plk) at position 65 into the IGF-I amino acid sequence and were able to express hardly verifiable amounts of plk-IGF-I. Consequently, plk-IGF-I expression has to be further optimized in future studies in order to generate plk-IGF-I with higher yields.
Bioconjugation of PEGylated FGF-2 with functionalized silk was performed in solution and was successful for click as well as EDC/NHS chemistry. However, substantial amounts of unreacted PEG-FGF-2 were adsorbed to SF and could not be removed from the reaction mixture making it impossible to expose the advantages of click chemistry in relation to EDC/NHS chemistry. The immobilization of PEG-FGF-2 to microspheres was a trial to increase product yield and to remove unreacted PEG-FGF-2 from reaction mixture. Bound PEG-FGF-2 was visualized by fluorescence imaging or flow cytometry and bioactivity was assessed by analysis of the proliferation of NIH 3T3 cells. However, immobilization on beads raised the same issue as in solution: adsorption caused by electrostatic interactions of positively charged FGF-2 and negatively charged SF or beads. Finally, we were not able to prove superiority of site-directed click chemistry over non-site-directed EDC/NHS.
The skills and knowledge in protein immobilization as well as protein characterization acquired during phase II helped us in phase III to engineer cartilage tissue in biofunctionalized SF scaffolds.
The approach of covalent immobilization of the required growth factors is relevant because of their short in vivo half-lives and aimed at controlling their bioavailability. So TGF-β3 was covalently coupled by means of EDC/NHS chemistry to biocompatible and biostable PMMA beads. Herein, we directly compared bioactivity of covalently coupled and adsorbed TGF-β3. During the so-called luciferase assay bioactivity of covalent coupled as well as adsorbed TGF-β3 on PMMA beads was ensured. In order to investigate the real influence of EDC/NHS chemistry on TGF-β3’s bioactivity, the amount of immobilized TGF-β3 on PMMA beads was determined. Therefore, an ELISA method was established. The assessment of total amount of TGF-β3 immobilized on the PMMA beads allowed as to calculate coupling efficiency. A significantly higher coupling efficiency was determined for the coupling of TGF-β3 via EDC/NHS chemistry compared to the reaction without coupling reagents indicating a small amount of adsorbed TGF-β3. These results provide opportunity to determine the consequence of coupling by means of EDC/NHS chemistry for TGF β3 bioactivity. At first sight, no statistically significant difference between covalent immobilized and adsorbed TGF-β3 was observed regarding relative luciferase activities. But during comparison of total and active amount of TGF-β3 on PMMA beads detected by ELISA or luciferase assay, respectively, a decrease of TGF-β3’s bioactivity became apparent. Nevertheless, immobilized TGF β3 was further investigated in combination with SF scaffolds in order to drive BMSCs to the chondrogenic lineage. According to the results obtained through histological and immunohistochemical studies, biochemical assays as well as qRT-PCR of gene expression from BMSCs after 21 days in culture immobilized TGF-β3 was able to engineer cartilage tissue. These findings support the thesis that local presentation of TGF β3 is superior towards exogenous TGF β3 for the development of hyaline cartilage. Furthermore, we conclude that covalent immobilized TGF β3 is not only superior towards exogenously supplemented TGF-β3 but also superior towards adsorbed TGF-β3 for articular hyaline cartilage tissue engineering. Diffusion processes were inhibited through covalent immobilization of TGF-β3 to PMMA beads and thereby a stable and consistent TGF-β3 concentration was maintained in the target area.
With the knowledge acquired during phase II and III as well as during the studies of Barbara Tabisz concerning the expression and purification of plk-BMP-2 we made considerable progress towards the formation of multifunctionalized osteochondral implants for the regeneration of cartilage defects. However, further studies are required for the translation of these insights into the development of multifunctionalized osteochondral SF scaffolds.
Progressive loss of skeletal muscle mass, strength and function poses a major threat to independence and quality of life, particularly in the elderly. To date, sarcopenia therapy consists of resistance exercise training in combination with protein supplementation due to the limited efficacy of available pharmacological options in counteracting the effects of muscle wasting. Therapeutic intervention with growth factors including insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I) or inhibitors of myostatin a potent suppressor of myogenesis hold potential to rebalance the altered activity of anabolic and catabolic cytokines. However, dosing limitations due to acute side effects and disruptions of the homeostasis have so far precluded clinical application.
Intending to provide a therapy with a superior safety and efficacy profile by directing drug release to inflamed tissue and minimizing off-target activity, we designed bioresponsive delivery systems for an anti-catabolic peptide and anabolic IGF-I responding to local flares of muscle wasting.
In Chapter I, current concepts for bioorthogonal conjugation methods are discussed and evaluated based on various drug delivery applications. With a focus on protein delivery, challenges and potential pitfalls of each chemical and enzymatic conjugation strategy are analyzed and opportunities regarding their use for coupling of biomolecules are given. Based on various studies conjugating proteins to polymers, particles and biomaterials using different site-directed approaches, the chapter summarizes available strategies and highlights certain aspects requiring particular consideration when applied to biomolecules. Finally, a decision process for selection of an optimum conjugation strategy is exemplarily presented.
Three of these bioorthogonal coupling reactions are applied in Chapter II detailing the potential of site-directed conjugation in the development of novel, homogenous drug delivery systems. The chapter describes the design of a delivery system of a myostatin inhibitor (MI) for controlled and local release counteracting myositis flares. MI release from the carrier is driven by increased matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) levels in compromised muscle tissues cleaving the interposed linker, thereby releasing the peptide inhibitor from the particulate carrier. Release experiments were performed to assess the response towards various MMP isoforms (MMP-1, -8, -9 and -13) – as upregulated during skeletal muscle myopathies – and the release pattern of the MI in case of disease progression was analyzed. By selection of the protease-sensitive linker (PSL) showing variable susceptibilities to proteases, release rates of the MI can be controlled and adapted. Immobilized MI as well as released MI as response to MMP upregulation was able to antagonize the effects of myostatin on cell signalling and myoblast differentiation.
The approach of designing bioresponsive protein delivery systems was also applied to the anabolic growth factor IGF-I, as described in Chapter III. Numerous studies of PEGylated proteins or peptides reveal, that successful therapy is challenged by safety and efficacy issues, as polymer attachment considerably alters the properties of the biologic, thereby jeopardizing clinical efficacy. To this end, a novel promising approach is presented, intending to exploit beneficial effects of PEGylation on pharmacokinetics, but addressing the pharmacodynamic challenges by releasing the protein upon entering the target tissue. This was realized by integration of a PSL between the PEG moiety and the protein. The soluble polymer conjugate was produced by site-directed, enzymatic conjugation of IGF-I to the PSL, followed by attachment of a 30 kDa-PEG using Strain-promoted azide-alkyne cycloaddition (SPAAC). This strategy illustrates the potential of bioorthogonal conjugation (as described in Chapter I) for generation of homogenous protein-polymer conjugates with reproducible outcome, but also emphasizes the altered protein properties resulting from permanent polymer conjugation. As compared to wild type IGF-I, the PEGylated protein showed considerable changes in pharmacologic effects – such as impaired insulin-like growth factor binding protein (IGFBPs) interactions, submaximal proliferative activity and altered endocytosis patterns. In contrast, IGF-I characteristics were fully restored upon local disintegration of the conjugate triggered by MMP upregulation and release of the natural growth factor.
For successful formulation development for the proteins and conjugates, the careful selection of suitable excipients is crucial for a safe and reliable therapy. Chapter IV addresses one aspect by highlighting the chemical heterogeneity of excipients and associated differences in performance. Polysorbate 80 (PS80) is a surfactant frequently used in protein formulations to prevent aggregation and surface adsorption. Despite being widely deployed as a standard excipient, heterogeneous composition and performance entails the risk of eliciting degradation and adverse effects on protein stability. Based on a comprehensive study using different batches of various suppliers, the PS80 products were characterized regarding chemical composition and physicochemical properties, facilitating the assessment of excipient performance in a formulation. Noticeable deviations were recorded between different suppliers as well as between batches of the same suppliers. Correlation of all parameters revealed, that functionality related characteristics (FRCs) could be reliably predicted based on chemical composition alone or by a combination of chemical and physicochemical properties, respectively.
In summary, this thesis describes and evaluates novel strategies for the targeted delivery and controlled release of biologics intended to counteract the imbalance of anabolic and catabolic proteins observed during aging and musculoskeletal diseases. Two delivery platforms were developed and characterized in vitro – (i) using anti-catabolic peptides immobilized on a carrier for local delivery and (ii) using soluble IGF-I polymer conjugates for systemic application. Both approaches were implemented by bioorthogonal coupling strategies, which were carefully selected in consideration of limitations, side reactions and efficiency aspects. Bioresponsive release of the active biomolecules following increased protease activity could be successfully realized. The therapeutic potential of these approaches was demonstrated using various cell-based potency assays. The systems allow targeted and controlled release of the growth factor IGF-I and anti-catabolic peptides thereby overcoming safety concerns of current growth factor therapy and thus positively impacting the benefit-risk profile of potent therapeutics. Taking potential heterogeneity and by-product concerns into account, comprehensive excipient characterization was performed and a predictive algorithm for FRCs developed, in order to facilitate formulation design and guarantee a safe and efficient therapy from start to finish.
Alzheimer’s disease is a complex network of several pathological hallmarks. These characteristics always occur concomitantly and cannot be taken as distinct features of the disease. While there are hypotheses trying to explain the origin and progression of the illness, none of them is able to pinpoint a definitive cause. This fact challenges researchers not to focus on one individual hallmark but, bearing in mind the big picture, target two or more indications at once. This work, therefore, addresses two of the major characteristics of AD: the cholinergic hypothesis and neurotoxic oxidative stress. The former was achieved by targeting the postsynaptic muscarinic M1 acetylcholine receptor to further investigate its pharmacology, and the latter with the synthesis of neuroprotective natural antioxidant hybrids.
The first aim was the design and synthesis of dualsteric agonists of the muscarinic M1 acetylcholine receptor. Activation of this receptor was previously shown to improve AD pathologies like the formation of Aβ and NFTs and protect against oxidative stress and caspase activation. Selectively targeting the M1 receptor is difficult as subtypes M1 – M5 of the muscarinic AChRs largely share the same orthosteric binding pocket. Orthosteric ligands are thus unsuitable for selective activation of one specific subtype. Secondary, allosteric binding sites are more diverse between subtypes. Allosteric ligands are, however, in most cases dependent on an orthosteric ligand to cause downstream signals. Dualsteric ligands thus utilize the characteristics of both orthosteric and allosteric ligands in form of a message-address concept. Bridged by an alkylene-linker, the allosteric part ensures selectivity, whereas the orthosteric moiety initiates receptor activation. Two sets of compounds were synthesised in this sense. In both cases, the orthosteric ligand carbachol is connected to an allosteric ligand via linkers of different chain length. The first set utilizes the selective allosteric M1 agonist TBPB, the second set employs the selective M1 positive allosteric modulator BQCA. Six compounds were obtained in twelve-step syntheses each. For each one, a reference compound lacking the carbachol moiety was synthesised. The dualsteric ligands 1a-c and 2a c were tested in the IP1 assay. The assay revealed that the TBPB-dualsterics 1 are not able to activate the receptor, whereas the respective TBPB-alkyl reference compounds 27 gave signals depending on the length of the alkylene-linker, suggesting allosteric partial agonism of alkyl compounds 27 and no dualsteric binding of the putatively dualsteric compounds 1. The dualsteric BQCA molecules 2, however, activated the receptor as expected. Efficacy of the C5 linked compound 2b was the highest, yet C3 and C8 compounds (2a and 2c) also showed partial agonism. In this case, the reference compounds 31 showed no receptor activation, implying the intended dualsteric binding mode of the BQCA-carbachol compounds 2. Further investigations will be conducted by the working group of Dr. Christian Tränkle at the Department of Pharmacology at the University of Bonn to confirm binding modes and determine affinities as well as selectivity of the synthesised dualsteric compounds.
The second project dealt with the design, synthesis and biological evaluation of neuroprotective esters of the flavonolignan silibinin. While silibinin is already a potent antioxidant, it has been observed that the 7-OH group has a pro-oxidative character, making this position attractive for functionalisation. In order to obtain more potent antioxidants, the pro-oxidative position was esterified with other antioxidant moieties like ferulic acid 35 and derivatives thereof. Seventeen esters of silibinin 32, including pure diastereomers of 7 O feruloylsilibinin (43a and 43b) and a cinnamic acid ester of 2,3-dehydrosilibinin 46, were synthesised by regioselective esterification using acyl chlorides under basic conditions. The physicochemical antioxidant properties were assessed in the FRAP assay. This assay revealed no improvement of the antioxidant properties except for 7-O-dihydrosinapinoylsilibinin 39b. These results, however, do not correlate with the neuroprotective properties determined in the HT-22 hippocampal neuronal cell model. The assay showed overadditive neuroprotective effects of the esters exceeding those of its components and equimolar mixtures with the most potent compounds being 7-O-cinnamoylsilibinin 37a, 7-O-feruloylsilibinin 38a and the acetonide-protected caffeic acid ester 40a. These potent Michael system bearing compounds may be considered as “PAINS”, but the assays used to assess antioxidant and neuroprotective activities were carefully chosen to avoid false positive readouts. The most potent compounds 37a and 38a, as well as the diastereomers 43a and 43b, were further studied in assays related to AD. In vitro ischemia, inhibition of microglial activation, PC12 cell differentiation and inhibition of Aβ42 and τ protein aggregation assays showed similar results in terms of overadditive effects of the synthesised esters. Moreover, the diastereomers 43a and 43b showed differences in their activities against oxytosis (glutamate-induced apoptosis), inhibition of Aβ42 and τ protein aggregation, and PC12 cell differentiation. The stereospecific effect or mode of action against Aβ42 and τ protein aggregation is more pronounced than that of silybin A (32a) and silybin B (32b) reported in literature and needs to be elucidated in future work. Stability measurements in cell culture medium revealed that the esters do not only get hydrolysed but are partially oxidised to their respective 2,3-dehydrosilibinin esters. Because dehydrosilibinin 45 itself is described as a more potent antioxidant than silibinin 32, 7 O cinnamoyl-2,3-dehydrosilibinin 46 was expected to be even more potent than its un-oxidised counterpart 37a in terms of neuroprotection. The oxytosis assay, however, showed that the neurotoxicity of 46 is much more pronounced, especially at higher concentrations, reducing its neuroprotective potential. Dehydrosilibinin esters are therefore inferior to the silibinin esters for application as neuroprotectants, because of the difficulty of their synthesis and their increased neurotoxicity. A synergistic effect of both species (silibinin and the oxidised form) might, however, be possible or even necessary for the pronounced neuroprotective effects of silibinin esters. As the dehydro-species show distinct neuroprotective properties at low concentrations, their continuous formation over time might make an essential contribution to the overall neuroprotection of the synthesised esters. Due to solubility issues for some of the ester compounds, 7-O-cinnamoylsilibinin 37a was converted into a highly soluble hemisuccinate. The vastly improved solubility of 7 O cinnamoyl-23-O-succinylsilibinin 48 was confirmed in shake-flask experiments. Contrary to expectation, stability examinations showed that the succinyl compound 48 is not cleaved to form 7-O-cinnamoylsilibinin 37a. Neuroprotection assays confirmed that 48 is not a prodrug of the corresponding ester. It was determined that the main site of hydrolysis is the 7-position, cleaving 37 to silibinin 32 and cinnamic acid thus reducing the compound’s neuroprotective effects. Nevertheless, the compound still showed neuroprotection at a concentration of 25 µM. The improved solubility might be more beneficial than the higher neuroprotection of the poorly soluble parent compound 37a in vivo. 7 O Cinnamoylsilibinin 37a was further investigated to reduce Aβ25 35 induced learning impairment in mice. While tendencies of improved short-term and long-term memory in the animals were observed, the effects are not yet statistically significant in both Y-maze and passive avoidance tests. A greater number of test subjects is necessary to ensure correctness of the preliminary results presented in this work. However, an effect of ester 37a is observable in vivo, showing blood-brain barrier penetration. The esters synthesised are a novel approach for the treatment of AD as they show strong neuroprotective effects and their hydrolysis products or metabolites are only non-toxic natural products.
Substandard and falsified (SF) medicines have emerged as a global public health issue within the last two decades especially in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). Serious consequences of this problem include a loss of trust and increased financial costs due to less disease control and more frequent complications during therapy. Of note, antimicrobial resistance is an additional long-term implication of poor-quality antimicrobials. This review covers information technology tools including medicines authentication tools (MAT) as mobile apps and messaging service, 2D barcoding approaches with drug safety alert systems, web based drug safety alerts, radiofrequency identification tags, databases to support visual inspection, digital aids to enhance the performance of quality evaluation kits, reference libraries for identification of falsified and substandard medicines, and quality evaluation kits based on machine learning for field testing. While being easy to access and simple to use, these initiatives are gaining acceptance in LMICs. Implementing 2D barcoding based on end-to-end verification and "Track and Trace" systems has emerged as a step toward global security in the supply chain. A breakthrough in web-based drug safety alert systems and data bases was the establishment of the Global Surveillance and Monitoring System by the World Health Organization in 2013. Future applications include concepts including "lab on a chip" and "paper analytical devices" and are claimed to be convenient and simple to use as well as affordable. The principles discussed herein are making profound impact in the fight against substandard and falsified medicines, offering cheap and accessible solutions.
The cholinergic hypothesis has been reported first being the cause of memory dysfunction in the Alzheimer’s disease. Researchers around the globe have focused their attention on understanding the mechanisms of how this complicated system contributes to processes such as learning, memory, disorientation, linguistic problems, and behavioral issues in the indicated chronic neurodegenerative disease. The present review reports recent updates in hybrid molecule design as a strategy for selectively addressing multiple target proteins involved in Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and the study of their therapeutic relevance. The rationale and the design of the bifunctional compounds will be discussed in order to understand their potential as tools to investigate the role of the cholinergic system in AD.
Drug delivery of therapeutic gases – strategies for controlled and local delivery of carbon monoxide
(2017)
The isoenzyme heme oxygenase 1 (HO-1) is a key element for maintaining cellular homeostasis. Upregulated in response to cellular stress, the HO-1 degrades heme into carbon monoxide (CO), biliverdin, and Fe2+. By means of a local cell-protective feedback loop the enzyme triggers numerous effects including anti-oxidative, anti-apoptotic, and anti-inflammatory events associated with complex signalling patterns which are largely orchestrated by CO. Various approaches to mimic this physiological HO-1 / CO system aiming for a treatment of medical conditions have been described [1]. These preclinical studies commonly applied CO systemically via (i) inhalation or (ii) using CO-Releasing Molecules (CORMs) [2]. The clinical use of these approaches, however, is challenged by a lack of practicability and substantial safety issues associated with the toxicity of high systemic doses of CO that are required for triggering therapeutic effects. Therefore, one rational of this thesis is to describe and evaluate strategies for the local delivery of CO aiming for safe and effective CO therapeutics of tomorrow.
The inhibitory glycine receptors are one of the major mediators of rapid synaptic inhibition in the mammalian brainstem, spinal cord and higher brain centres. They are ligand-gated ion channels that are mainly involved in the regulation of motor functions. Dysfunction of the receptor is associated with motor disorders such as hypereklepxia or some forms of spasticity. GlyR is composed of two glycosylated integral membrane proteins α and β and a peripheral membrane protein of gephyrin. Moreover, there are four known isoforms of the α-subunit (α1-4) of GlyR while there is a single β-subunit. Glycine receptors can be homomeric including α subunits only or heteromeric containing both α and β subunits. To date, strychnine is the ligand that has the highest affinity as glycine receptor ligand. It acts as a competitive antagonist of glycine that results in the inhibition of Cl- ions permeation and consequently reducing GlyR-mediated inhibition.
For a long time, the details of the molecular mechanism of GlyRs inactivation by strychnine were insufficient due to the lack of high-resolution structures of the receptor. Only homology models based on structures of other cys-loop receptors have been available. Recently, 3.0 Å X-ray structure of the human glycine receptor- α3 homopentamer in complex with strychnine, as well as electro cryo-microscopy structures of the zebra fish α1 GlyR in complex with strychnine and glycine were published. Such information provided detailed insight into the molecular recognition of agonists and antagonists and mechanisms of GlyR activation and inactivation.
Very recently, a series of dimeric strychnine analogs obtained by diamide formation of two molecules of 2-aminostrychnine with diacids of different chain length was pharmacologically evaluated at human α1 and α1β glycine receptors. None of the dimeric analogs was superior to strychnine.
The present work focused on the extension of the structure-activity relationships of strychnine derivatives at glycine receptors
All the synthesized compounds were pharmacologically evaluated at human α1 and α1β glycine receptors in a functional FLIPRTM assay and the most potent analogs were pharmacologically evaluated in a whole cell patch-clamp assay and in [3H]strychnine binding studies.
It was reported that 11-(E)-isonitrosostrychnine displayed a 2-times increased binding to both α1 and α1β glycine receptors which prompted us to choose the hydroxyl group as a suitable attachment point to connect two 11-(E)-isonitrosostrychnine molecules using a spacer. In order to explore the GlyR pocket tolerance for oxime extension, a series of oxime ethers with different spacer lengths and sterical/lipophilic properties were synthesized biologically evaluated. Among all the oxime ethers, methyl, allyl and propagyl oxime ethers were the most potent antagonists displaying IC50 values similar to that of strychnine. These findings indicated that strychnine binding site at GlyRs comprises an additional small lipophilic pocket located in close proximity to C11 of strychnine and the groups best accommodated in this pocket are (E)-allyl and (E)-propagyl oxime ethers.
Moreover, 11-aminostrychnine, and the corresponding propionamide were prepared and pharmacologically evaluated to examine the amide function at C11 as potential linker.
A series of dimeric strychnine analogs designed by linking two strychnine molecules through amino groups in position 11 with diacids were synthesized and tested in binding studies and functional assays at human α1 and α1β glycine receptors. The synthesized bivalent ligands were designed to bind simultaneously to two α-subunits of the pentameric glycine receptors causing a possibly stronger inhibition than the monomeric strychnine. However, all the bivalent derivatives showed no significant difference in potency compared to strychnine. When comparing the reference monomeric propionamide containing ethylene spacer to the dimeric ligand containing butylene spacer, a 3-fold increase in potency was observed. Since the dimer containing (CH2)10 spacer length was found to be equipotent to strychnine, it is assumed that one molecule of strychnine binds to the receptor and the ‘additional’ strychnine molecule in the dimer probably protrudes from the orthosteric binding sites of the receptor.
Synthesis of Dualsteric Ligands for Muscarinic Acetylcholine Receptors and Cholinesterase Inhibitors
(2017)
The study is dealing with the synthesis and pharmacological investigation of newly designed dualsteric ligands of muscarinic acetylcholine receptors belonging to the superfamily of G protein-coupled receptors. Such bipharmacophoric ligands combine the advantages of the orthosteric binding site (high-affinity) and of the topographically distinct allosteric binding site (subtype-selectivity) resulting in compounds with reduced side effects. This opens the way to a new therapeutic approach in the treatment of e.g. chronic pain, drug withdrawal, Parkinson`s and Alzheimer`s disease. Furthermore, the newly synthesized dualsteric compounds were pharmacologically investigated in order to get a better understanding of the activation and signaling processes in muscarinic acetylcholine receptors, especially with regard to partial agonism.
The development of the “dynamic ligand binding” concept offers new perspectives for ligand binding and signaling at G protein-coupled receptors. GPCRs are no longer considered as simple on/off switches. Dualsteric ligands can bind in a dualsteric pose, reflecting an active receptor state as well as in a purely allosteric binding pose, characterized by an inactive receptor state resulting in partial agonism. The degree of partial agonism depends on the ratio of active versus inactive receptor populations. On this basis, orthosteric/orthosteric hybrid ligands consisting of the antagonist atropine and scopolamine, respectively, as well as of the agonist iperoxo and isoxazole, respectively, linked via different alkyl chain length were synthesized in order to investigate partial agonism (Figure 1).
Figure 1: Structures of the synthesized iperoxo/isoxazole-atropine/scopolamine-hybrids.
Furthermore, different sets of quaternary and tertiary homodimers consisting either of two iperoxo or two acetylcholine units were synthesized in order to study their extent on partial agonism (Figure 2). The two agonists were connected by varying alkyl chain length. Binding studies on CHO-hM2 cells of the quaternary compounds revealed that dimerization of the agonist results in a loss of potency. The iperoxo-dimers reached higher maximum effects on the Gi- as well as on the Gs pathway in comparison to the acetylcholine-dimers. Besides the choice of the orthosteric building block (potency of the agonist), the alkyl chain length is also crucial for the degree of partial agonism.
Figure 2: Structures of the synthesized quat./tert. iperoxo/acetylcholine-homodimers.
Quinolone-based hybrids connected to the superagonist iperoxo and to the endogenous ligand acetylcholine, respectively, linked through an alkyl chain of different length were synthesized in order to develop further partial agonists (Figure 3). FRET studies confirmed M1 subtype-selectivity as well as linker dependent receptor response. The greatest positive FRET signal was observed with quinolone-C6-iper resulting from a positive cooperativity between the two separated moieties, alloster and orthoster. However, the corresponding hybrids with a longer linker led to an inverse FRET signal indicating a different binding mode, e.g. purely allosteric, in contrast to the shorter linked hybrids. Furthermore, the flexible alkyl spacer was replaced by a rigidified linker resulting in the hybrid quinolone-rigid-iperoxo (Figure 3). FRET studies on the M1 receptor showed reduced FRET kinetics, resulting from interactions between the bulky linker and the aromatic lid, located between the orthosteric and allosteric binding site. A bitopic binding mode of the rigidified hybrid is presumed. For further clarity, mutational studies are necessary.
Figure 3: M1-selective hybrid compounds.
Another aim of this work was the design and synthesis of new hybrid compounds, acting as agonists at the M1 and M2 receptor and as inhibitors for AChE and BChE in the context of M. Alzheimer. Several sets of hybrid compounds consisting of different pharmacophoric units (catalytic active site: phthalimide, naphthalimide, tacrine; peripheric anionic site: iperoxo, isoxazole) linked through a polymethylene chain of varying length were synthesized. Tac-C10-iper (Figure 4), consisting of tacrine and the superagonist iperoxo linked by a C10 polymethylene spacer, was found to have excellent anticholinesterase activity for both AChE (pIC50 = 9.81) and BChE (pIC50 = 8.75). Docking experiments provided a structural model to rationalize the inhibitory power towards AChE. Additionally, the tacrine related hybrids showed affinity to the M1 and M2 receptor. Such compounds, addressing more than one molecular target are favorable for multifactorial diseases such as Alzheimer.
Figure 4: Structure of the most active compound regarding anticholinesterase activity.
In summary, the choice of the pharmacophoric units, their connecting point as well as the nature, length, and flexibility of the linker play an important role for the activity of designed bivalent ligands. A shorter linker length cannot bridge both binding sites simultaneously in contrast to longer linker chains. On the other hand, too long linker chains can result in unwanted steric interactions. Further investigations with respect to structural variations of hybrid compounds, with or without quaternary ammonium groups, are necessary in the light of drug development.
Background:
According to only a handful of historical sources, Osmunda regalis, the royal fern, has been used already in the middle age as an anti-cancer remedy. To examine this ancient cancer cure, an ethanolic extract of the roots was prepared and analysed in vitro on its effectiveness against head and neck cancer cell lines.
Methods:
Proliferation inhibition was measured with the MTT assay. Invasion inhibition was tested in a spheroid-based 3-D migration assay on different extracellular matrix surfaces. Corresponding changes in gene expression were analysed by qRT-PCR array. Induction of apoptosis was measured by fluorescence activated cell sorting (FACS) with the Annexin V binding method. The plant extract was analysed by preliminary phytochemical tests, liquid chromatography/mass spectroscopy (LC-MS) and thin layer chromatography (TLC). Anti-angiogenetic activity was determined by the tube formation assay.
Results:
O. regalis extract revealed a growth inhibiting effect on the head and neck carcinoma cell lines HLaC78 and FaDu. The toxic effect seems to be partially modulated by p-glycoprotein, as the MDR-1 expressing HLaC79-Tax cells were less sensitive. O. regalis extract inhibited the invasion of cell lines on diverse extracellular matrix substrates significantly. Especially the dispersion of the highly motile cell line HlaC78 on laminin was almost completely abrogated. Motility inhibition on laminin was accompanied by differential gene regulation of a variety of genes involved in cell adhesion and metastasis. Furthermore, O. regalis extract triggered apoptosis in HNSCC cell lines and inhibited tube formation of endothelial cells. Preliminary phytochemical analysis proved the presence of tannins, glycosides, steroids and saponins. Liquid chromatography/mass spectroscopy (LC-MS) revealed a major peak of an unknown substance with a molecular mass of 864.15 Da, comprising about 50% of the total extract. Thin layer chromatography identified ferulic acid to be present in the extract.
Conclusion:
The presented results justify the use of royal fern extracts as an anti-cancer remedy in history and imply a further analysis of ingredients.
A successful therapy for colorectal cancer (CRC), one of the most common malignancies worldwide, requires the greatest possible research effort. Of critical importance is an understanding of the relevant intracellular networks of signaling cascades, their activation, and the resulting cellular changes that are a prerequisite for a more successful CRC therapy. Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and the appropriate VEGF receptors represent molecular targets that have already been successfully implemented in the clinic (i.e. using monoclonal antibodies, tyrosine kinase inhibitors). However, for platelet derived growth factor (PDGF) and the relevant PDGF receptors, there are currently no clinically approved molecular therapeutics available. However, there are preliminary data to show that PDGF and its associated signaling pathways play an important role in CRC progression. In particular, the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway is emerging as an important intracellular partner of PDGF with which to control proliferation, migration, and angiogenesis in tumor cells.
Therefore it was the objective of this work to investigate the multifactorial influence of PDGF on proliferation and metabolism, depending on CRC mutation status. The intention was to identify new therapeutic targets for future cancer therapy through analyses of PDGF-induced intracellular changes.
For this purpose two human colorectal cancer cell lines were analyzed at gene and/or protein level for components of the PI3K/Akt/mTOR and MAPK signaling pathway, c-Myc, p53, and HIF1α (hypoxia-inducible-factor 1α). Changes in proliferation and metabolism, either during stimulation with PDGF and/or PI3K/Akt/mTOR inhibition, were also investigated. Experiments conducted at protein level during PDGF stimulation and/or PI3K/Akt/mTOR inhibition revealed changes in signaling pathways and crosstalk. The influence of the tumor suppressors (retinoblastoma, Rb), oncogenes (c-Myc, p53mut), and HIF1α during stimulation with PDGF, and their interactions in the tumor cell with respect to proliferation and glycolysis warrant further examination in terms of clinical treatment options. Investigations at the gene level of ex vivo samples (UICC I-IV) complete the study with regards to the clinical relevance of PDGF.
PDGF stimulation increases tumor cell proliferation in HT29 cells via the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway rather than the MAPK pathway. However, if the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway is pharmacologically blocked, PDGF stimulation is mediated by inhibitory crosstalk through the MAPK pathway. Further analyses revealed that specific Akt inhibition impedes tumor cell growth, while PI3K inhibition had little effect on proliferation. Inhibitory crosstalk was found to be responsible for these different effects. Careful intervention strategies are therefore required if future therapies intend to make use of these specific signaling pathways. One aim of future research should be to gain a better understanding of the crosstalk between these signaling pathways. In this fashion, “over-inhibition” of the signal pathways, which would result in additional clinical side effects for patients, could be prevented.
In late stage UICC, more mutation events occur, with tumorigenicity promoted by an increased mutation rate. Given that PDGF is increasingly expressed in the late UICC stages, our data would indicate that PDGF's effects are amplified with increasing malignancy. The activating effect of PDGF on the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway and subsequent changes in the activity of p53mut, Rb, c-Myc, and HIF1α, lead to an unfavorable prognosis for colon cancer patients. PDGF acts on colon cancer cells in an Akt-activating, glycolysis-dependent manner. PDGF increases glycolysis and the ability of CRC cells to adjust their energy metabolism. These activities should be taken as possible starting points with which to design therapeutic interventions for CRC therapy.
PDGF, as another representative of the growth factor family, seems to play a similar role to VEGF in CRC. The data from this study underline the importance of the PDGF - PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway-axis and its potential as a possible target in colorectal cancer. Thus PDGF represents an attractive therapeutic target, besides the VEGF/EGFR-based therapies already used in CRC.
Background:
The standardized maritime pine bark extract (Pycnogenol\(^{®}\)) has previously shown symptom alleviating effects in patients suffering from moderate forms of knee osteoarthritis (OA). The cellular mechanisms for this positive impact are so far unknown. The purpose of the present randomized pilot controlled study was to span the knowledge gap between the reported clinical effects of Pycnogenol\(^{®}\) and its in vivo mechanism of action in OA patients.
Methods:
Thirty three patients with severe OA scheduled for a knee arthroplasty either received 100 mg of Pycnogenol\(^{®}\) twice daily or no treatment (control group) three weeks before surgery. Cartilage, synovial fluid and serum samples were collected during surgical intervention. Relative gene expression of cartilage homeostasis markers were analyzed in the patients' chondrocytes. Inflammatory and cartilage metabolism mediators were investigated in serum and synovial fluid samples.
Results:
The oral intake of Pycnogenol\(^{®}\) downregulated the gene expression of various cartilage degradation markers in the patients' chondrocytes, the decrease of MMP3, MMP13 and the pro-inflammatory cytokine IL1B were statistically significant (p ≤ 0.05). Additionally, protein concentrations of ADAMTS-5 in serum were reduced significantly (p ≤ 0.05) after three weeks intake of the pine bark extract.
Conclusions:
This is the first report about positive cellular effects of a dietary supplement on key catabolic and inflammatory markers in patients with severe OA. The results provide a rational basis for understanding previously reported clinical effects of Pycnogenol\(^{®}\) on symptom scores of patients suffering from OA.
Our ability of screening broad communities for clinically asymptomatic diseases critically drives population health. Sensory chewing gums are presented targeting the tongue as 24/7 detector allowing diagnosis by “anyone, anywhere, anytime”. The chewing gum contains peptide sensors consisting of a protease cleavable linker in between a bitter substance and a microparticle. Matrix metalloproteinases in the oral cavity, as upregulated in peri-implant disease, specifically target the protease cleavable linker while chewing the gum, thereby generating bitterness for detection by the tongue. The peptide sensors prove significant success in discriminating saliva collected from patients with peri-implant disease versus clinically asymptomatic volunteers. Superior outcome is demonstrated over commercially available protease-based tests in saliva. “Anyone, anywhere, anytime” diagnostics are within reach for oral inflammation. Expanding this platform technology to other diseases in the future features this diagnostic as a massive screening tool potentially maximizing impact on population health.
The aim of the present work was to determine the breast adipose tissue composition regarding fatty acids, cholesterol and (aut)oxidation products of cholesterol in women without breast cancer and to identify associated variables. Thus the necessary methods were optimized and validated where required and the breast adipose tissues of women without breast cancer were collected and analyzed.
The gas chromatography with flame ionization detection was optimized for detection and separation of 37 relevant fatty acids. Fifty breast adipose tissues were analyzed using the optimized method. 26 fatty acids were detected in breast adipose tissues. The median proportion of saturated (sum of 11 fatty acids), monounsaturated (sum of 5 fatty acids), polyunsaturated (sum of 9 fatty acids) and one trans fatty acid were 34.6%, 53.2%, 12.1% and 0.3% respectively. Moreover, absolute levels of pentadecanoic acid (median: 0.37 mg/g, range: 0.08 - 1.31 mg/g), elaidic acid (median: 0.50 mg/g, range: 0.09 - 1.92 mg/g), linolenic acid (median: 0.88 mg/g, range: 0.10 - 3.06 mg/g) and docosahexaenoic acid (median: 0.31 mg/g, range: 0.04 - 1.80 mg/g) were determined in breast adipose tissues for the first time. These four fatty acids are indicative for consumption of dairy products, processed fats, vegetable oils such as flax seed oil and fish respectively.
Furthermore, for the investigation of cholesterol in breast adipose tissues a gas chromatography was optimized and validated. The accuracies of the method in three independent spiked samples with low, medium and high levels of cholesterol were 99.1 ± 10.1%, 87.0 ± 11.2%, and 103.4 ± 4.6% with precisions of 2.1, 2.1, and 0.8% respectively. Using external calibration with internal standard cholesterol was quantified in samples (median: 1.1 mg/g, range: 0.7 - 1.5 mg/g).
In order to detect (aut)oxidation products of cholesterol, gas chromatography coupled triple quadrupole mass spectrometry was optimized and validated. The accuracy was between 81.6% and 115.7% and precisions for low, medium and high oxy-cholesterols levels were below 10.0%. The quantitative determination of (aut)oxidation products of cholesterol was established using external calibration with an internal standard. The most abundant oxy-cholesterol was 5,6β-Epoxy- (median: 147.2 ng/g, range: 25.7 – 624.2 ng/g), followed by 5,6α-Epoxy- (median: 34.6 ng/g, range: 9.9 – 124.7 ng/g), 7-Keto- (median: 19.1 ng/g, range: 7.9 – 220.6 ng/g), 7α-Hydroxy- (median: 10.2 ng/g, range: 3.8 – 111.3 ng/g) and 7β-Hydroxy-Cholesterol (median: 3.5 ng/g, range: 1.0 – 45.6 ng/g) respectively. Median oxy-cholesterol/cholesterol ratios ranged from 0.0001 (5,6β-Epoxy-Cholesterol) to 0.000003 (7β-Hydroxy-Cholesterol).
Finally the associations between fatty acids, cholesterol and oxy-cholesterol were investigated using Spearman’s rank correlation. Absolute levels of elaidic acid were positively correlated with levels of linolenic and docosahexaenoic acid (R = 0.79, 0.68, p < 0.01). Absolute levels of linolenic acid were positively associated with levels of docosahexaenoic acid (R = 0.81, p < 0.01). Moreover, relative proportions of saturated fatty acids capric, myristic, palmitic and stearic acid were negatively correlated with oleic acid (R = -0.36, -0.71, -0.65, -0.39, p < 0.05). Tissue levels of cholesterol were not correlated with levels of 5,6α/β-Epoxy-Cholesterols but were negatively associated with that of 7α-Hydroxy-, 7β-Hydroxy- and 7-Keto-Cholesterol (R = -0.29, -0.32, -0.29 p = 0.04, 0.02, 0.04). Levels of 7-Keto- and 7-Hydoxy-Cholesterol were strongly correlated with each other (R = 0.81, 0.91, p < 0.01) and, weaker, with 5,6α/β-Epoxy-Cholesterols (R = 0.60-0.70, p < 0.01). 5,6α/β-Epoxy-Cholesterols were associated positively with each other (R = 0.90, P < 0.01). Total oxy-cholesterol, 7β-Hydroxy-Cholesterol, and 5,6β-Epoxy-Cholesterol levels were correlated with relative proportions of elaidic acid (R = 0.30, 0.30, and 0.31 respectively, p = 0.04, 0.03, 0.03, respectively), whereas no correlation was observed between levels of oxy-cholesterols and relative proportion of pentadecanoic acid, linolenic acid and docosahexaenoic acid.
Furthermore, Spearman’s rank correlation was performed to investigate the relationship of fatty acids, cholesterol and oxy-cholesterol with age and body mass index. The relative proportions of total saturated fatty acids were negatively correlated with age (R = -0.47, p < 0.01) and body mass index (R = -0.29, p = 0.05). A positive significant correlation was observed between proportions of oleic acid and body mass index (R = 0.32, p = 0.02). There was no correlation between levels of cholesterol and body mass index or age. Likewise, no correlations of oxy-cholesterol levels with age or body mass index were observed.
In sum, in this work the quantification methods of cholesterol and oxy-cholesterol were validated. The validation data met the criteria according to the FDA guideline. Using the validated methods the absolute levels of cholesterol and oxy-cholesterols were determined in breast adipose tissue of human females for the first time.
Successful formulation development of novel, particularly organic APIs of low molecular weight as candidates for ground-breaking pharmaceutical products is a major challenge for the pharmaceutical industry because of the poor aqueous solubility of most of these compounds.
The hit identification strategies of drug development in use today apply high throughput screening techniques for the investigation of thousands of substances. This approach led to a systematical increase in molecular weight and lipophilicity and a decrease of water solubility of lead compounds reaching market access.
The high lipophilicity causes an excellent permeability of the compounds which favours the absorption process from the small intestine, but it causes a decrease of water-solubility. It becomes evident that an adequate aqueous solubility is necessary for absorption of the API from the gastrointestinal fluids into the systemic circulation and hence for efficacy of the pharmaceutical product. Only an dissolved API is getting absorbed and becomes efficacious. The precipitated proportion is resigned directly. Therefore, the development of an individual formulation aligning the physicochemical characteristics is necessary for every API to produce supersaturated solutions in the small intestine and to reach an adequate bioavailability after absorption into the systemic circulation.
In this thesis a specific formulation development was investigated for two exemplary poorly water-soluble APIs to replace the empirical approach often used today. The basic tyrosine-kinase inhibitor imatinib and six different acetylated amino acids were transferred into ILs. As compared to the free base and the mesylate salt, which is marketed by Novartis AG as Gleevec®, the dissolution rate as well as the supersaturation time was increased significantly. By changing the mesylate anion with its potential genotoxic risks, the total toxicity of the drug product could be decreased. The amorphous ILs proved adequate stability under forcing conditions and there was no recrystallization of the free base observed. The amorphous character of the ILs caused an increased amount of water vapour sorption which can be compensated by special packaging materials. Taken together, the presentation of imatinib as an IL is intended for oral administration as a tablet and can cause a reduction of dose because of the increased solubility. Therefore, the occurrence of side effects can be reduced as compared to Gleevec®. If there is actually an increased bioavailability to observe, has to be proved by the execution of animal trials.
The novel NOX inhibitor VAS3947 is intended for the treatment of endothelial dysfunctions causing diseases like heart failure and stroke. The compounds poor aqueous solubility hindered further clinical development so far and make the drug candidate to remain in a very early stage of the drug development process. Therefore, different formulation concepts were evaluated in this study:
An amorphous solid dispersion prepared from VAS3947 and Eudragit® L100 by means of spray drying was able to increase the dissolution rate and solubility of the compound significantly, but with the accomplished kinetic solubility being in the low µM range it is not possible to reach therapeutic plasma concentrations.
In contrast, the incorporation into cyclodextrins resulted in an 760-fold increased solubility. Different cyclodextrins were evaluated. Especially the lipophilic derivatives of the β-cyclodextrin showed to be the most adequate excipients. The incorporation of the API into the cyclodextrin cavity was proved by means of NMR spectroscopy. Additionally, a formulation of VAS3947 and hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin was prepared. This formulation is intended for the intravenous application during animal trials, which have to be conducted to get to know the pharmacokinetics of VAS3947. This formulation reached a concentration of 1 mg/mL spending striking protection of VAS3947 against degradation.
Presentation of VAS3947 as a microemulsion system led also to increase the aqueous solubility of the compound, but not in the same extent as the cyclodextrin formulation. Beside the formulation development a physicochemical characterization was performed to get to know important parameters such as log P and pKa values of VAS3947. An HPLC method was developed and validated to analyse the extent of solubility improvement.
A major issue of the compound VAS3947 and all related triazolopyrimidine derivatives, developed by Vasopharm GmbH, is the insufficient chemical stability because of presence of a hemiaminal moiety in the chemical structure. Stability investigations and an extensive biopharmaceutical characterization confirm the hindering of further clinical development by insufficient drug stability and high cytotoxicity. Poor aqueous solubility is an additional disadvantage which can be handled by a concerted formulation development.
The present randomized controlled study aimed to investigate the in vivo distribution of constituents or metabolites of the standardized maritime pine bark extract Pycnogenol\(^{®}\). Thirty-three patients with severe osteoarthritis scheduled for a knee arthroplasty were randomized to receive either 200 mg per day Pycnogenol\(^{®}\) (P+) or no treatment (Co) over three weeks before surgery. Serum, blood cells, and synovial fluid samples were analyzed using liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry with electrospray ionization (LC-ESI/MS/MS). Considerable interindividual differences were observed indicating pronounced variability of the polyphenol pharmacokinetics. Notably, the highest polyphenol concentrations were not detected in serum. Catechin and taxifolin primarily resided within the blood cells while the microbial catechin metabolite δ-(3,4-dihydroxy-phenyl)-γ-valerolactone, ferulic, and caffeic acid were mainly present in synovial fluid samples. Taxifolin was detected in serum and synovial fluid exclusively in the P+ group. Likewise, no ferulic acid was found in serum samples of the Co group. Calculating ratios of analyte distribution in individual patients revealed a simultaneous presence of some polyphenols in serum, blood cells, and/or synovial fluid only in the P+ group. This is the first evidence that polyphenols distribute into the synovial fluid of patients with osteoarthritis which supports rationalizing the results of clinical efficacy studies.
Drug-target kinetics enable time-dependent changes in target engagement to be quantified as a function of drug concentration. When coupled to drug pharmacokinetics (PK), drug-target kinetics can thus be used to predict in vivo pharmacodynamics (PD). Previously we described a mechanistic PK/PD model that successfully predicted the antibacterial activity of an LpxC inhibitor in a model of Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection. In the present work we demonstrate that the same approach can be used to predict the in vivo activity of an enoyl-ACP reductase (FabI) inhibitor in a model of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infection. This is significant because the LpxC inhibitors are cidal, whereas the FabI inhibitors are static. In addition P. aeruginosa is a Gram-negative organism whereas MRSA is Gram-positive. Thus this study supports the general applicability of our modeling approach across antibacterial space.
Various Mitsunobu conditions were investigated for a series of flavonolignans (silybin A, silybin B, isosilybin A, and silychristin A) to achieve either selective esterification in position C-23 or dehydration in a one-pot reaction yielding the biologically important enantiomers of hydnocarpin D, hydnocarpin and isohydnocarpin, respectively. This represents the only one-pot semi-synthetic method to access these flavonolignans in high yields.
Although the physiological roles of BChE are not yet determined to date, the importance of this enzyme is continuously increasing as it was found to be associated with several disorders like diabetes mellitus type 2, cardiovascular diseases, obesity and especially with Alzheimer’s disease (AD). In consequence, for investigations of BChE’s pathological role in these diseases and to find new medication strategies, the development of selective and potent inhibitors is necessary.
For this purpose, the current work progresses in five chapters on the exploration of the chemical, physical and biochemical properties of tetrahydroquinazoline based carbamates which were previously reported to be selective BChE inhibitors with potency in the low nanomolar range.
1) A Novel Way to Radiolabel Human Butyrylcholinesterase for PET through Irreversible Transfer of the Radiolabeled Moiety:
PET-radiotracers represent an innovative tool to determine the distribution and the expression of a biological target in vivo. BChE lacks to a large degree of such tracers with a few exceptions. In this work, methods were developed to incorporate the radioisotopes 11C and 18F into the carbamate moiety of an tetrahydroquinazoline based inhibitor. In contrast to reversibly acting PET-probes, the described radiotracers were proven by kinetic studies to transfer the radioisotope covalently onto the active site of BChE, thus labeling the enzyme directly and permanently.
2) Discovery of Highly Selective and Nanomolar Carbamate-Based Butyrylcholinesterase Inhibitors by Rational Investigation into Their Inhibition Mode:
To investigate the role of the tetrahydroquinazoline carrier scaffold on BChE inhibition, carbamate based inhibitors were synthesized. These compounds were successively used to perform kinetic investigations to determine their inhibition mode. Based on these data, a plausible binding model was postulated explaining the influence of the tetrahydroquinazoline carrier scaffold for binding at BChE’s active site just before carbamate transfer takes place. Additionally, these compounds feature neuroprotective properties and prevent oxidative stress induced cell death in their carbamate form as well as after the release of the tetrahydroquinazoline carrier scaffold.
3) Dual Addressing of Butyrylcholinesterase by Targeting the Catalytic Active Site (CAS) and the Peripheral Anionic Site (PAS):
Compounds which are dual-targeting the CAS and the PAS of BChE are the most potent and selective BChE inhibitors to date with inhibition values in the picomolar range. In this work, a strategy is described how to turn tetrahydroquinazoline based carbamates into dual binding BChE inhibitors. These inhibitors feature a carbamate moiety which is covalently transferred onto the CAS of BChE, and in addition provide a second pharmacophore connected via a linker to the carbamate moiety which is proposed to target the PAS. Preliminary results reveal a high tolerance of BChE towards different linker lengths without decrease in affinity.
4) Investigation into Selective Debenzylation and Ring Cleavage of Quinazoline based Heterocycles:
The tetrahydroquinazoline system is well investigated in terms of its synthesis and its selective oxidation. To explore the reactivity of this system, a tetracyclic tetrahydroquinazoline was exposed to common reduction agents. These experiments revealed a high sensitivity of the tetrahydroquinazoline core towards several reduction conditions
5) Experimental and Theoretical Investigation into the Stability of Cyclic Aminals:
Tetrahydroquinazolines are known to degrade in acidic media through hydrolysis of their aminal system; but literature is lacking of a systematic investigation into this behavior. Therefore, different tetrahydroquinazolines were synthesized and exposed to phosphate buffered systems with defined pH-values. A clear increase of the hydrolysis rate of the aminal system was determined in dependency of an increasing acidic media. Computational studies predicted and experimental studies proved that hydrolysis takes place in an acidic environment while the condensation of this system is preferred in neutral or basic aqueous media.
The requirements for the impurity profiling of substances for pharmaceutical use have become greater over time. They can be accomplished by the use of modern instrumental analysis techniques, which have been evolved in the last decades. New types of columns with HILIC, mixed-mode and chiral stationary phases are suitable for the separation of all kinds of substances mixtures, that were previously hardly possible with the use of common reversed phase columns. Modern, almost universal detectors like CAD, ELSD and CNLSD can be applied for a sensitive detection of substances without a chromophore. However, in addition to some small individual disadvantages to these methods, the costs are high and applications are still kind of rare. Thus, the introduction of these devices at a broader level has not yet taken place. While this presumably will change over time, there is a need for methods that enable the impurity profiling of challenging substances with widespread analytics devices.
Methionine is a substance with hydrophobic and hydrophilic impurities. With the help of a mixed-mode stationary phase, which is a combination of a reversed phase and a strong cationic exchanger, the separation of all putative impurities was found possible with good sensitivity and selectivity. The method requires apart from the column only standard isocratic HPLC equipment and was successfully validated.
The evaluation of the enantiomeric purity of amino acids is challenging. Two approaches were made. The first method utilizes CE by means of in-capillary derivation with OPA and the subsequent separation with a cyclodextrin. With the use of OPA/NAC and γ-cyclodextrin, a simple and cost-effective method for the indirect enantioseparation of 16 amino acids was developed. With the second approach, racemic amino acids can be analyzed with HPLC and in-needle derivatization. For this, different columns and chiral thiols were evaluated and the chromatographic parameters were optimized. A method with OPA/NIBLC, a pentafluorophenyl column made the enantioseparation of 17 amino acids feasible. A LOQ of the minor enantiomer down to 0.04 % can be achieved with UV spectrophotometric detection. A similar method was developed for impurity profiling of L-amino acids. This can be used alternatively for the amino acid analysis performed by the European Pharmacopoeia.
A simple, robust, precise and accurate method for the evaluation of impurities in glyceryl trinitrate solution was developed and validated. The four impurities of glyceryl trinitrate are separated by means of an acetonitrile-water gradient and the assay for this substance is also possible.
Novel Approaches to Antimicrobial Therapy of Pneumonia using Antibiotics and Therapeutic Antibodies
(2016)
Nosocomial pneumonia is mostly caused by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). However, the standard antibiotic therapy is affected by increasing emergence of bacterial resistance. Therefore, novel therapeutic options are in high demand. New antimicrobial agents alone cannot handle the problem of increasing bacterial resistance but innovative drug delivery strategies and fast identification of infection causing pathogens are required to diminish bacterial resistance development. A very promising approach to improve the therapy of pneumonia is presented by local drug delivery to the lung. This application method enables high local drug concentrations in the lung leading to shorter application of antibiotics and hence reduces the risk of resistance development. Furthermore, the systemic concentration is lowered reducing the emergence of adverse effects.
Therefore, in this thesis several approaches to improve the therapy of MRSA pneumonia are studied.
One approach to achieve an efficient local delivery of antibiotics are nano-sized drug delivery systems which enable the nebulization of poorly-soluble antibiotics and can lead to even higher local drug concentrations due to their small size since nanoparticles improve mucus penetration and decrease phagocytosis by alveolar macrophages. Here, an analytical setup was developed that facilitates the identification of optimal preparation conditions for drug polyelectrolyte nanoplexes.
Another promising approach to support antimicrobial therapy of pneumonia is presented by antibody-based immunotherapy. Since the stability of the antibody and hence its therapeutic activity are endangered during production, transport, storage, and application, a stabilizing formulation was developed for hUK-66, an antibody targeting surface antigens of S. aureus. Furthermore, nebulization of this formulated monoclonal antibody was studied to enable local application. Finally, the immunotherapeutic efficacy of the nebulized hUK-66 formulation was investigated in an animal in vivo study.
Furthermore, rapid identification of the infection triggering pathogen is very important. The selective detection of S. aureus was achieved using optical planar Bragg grating sensors functionalized with hUK-66. In addition, the reusability of this system was studied applying a surface functionalization based on the cross-linker SPDP which enables a reversible fixation of the antibody.
The impurity profiling of pharmaceutical ingredients can oppose many challenges. The best part of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) and the related substances are detectable by UV detection, a very common detection principle. However, if an API lacks a suitable chromophore other means of detection are necessary. The corona charged aerosol detector (CAD) is a detector capable of detecting substances independent of their chemical structure. This “universal” detector has only one limitation: The analyte has to have a sufficiently low vapor pressure. Another important challenge that comes often together with the lack of a chromophore concerns the separation. These substances (e.g. most amino acids and derivatives) often contain structures that make them difficult to retain on conventional reversed phase columns.
Possible solutions to overcome these challenges, like the application of the CAD and the benefit of so-called mixed-mode stationary phases in impurity profiling for pharmacopoeial purposes were explored in this work. The related substances analyzed in this thesis comprise amino acids, inorganic ions, bisphosphonic acids, basic and acidic derivatives of amino acids (esters and amides).
The successful development and validation of mixed-mode liquid chromatography methods with CAD detection for carbocisteine and ibandronate sodium might help to increase the acceptance of this versatile detector in the pharmaceutical industry and in official authorities dealing with the determination of related substances.
The combination of UV and CAD detection proved very useful during the analysis of Bicisate. Most of the related substances and some unidentified impurities were detectable by CAD whereas a synthesis by-product, a semi-volatile ester, was only detectable in the UV trace. The simple combination covers all relevant impurities in a single analysis.
Two truly orthogonal methods regarding separation and detection for the enantiomeric purity of magnesium-L-aspartate helped to find the reason for elevated D aspartic acid content in the drug substance. A very quick and sensitive indirect separation using the OPA derivatization with NAC was developed as a powerful screening tool, whereas the direct separation of D- and L-CBQCA-Asp derivatives confirmed the results. Both methods were optimized in order to do without substances mentioned on the REACH list, like sodium tetraborate which is very frequently applied in standard derivatization protocols and CE separations.
The importance of orthogonal detection principles in the determination of related substances of amino acids was discussed in a review article dealing with the revision of amino acid monographs in the Ph. Eur..
With 9.6 million new cases and 1.5 million deaths in 2014, tuberculosis (TB) is alongside with AIDS the most deadly infection. Foremost, the increased prevalence of resistant strains of M. tuberculosis among the TB-infected population represents a serious thread. Hence, in the last decades, novel drug targets have been investigated worldwide. So far a relatively unexplored target is the cell wall enzyme β-ketoacyl-ACP-synthase “KasA”, which plays a crucial role in maintaining the membrane impermeability and hence the cell ability to resist to the immune response and drug therapy. KasA is a key enzyme in the fatty acid synthase “FAS-II” elongation cycle, responsible for the extension of the growing acyl chain within the biosynthesis of precursors for the most hydrophobic constituents of the cell wall – mycolic acids. Design of the novel KasA inhibitors, performed in the research group of Prof. Sotriffer by C. Topf and B. Schaefer, was based on the recently published crystal structure of KasA in complex with its known inhibitor thiolactomycin (TLM). Considering the essential ligand-enzyme interactions, a pharmacophore model was built and applied in the virtual screening of a modified ZINC database. Selected hits with the best in silico affinity data have been reported by Topf and Schaefer.
In this work, two of the obtained hits were synthesized and their structure was systematically varied. First, a virtual screening hit, chromone-2-carboxamide derivative GS-71, was modified in the amide part. Since the most of the products possessed a very low solubility in the aqueous buffer medium used in biological assays, polar groups (nitro, succinamidyl and trimethyl-amino substituent in position 6 of the chromone ring or hydroxyl group on the benzene ring in the amide part have been inserted to the molecule. Further variations yielded diaryl ketones, diaryl ketone bearing a succinamidyl substituent, carboxamide bearing a methylpiperazinyl-4-oxobutanamido group and methyl-malonyl ester amides. Basically, the essential structural features necessary for the ligand-enzyme interactions have been maintained. The latter virtual screening hit, a pyrimidinone derivative VS-8 was synthesized and the structure was modified by substitution in positions 2, 4, 5 and 6 of the pyrimidine ring. Due to autofluorescence, detected in most of the products, this model structure was not further varied.
Simultaneously, experiments on solubilization of the first chromone-2-carboxamides with cyclodextrins, cyclic oligosacharides known to form water-soluble inclusion complexes, were performed. Although the assessed solubility of the chromone 3b/DIMEB (1:3) mixture exceeded 14-fold the intrinsic one, the achieved 100 µM solubility was still not sufficient to be used as a stock solution in the binding assay. The experiments with cyclodextrin in combination with DMSO were ineffective. Owing to high material costs necessary for the appropriate cyclodextrin amounts, the aim focused on structural modification of the hydrophobic products.
Precise structural data have been obtained from the solved crystal structures of three chromone derivatives: the screening hit GS-71 (3b), its trimethylammonium salt (18) and 6-nitro-substituted N-benzyl-N-methyl-chromone-2-carboxamide (9i). The first two compounds are nearly planar with an anti-/trans-rotamer configuration. In the latter structure, the carboxamide bridge is bent out of the chromone plane, showing an anti-rotamer, too. Considering the relatively low partition coefficient of compound 3b (cLogP = 2.32), the compound planarity and correlating tight molecular packing might be the factors significantly affecting its poor solubility.
Regarding the biological results of the chromone-based compounds, similar structure-activity correlations could be drawn from the binding assay and the whole cell activity testing on M. tuberculosis. In both cases, the introduction of a nitro group to position 6 of the chromone ring and the presence of a flexible substituent in the amide part showed a positive effect. In the binding study, the nitro group at position 4 on the N-benzyl residue was of advantage, too. The highest enzyme affinity was observed for N-(4-nitrobenzyl)-chromone-2-carboxamide 4c (KD = 34 µM), 6-nitro substituted N-benzyl-chromone-2-carboxamide 9g (KD = 40 µM) and 6‑nitro-substituted N-(4-nitrobenzyl)-chromone-2-carboxamide 9j (KD = 31 µM), which could not be attributed to the fluorescence quenching potential of the nitro group. The assay interference potential of chromones, due to a covalent binding on the enzyme sulfhydryl groups, was found to be negligible at the assay conditions. Moderate in vivo activity was detected for 6‑nitro-substituted N-benzyl-chromone-2-carboxamide 9g and its N-benzyl-N-methyl-, N‑furylmethyl-, N-cyclohexyl- and N-cyclohexylmethyl derivatives 9i, 9d, 9e, 9f, for which MIC values 20 – 40 µM were assessed. Cytotoxicity was increased in the N‑cyclohexylmethyl derivative only. None of the pyrimidine-based compounds showed activity in vivo. The affinity of the model structure, VS-8, surpassed with KD = 97 µM the assessed affinity of TLM (KD = 142 µM).
Since for the model chromone compound GS-71 no reliable KasA binding data could be obtained, a newly synthesized chromone derivative 9i was docked into the KasA binding site, in order to derive correlation between the in silico and in vitro assessed affinity. For the 6‑nitro-derivative 9i a moderate in vivo activity on M. tuberculosis was obtained. The in silico predicted pKi values for TLM and 9i were higher than the corresponding in vitro results, maintaining though a similar tendency, i.e., the both affinity values for compound 9i (pKi predicted = 6.64, pKD experimental = 4.02) surpassed those obtained for TLM (pKi predicted = 5.27, pKD experimental = 3.84). Nevertheless, the experimental pKD values are considered preliminary results.
The binding assay method has been improved in order to acquire more accurate data. Owing to the method development, limited enzyme batches and solubility issues, only selected compounds could be evaluated. The best hits, together with the compounds active on the whole cells of M. tuberculosis, will be submitted to the kinetic enzyme assay, in order to confirm the TLM-like binding mechanism. Regarding the in vivo testing results, no correlations could be drawn between the predicted membrane permeability values and the experimental data, as for the most active compounds 9e and 9f, a very low permeability was anticipated (0.4 and 0.7 %, respectively). Further biological tests would be required to investigate the action- or transport mode.
Background: Cyclic aminals are core features of natural products, drug molecules and important synthetic intermediates. Despite their relevance, systematic investigations into their stability towards hydrolysis depending on the pH value are lacking.
Results: A set of cyclic aminals was synthesized and their stability quantified by kinetic measurements. Steric and electronic effects were investigated by choosing appropriate groups. Both molecular mechanics (MM) and density functional theory (DFT) based studies were applied to support and explain the results obtained. Rapid decomposition is observed in acidic aqueous media for all cyclic aminals which occurs as a reversible reaction. Electronic effects do not seem relevant with regard to stability, but the magnitude of the conformational energy of the ring system and pK a values of the N-3 nitrogen atom.
Conclusion: Cyclic aminals are stable compounds when not exposed to acidic media and their stability is mainly dependent on the conformational energy of the ring system. Therefore, for the preparation and work-up of these valuable synthetic intermediates and natural products, appropriate conditions have to be chosen and for application as drug molecules their sensitivity towards hydrolysis has to be taken into account.
Background
Genetic code expansion has developed into an elegant tool to incorporate unnatural amino acids (uAA) at predefined sites in the protein backbone in response to an amber codon. However, recombinant production and yield of uAA comprising proteins are challenged due to the additional translation machinery required for uAA incorporation.
Results
We developed a microtiter plate-based high-throughput monitoring system (HTMS) to study and optimize uAA integration in the model protein enhanced green fluorescence protein (eGFP). Two uAA, propargyl-L-lysine (Plk) and (S)-2-amino-6-((2-azidoethoxy) carbonylamino) hexanoic acid (Alk), were incorporated at the same site into eGFP co-expressing the native PylRS/tRNAPyl CUA pair originating from Methanosarcina barkeri in E. coli. The site-specific uAA functionalization was confirmed by LC-MS/MS analysis. uAA-eGFP production and biomass growth in parallelized E. coli cultivations was correlated to (i) uAA concentration and the (ii) time of uAA addition to the expression medium as well as to induction parameters including the (iii) time and (iv) amount of IPTG supplementation. The online measurements of the HTMS were consolidated by end point-detection using standard enzyme-linked immunosorbent procedures.
Conclusion
The developed HTMS is powerful tool for parallelized and rapid screening. In light of uAA integration, future applications may include parallelized screening of different PylRS/tRNAPyl CUA pairs as well as further optimization of culture conditions.
Background
Cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) is a neglected tropical disease caused by protozoan parasites of the genus Leishmania. CL causes enormous suffering in many countries worldwide. There is no licensed vaccine against CL, and the chemotherapy options show limited efficacy and high toxicity. Localization of the parasites inside host cells is a barrier to most standard chemo- and immune-based interventions. Hence, novel drugs, which are safe, effective and readily accessible to third-world countries and/or drug delivery technologies for effective CL treatments are desperately needed.
Methodology/Principal
Findings Here we evaluated the antileishmanial properties and delivery potential of polyhexamethylene biguanide (PHMB; polyhexanide), a widely used antimicrobial and wound antiseptic, in the Leishmania model. PHMB showed an inherent antileishmanial activity at submicromolar concentrations. Our data revealed that PHMB kills Leishmania major (L. major) via a dual mechanism involving disruption of membrane integrity and selective chromosome condensation and damage. PHMB's DNA binding and host cell entry properties were further exploited to improve the delivery and immunomodulatory activities of unmethylated cytosine-phosphate-guanine oligodeoxynucleotides (CpG ODN). PHMB spontaneously bound CpG ODN, forming stable nanopolyplexes that enhanced uptake of CpG ODN, potentiated antimicrobial killing and reduced host cell toxicity of PHMB.
Conclusions
Given its low cost and long history of safe topical use, PHMB holds promise as a drug for CL therapy and delivery vehicle for nucleic acid immunomodulators.
The title compound, C\(_{12}\)H\(_{9}\)N\(_{3}\)O, is an intermediate in the synthesis of the muscarinic M2 receptor antagonist AFDX-384. The seven-membered ring adopts a boat conformation and the dihedral angle between the planes of the aromatic rings is 41.51 (9)°. In the crystal, molecules are linked into [001] chains of alternating inversion dimers formed by pairs of N-H・・・O hydrogen bonds and pairs of N-H・・・N hydrogen bonds. In both cases, R\(_{2}\)\(^{2}\)(8) loops are generated.
The International Symposium on Phytochemicals in Medicine and Food (ISPMF2015), organized by the Phytochemical Society of Europe (PSE) and the Phytochemical Society of Asia (PSA), was held June 26-29, 2015, in Shanghai of China. This was the first time that a PSE meeting has been held in Asia and a PSE-PSA joint symposium provided an opportunity for communication between scientists from Europe and Asia and other continents. ISPMF2015 has been jointly sponsored by Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Guizhou Medical University, Shanghai Normal University, Yancheng Institute of Technology, Beijing Normal University, and Fudan University. More than 270 scientists from 48 countries attended this meeting and presented their research and opinions on phytochemistry, phytomedicine and phytoneering. The international organizing committee and scientific advisory board of ISPMF 2015 comprised of outstanding scientists from around the globe. Dr. Jianbo Xiao was the chairman of the International Organizing Committee of ISPMF2015 and moderated the open address on June 26.
The organizing committee of ISPMF2015 assembled an exciting and diverse program, featuring 16 sessions including 12 plenary lectures, 20 invited talks, 55 short oral presentations, and more than 130 posters, which were dedicated to creating a podium for exchanging the latest research results in the phytochemicals for food and human health.
The Corona® charged aerosol detector (CAD) is an aerosol-based detector first de-scribed by Dixon and Peterson in 2002. It is capable of detecting compounds inde-pendent from their physico-chemical properties presumed the analyte is sufficiently non-volatile. Consequently, the CAD is often applied to the analysis of substances that do not possess a suitable UV chromophore. Major drawbacks are however, the detector signal is non-linear and depending on the content of organic solvent in the mobile phase.
This thesis tried to explore possible applications of the CAD for pharmaceutical analysis. Therefore, several substances from different compound classes were in-vestigated. Newly developed or existing methods were validated. Thus the perfor-mance of the CAD could be examined. Both assay and impurity determination were evaluated for their compliance with ICH Q2(R1) “Validation of Analytical Proce-dures” and the “Technical Guide for the Elaboration of Monographs”.
In the course of the establishment of reference substances at the EDQM, a generic screening method for the identification of organic and inorganic pharmaceutical counterions was needed. An HPLC-CAD method developed by Zhang et al. was therefore investigated for its suitability for pharmacopoeial purpose. Method valida-tion was performed. It was found that 23 ions could be separated and detected. Iden-tification was achieved via retention time of an authentic standard of the corre-sponding ions. Alternatively, peak assignment was performed by determination of the exact mass using TOF-MS. Ions could be quantified as impurities or for stoichi-ometric purpose.
For the impurity control in topiramate, the performance characterstics of the CAD were compared to that of an ELSD. CAD was superior to ELSD in terms of repeata-bility, sensitivity and linearity. However, impurities could be quantified with satisfac-tory accuracy with both detectors. The application of the ELSD was not feasible due to non-reproducible spike peaks eluting after the principle peak in the chromatogram of the test solution. One of the impurities, topiramate impurity A (diacetonide), gave no or a vastly diminished signal in the ELSD and the CAD, respectively. It is evapo-rated during the detection process due to its relatively high vapor pressure. The re-sponse could be enhanced by a factor of nine via post-column addition of acetoni-trile and a lower nebulizer temperature. As the response of topiramate impurity A was still about thousand-fold lower than the response of all other impurities, its quantification was not feasible. Additionally, the HPLC-CAD was successfully vali-dated as an assay procedure for topiramate.
There seems to be a great potential in the application of the CAD to the analysis of excipients as most compounds do not possess a suitable UV chromophore. Here, a simple and rapid HPLC-CAD method for the determination of polidocanol (PD) was developed. The method was successfully validated as a potential assay procedure for the Ph. Eur. as none is described in either of the two PD monographs. The same method was applied to the determination of the PD release from a pharmaceutical polymer matrix.
A method for the determination of the fatty acid (FA) composition of polysorbate 80 (PS80) was developed and validated. Using the CAD and mass spectrometry, we were able to identify two new FAs in 16 batches from four manufacturers. All batch-es complied with pharmacopoeial specification. Furthermore, the overall composi-tion of the different PS80 species (“fingerprinting”) and the peroxide content were determined. In addition to the chemical characterization, functionality related charac-teristics (FRCs) were determined. Correlations between chemical composition and FRCs were found.
The validation data of the above mentioned methods suggests that the CAD repre-sents a viable detection technique for pharmaceutical analysis. The CAD was suffi-ciently sensitive for non-volatile analytes. Impurity control down to concentrations of 0.05 or 0.03%, as demanded by ICH Q3A (R2), is achievable. However, the response of semi-volatile compounds may be drastically diminished. It could be confirmed that the response of the CAD is linear when the range does not exceed two orders of magnitude. Exceptions may be observed depending on the actual method setup. When the measuring range is sufficiently narrow, quantification can be done using single-point calibration which is common practice in pharmaceutical anlysis. Impuri-ties may also be quantified against a single calibration solution. However, correction factors may be needed and the accuracy is considerably lower compared to an as-say method. If a compound is to be quantified over a large concentration range, log-log transformation of the calibration curve is needed and a decreased accuracy has to be accepted.
SUMMARY
Insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I) is a polypeptide with a molecular weight of 7.649 kDa and an anabolic potential. Thereby, IGF-I has a promising therapeutic value e.g. in muscle wasting diseases such as sarcopenia. IGF-I is mainly secreted by the liver in response to growth hormone (GH) stimulation and is rather ubiquitously found within all tissues. The effects of IGF-I are mediated by its respective IGF-I transmembrane tyrosine kinase receptor triggering the stimulation of protein synthesis, glucose uptake and the regulation of cell growth. The actions of IGF-I are modulated by six IGF binding proteins binding and transporting IGF-I in a binary or ternary complex to tissues and receptors and modulating the binding of IGF-I to its receptor. The nature of the formed complexes impacts IGF-I`s half-life, modulating the half-life between 10 minutes (free IGF-I) to 12 - 15 hours when presented in a ternary complex with IGF binding protein 3 and an acid labile subunit (ALS). Therefore, sustained drug delivery systems of free IGF-I are superficially seen as interesting for the development of controlled release profiles, as the rate of absorption is apparently and easily set slower by simple formulation as compared to the rapid rate of elimination. Thereby, one would conclude, the formulation scientist can rapidly develop systems for which the pharmacokinetics of IGF-I are dominated by the formulation release kinetics. However, the in vivo situation is more complex and as mentioned (vide supra), the half-life may easily be prolonged up to hours providing proper IGF-I complexation takes place upon systemic uptake. These and other aspects are reviewed in Chapter I, within which we introduce IGF-I as a promising therapeutic agent detailing its structure and involved receptors along with the resulting signaling pathways. We summarize the control of IGF-I pharmacokinetics in nature within the context of its complex system of 6 binding proteins to control half-life and tissue distribution. Furthermore, we describe IGF-I variants with modulated properties in vivo and originated from alternative splicing. These insights were translated into sophisticated IGF-I delivery systems for therapeutic use. Aside from safety aspects, the challenges and requirements of an effective IGF-I therapy are discussed. Localized and systemic IGF-I delivery strategies, different routes of administration as well as liquid and solid IGF-I formulations are reviewed. Effective targeting of IGF-I by protein decoration is outlined and consequently this chapter provides an interesting guidance for successful IGF-I-delivery. In Chapter II, we firstly outline the stability of IGF-I in liquid formulations with the intention to deliver the biologic through the lung and the impact of buffer type, sodium chloride concentration and pH value on IGF-I stability is presented. IGF-I integrity was preserved in histidine buffer over 4 months at room temperature, but methionine 59 oxidation (Met(o)) along with reducible dimer and trimer formation was observed in an acidic environment (pH 4.5) and using acetate buffer. Strong aggregation resulted in a complete loss of IGF-I bioactivity, whereas the potency was partly maintained in samples showing a slight aggregation and complete IGF-I oxidation. Atomization by air-jet or vibrating-mesh nebulizers yielded in limited Met(o) formation and no aggregation. The results of IGF-I nebulization experiments regarding aerosol output rate, mass median aerodynamic diameter and fine particle fraction were comparable with 0.9% sodium chloride reference, approving the applicability of liquid IGF-I formulations for pulmonary delivery. In Chapter III we escalated the development to solid delivery systems designed for alveolar landing upon inhalation and by deploying trehalose and the newly introduced for pulmonary application silk-fibroin as carriers. Microparticles were produced using nano spray drying following analyses including IGF-I integrity, IGF-I release profiles and aerodynamic properties. In vitro transport kinetics of IGF-I across pulmonary Calu-3 epithelia were suggesting similar permeability as compared to IGF-I’s cognate protein, insulin that has already been successfully administered pulmonary in clinical settings. These in vivo results were translated to an ex vivo human lung lobe model. This work showed the feasibility of pulmonary IGF-I delivery and the advantageous diversification of excipients for pulmonary formulations using silk-fibroin. Chapter IV focuses on an innovative strategy for safe and controllable IGF-I delivery. In that chapter we escalated the development to novel IGF-I analogues. The intention was to provide a versatile biologic into which galenical properties can be engineered through chemical synthesis, e.g. by site directed coupling of polymers to IGF-I. For this purpose we genetically engineered two IGF-I variants containing an unnatural amino acid at two positions, respectively, thereby integrating alkyne functions into the primary sequence of the protein. These allowed linking IGF-I with other molecules in a site specific manner, i.e. via a copper catalyzed azide-alkyne Huisgen cycloaddition (click reaction). In this chapter we mainly introduce the two IGF-I variants, detail the delivery concept and describe the optimization of the expression conditions of the IGF-I variants.
In conclusion, we span from simple liquid formulations for aerolization through solid systems for tailored for maximal alveolar landing to novel engineered IGF-I analogues. Thereby, three strategies for advanced IGF-I delivery were addressed and opportunities and limitations of each were outlined. Evidence was provided that sufficiently stable and easy to manufacture formulations can be developed as typically required for first in man studies. Interestingly, solid systems – typically introduced in later stages of pharmaceutical development – were quite promising. By use of silk-fibroin as a new IGF-I carrier for pulmonary administration, a new application was established for this excipient. The demonstrated success using the ex vivo human lung lobe model provided substantial confidence that pulmonary IGF-I delivery is possible in man. Finally, this work describes the expression of two IGF-I variants containing two unnatural amino acids to implement an innovative strategy for IGF-I delivery. This genetic engineering approach was providing the fundament for novel IGF-I analogues. Ideally, the biologic is structurally modified by covalently linked moieties for the control of pharmacokinetics or for targeted delivery, e.g. into sarcopenic muscles. One future scenario is dicussed in the ‘conclusion and outlook’ section for which IGF-I is tagged to a protease sensitive linker peptide and this linker peptide in return is coupled to a polyethylenglykole (PEG) polymer (required to prolong the half-life). Some proteases may serve as proxy for sarcopenia such that protease upregulation in compromised muscle tissues drives cleavage of IGF-I from the PEG. Thereby, IGF-I is released at the seat of the disease while systemic side effects are minimized.
Lattice forces are based on the attraction between the single moieties of molecules. The strength of lattice forces has an impact on the solid state and related physical properties such as melting point, boiling point, vapor pressure solvation and solubility. For solvation to occur, energy is required to break the lattice forces attracting ions and molecules among themselves. The energy for breaking up the attraction between the molecules is gained from the energy released when ions or molecules of the lattice associate with molecules of the solvent. Solubility is therefore, directly linked to the energy which is required to break the lattice forces and the energy which is liberated by solvation of the molecules or ions. Based on this relation, the lattice forces in two acidic compounds and a neutral compound were subsequently lowered by different approaches with the intention to increase the solubility, supersaturation, and dissolution rate.
The conversion to an ionic liquid and the embedding of the compound in a pH-sensitive matrix in an amorphous state were investigated with an acidic compound and its pro-drug. The tetrabutylphosphonium (TBPH) salt showed the most promising properties among the tested counter ions. It alters the properties of the compound from a highly crystalline physicochemical state to an amorphous readily soluble material showing supersaturation in a wider pH range and higher solubility than the sodium and potassium salts. A solid dispersion approach was developed in parallel. Solid dispersions with two different pH-sensitive polymers and different drug load were prepared by lyophilization to determine the miscibility of the compound and the polymer by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). A miscibility of 50% of the amorphous acid with the pH-sensitive Eudragit L100-55 matrix and a miscibility of 40% with hydroxypropyl methylcellulose acetate succinate (HPMC-AS) was found. Both approaches, the TBPH salt and the solid dispersion based on the pH-sensitive Eudragit L100-55 were tested in vivo. The TBPH salt was dosed in a buffered solution to prevent precipitation in the acidic stomach pH. This resulted in BAV higher than the crystalline suspension but lower than the solid dispersion. There were no acute toxicology effects seen. Thus, TBPH was considered safe for further studies. The TBPH salts were very hygroscopic, sticky and prone to precipitation as free compound when exposed to low pH when simulating the passage through the stomach. Thus, the principle of the ionic liquid was combined with the principle of an amorphous solid dispersion. This mitigated the risk of precipitation of the TBPH salt during the passage of the stomach. Also delinquency upon open storage was improved by embedding the TBPH salt in a pH-sensitive polymer. Dissolution tests mimicking the pH gradient in the gastro intestinal tract confirmed the protective properties of the pH-sensitive polymer matrices against recrystallization at low stomach pH in vitro. Furthermore, supersaturation at pH ranges relevant in the intestines of preclinical species or humans was observed. The TBPH solid dispersion showed superior supersaturation behavior in vitro compared to the free acid in pH-sensitive matrix. However, equally increased bioavailability (BAV) was observed when the amorphous solid dispersion contained the free acid form or the TBPH salt. Absorption seemed to be so fast that the short in vitro supersaturation observed for the free from in pH-sensitive matrix was already sufficient for complete absorption within 15 - 30 minutes. This is in accordance with the short tmax of around 15 - 30 minutes after oral application of the low lattice force principles. The pharmacokinetic (PK) profile became the main focus of further optimization as the BAV was maximized already. Early maximal plasma concentration (tmax) went along with high maximal plasma concentration (Cmax) for the low lattice force principles. Central nervous system related side effects as consequence of the PK profile with such a high Cmax were likely to happen and therefore, the formulation principles were modified to maintain the doubled BAV and reduce the observed Cmax. Additionally, the compound showed a short half-life requiring a two times daily dose, which is suboptimal for a chronic treatment. The amorphous acid in pH-matrix showed a modified PK profile when dosed in a hydrogel but not in an oleo gel. Surprisingly, administration of the TBPH salt in pH-matrix suspended in oil showed a massive delay of the tmax to 8 hours and a reduction of Cmax by factor 2 - 3 with unchanged good BAV when administered as a suspension in oil without increased viscosity. TBPH salt solution with a high viscosity resulted in the same PK profile as when administered without increased viscosity.
The animal model was changed from rat to dog. The dose was limited to 15 mg/dog since they reacted much more sensitively to the drug. BAV at this dose level was 100% for the crystalline suspension already, thus the focus of this study was not increasing BAV but to achieve prolonged and/or delayed exposure using different formulation principles elaborated in rats before. An immediate release formulation of 3 mg was combined with a delayed/modified release principle containing 12 mg of the compound. An additional study arm was conducted with a remote controlled device programmed to deliver a first dose of 3 mg instantaneously after passing the stomach and a second dose of 12 mg when entering the caecum. The tmax remained short for all formulation principles and it seemed that delayed and modified release lead to BAV reduction. The modified PK profiles could not be translated to an oral dog model which endorsed the hypothesis of an absorption window; however, the in vitro results could be translated to a dog model for colonic absorption. A nanosuspension of the crystalline compound, the TBPH salt in pH-matrix and the TBPH salt of the pro-drug of the compound were administered rectally to determine colonic absorption. The nanosuspension showed exposure around the limit of quantification whereas the TBPH in pH-matrix showed 4% BAV and the pro-drug as TBPH salt in pH-matrix resulted in 12% BAV although the pro-drug is factor 3 less soluble. This was in line with the increased permeation of the pro-drug which was observed in the Caco2 experiments. The bioavailability was increased by using the low lattice force principles and validated the hypothesis for the acidic drug and its pro-drug in the colonic dog model. Chemical and physicochemical stability of the investigated solid dispersions was confirmed for at least 18 months at room temperature.
Amorphous solid dispersions were investigated to lower lattice forces of a neutral molecule. Solid dispersions are well known from literature; however, they are not frequently used as principles for dosage forms due to limitations in physical stability and complex manufacturing processes. A viable formulation principle was developed for a neutral compound assuming that the stability of a solid dispersion with a drug load below the maximal miscibility will be better than one which exceeds the maximal miscibility. The dispersed and amorphous state of the neutral compound resulted in a higher energy level and chemical potential compared to a crystalline form implying that they are thermodynamically instable and sensitive to recrystallization. This was confirmed by the fast recrystallization of an amorphous solid dispersion made from HPMC with 50% drug load which recrystallized within a few days. Solid dispersions with different drug loads in different polymers and in polymer mixtures were prepared by lyophilization. The miscibility of the compound and the polymer was determined by DSC as the miscibility is a surrogate for maximal stable drugload of the solid dispersion. HPMC was found to be miscible with 20% compound confirming the instability of the 50% HPMC solid dispersion observed earlier. Based on dosing needs, a miscibility/drug load of at least 30% was mandatory because of the dosing requirements to dose less than 1500 mg of final formulation. This was considered as maximal swallowable volume for later clinical development. Thus, all systems with a miscibility higher or equal to 30% drug in polymer were evaluated in an in vitro dissolution test and ranked in comparison with amorphous pure compound, crystalline compound and a 20% drug load solid dispersion made from HPMC. The HPMC based solid dispersion which gave good exposure in previous in vivo experiments did not support the high drugload that was needed. Therefore, similar in vitro behavior of this solid dispersion should result in similar in vivo performance. The polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) based solid dispersions scored with high drug load and medium initial kinetic solubility. The Soluplus based solid dispersion offer lower drug load and slightly lower initial kinetic solubility, but showed an extended supersaturation. The 4 best performing systems were evaluated in rats. They resulted in a short Tmax of 15 minutes and BAV higher than 85% indicating fast and complete absorption. The reference HPMC based solid dispersion with a drug load of 20% showed 65% BAV. This showed that higher drug loads were feasible and did not limit absorption in this animal model.
Since the estimated human dose required a higher formulation density than obtained from lyophilization or spray drying, melt extrusion of the solid dispersion was considered to be the most adequate technology. The process temperature needed to be below 200 °C as this value represents the degradation temperature of the polymers. It was investigated by differential scanning calorimetry whether the compound can be mixed with the molten polymer. None of the polymers could dissolve the crystalline compound below the degradation point of the polymer. The temperature had to be increased to 260 °C until the compound was molten together to a monophasic system with polymer. This resulted in degradation of the polymers. Therefore, different plasticizers and small organic molecules with similar functional groups as the compound were investigated on their ability to reduce the melting point of the mixture of polymer and compound. Positive results were obtained with several small molecules. Based on a literature review, nicotinamide had the least concerning pharmaceutical activities and was chosen for further development. Solid dispersions with the same composition as the ones tested in rat were prepared with 9% nicotinamide as softener. Extrusion without nicotinamide was not possible at 135 °C or at 170 °C whereas the addition of 9% nicotinamide led to a homogenous extrudate when processed at 135 °C. The solid state of the extrudates was not molecularly dispersed but the compound was in a crystalline state. They could not reach the in vitro performance observed for the lyophilized solid dispersions with Soluplus or PVP derivatives. Nevertheless, the performances in the supersaturation assay were comparable to the HPMC based lyophilized solid dispersion. The Soluplus and PVP based crystalline extrudates were evaluated in a dog PK showing that the crystalline solid dispersion does not enable BAV higher than 90% within 24 hours after application. In parallel, the hygroscopicity of the meltextrudates was investigated by DVS and the best performing system based on Kollidon VA64 was further optimized regarding the solid state after its extrusion. The minimal process temperature to obtain a fully amorphous solid dispersion was determined by hot stage X-ray powder diffraction analysis (XRPD) and confirmed by lab scale extrusion. Addition of 9% nicotinamide lowered the process temperature from 220 °C (without nicotinamide) to 200 °C with nicotinamide. The minimal temperature for obtaining crystal free material was independent of the nicotinamide amount as soon as it exceeded 9%. Lowering the process temperature with nicotinamide reduced the impurity levels from 3.5% at 220 °C to 1.1% at 200 °C. The fully amorphous extrudates performed now better in the in vitro supersaturation assay than the lyophilized amorphous HPMC solid dispersion and the crystalline extrudates which were extruded at 135 °C. The process was up-scaled to a pilot scale extruder with alternative screw designs increasing mechanical shear forces and mixing which enabled lower process temperatures. This resulted in a maximal process temperature of 195 °C when nicotinamide was present and 205 °C without nicotinamide. However, shorter process time and reduced process temperatures (compared to the lab scale equipment) resulted in impurity levels smaller than 0.5% for both compositions and temperatures and made the nicotinamide obsolete. The amorphous extrudates from the pilot scale extruder performed better in vitro than the crystalline extrudates from the lab scale extruder and the lyophilized HPMC solid dispersion. A comparable PK profile of the HPMC solid dispersion and the amorphous melt extruded formulation principle was anticipated from these in vitro results. This was confirmed by the pharmacokinetic profile in dogs after oral administration of the final extruded solid dispersion formulation which was equivalent with the pharmacokinetic profile of the HPMC based solid dispersion formulation. The assumption that using a drug load below the miscibility prevents the solid dispersion from recrystallization was verified at least for a limited time by a stability test at elevated temperatures for 3 months showing no change in solid state. This indicates the opportunities of the low lattice forces approach, but also showed the importance of developing principles first assuring stable solid state, performance in vitro and in vivo, tailor them in a second step based on performance and combine them with technology such as melt extrusion as third step. If these steps are done in the context of clinical needs and quality it can rationalize the development of a solid dispersion and minimalize the formulation related risks regarding biopharmacy and stability.
More and more newly registered drugs are proteins. Although many of them suffer from instabilities in aqueous media, the most common way of protein drug administration still is the injection of a solution. Numerous protein drugs require frequent administration, but suitable controlled release systems for proteins are rare. Chapter 1 presents current advances in the field of controlled delivery of particulate protein formulations. While the main focus lies on batch crystallized proteins, amorphous particulate proteins are also discussed in this work. The reason is that, on the one hand precipitated protein particles hold some of the advantages of crystalline proteins and on the other hand the physical state of the protein may simply be unknown for many drug delivery systems or semi-crystalline particles have been used. Crystallization and precipitations methods as well as controlled delivery methods with and without encapsulation in a polymeric delivery system are summarized and critically discussed.
In chapter 2 a novel way of protein crystal encapsulation by electrospinning is introduced. Electrospinning of proteins has been shown to be challenging via the use of organic solvents, frequently resulting in protein unfolding or aggregation. Encapsulation of protein crystals represents an attractive but largely unexplored alternative to established protein encapsulation techniques because of increased thermodynamic stability and improved solvent resistance of the crystalline state. We herein explore the electrospinning of protein crystal suspensions and establish basic design principles for this novel type of protein delivery system. Poly-ε-caprolactone (PCL) is an excellent polymer for electrospinning and matrix-controlled drug delivery combining optimal processability and good biocompatibility. PCL was deployed as a matrix, and lysozyme was used as a crystallizing model protein. By rational combination of lysozyme crystals with a diameter of 0.7 or 2.1 μm and a PCL fiber diameter between 1.6 and 10 μm, release within the first 24 h could be varied between approximately 10 and 100%. Lysozyme loading of PCL microfibers between 0.5 and 5% was achieved without affecting processability. While relative release was unaffected by loading percentage, the amount of lysozyme released could be tailored. PCL was blended with poly(ethylene glycol) and poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) to further modify the release rate. Under optimized conditions, an almost constant lysozyme release over 11 weeks was achieved.
Chapter 3 takes on the findings made in chapter 2 and further modifies the properties of the nonwovens as protein crystal delivery system. Nonwoven scaffolds consisting of poly-ε-caprolactone (PCL), poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) and polidocanol (PD), and loaded with lysozyme crystals were prepared by electrospinning. The composition of the matrix was varied and the effect of PD content in binary mixtures, and of PD and PLGA content in ternary mixtures regarding processability, fiber morphology, water sorption, swelling and drug release was studied. Binary PCL/PD blend nonwovens showed a PD-dependent increase in swelling of up to 30% and of lysozyme burst release of up to 45% associated with changes of the fiber morphology. Furthermore, addition of free PD to the release medium resulted in a significant increase of lysozyme burst release from pure PCL nonwovens from approximately 2% to 35%. Using ternary PCL/PD/PLGA blends, matrix degradation could be significantly improved over PCL/PD blends, resulting in a biphasic release of lysozyme with constant release over 9 weeks, followed by constant release with a reduced rate over additional 4 weeks. Based on these results, protein release from PCL scaffolds is improved by blending with PD due to improved lysozyme desorption from the polymer surface and PD-dependent matrix swelling.
Chapter 4 gives deeper insight on lysozyme batch crystallization and shows the influences of the temperature on the precipitation excipients. Yet up to now protein crystallization in a pharmaceutical useful scale displays a challenge with crystal size and purity being important but difficult to control parameters. Some of these influences are being discussed here and a detailed description of crystallization methods and the achieved crystals are demonstrated.
Therapeutic use of such protein crystals may require further modification of the protein release rate through encapsulation. Silk fibroin (SF) harvested from the cocoons of Bombyx mori is a well-established protein suitable for encapsulation of small molecules as well as proteins for controlled drug delivery. This novel polymer was deployed for as carrier for the model drug crystals. Lysozyme again was used as a crystallizable protein and the effect of process- as well as formulation parameters of batch crystallization on crystal size were investigated using statistical design of experiments. Lysozyme crystal size depended on temperature and sodium chloride and poly(ethylenglycol) concentration of precipitant solution. Under optimized conditions, lysozyme crystals in a size range of approximately 0.3 to 10 µm were obtained. Furthermore, a solid-in-oil-in-water process for encapsulation of lysozyme crystals into SF was developed. Using this process, coating of protein crystals with another protein was achieved for the first time. Encapsulation resulted in a significant reduction of dissolution rate of lysozyme crystals, leading to prolonged release over up to 24 hours.
Starting in the late 1990s ionic liquids (ILs) gained momentum both in academia as well as industry. ILs are defined as organic salts with a melting point below 100 °C. Active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) may be transferred into ILs by creating salts with a bulky counterion with a soft electron density. ILs have demonstrated the potential to tune important pharmaceutical features such as the solubility and the dissolution rate, particularly addressing the challenge of poor water soluble drugs (PWSD). Due to the tunability of ILs, modification of physico-chemical properties of APIs may be envisioned without any modifications of the chemical structure.
In the first chapter the potential as well as the limitation of ILs are discussed. The chapter commences with an overview of preparation and characterization of API-ILs. Moreover, examples for pharmaceutical parameters are presented which may be affected by IL formation, including the dissolution rate, kinetic solubility or hygroscopicity as well as biopharmaceutical performance and toxicology. The impact of IL formation on those pharmaceutically relevant features is highlighted, resulting in a blueprint for a novel formulation concept to overcome PWSD challenges without the need for structural changes of the API.
Within the second chapter the IL concept is detailed for one specific API - counterion combination. A poorly water soluble acidic API against migraine attacks was transformed into an IL in an effort to minimize the time to maximum plasma concentration (tmax) and optimize the overall bioavailability. These studies were conducted in parallel to a prodrug of the API for comparison of the IL strategy versus a strategy involving modification of the API’s structure. A significantly longer duration of API supersaturation and a 700 fold faster dissolution rate of the IL in comparison to the free acid were obtained and the underlying mechanism was elucidated. The transepithelial absorption was determined using Caco-2 cell layers. For the IL about 3 times more substance was transported in comparison to the prodrug when substances were applied as suspensions, despite the higher permeability of the prodrug, as increased solubility of the IL exceeded this effect. Cytotoxicity of the counterion was assessed in hepatic, renal and macrophage cell lines, respectively, and IC50 values were in the upper µM / lower mM range. The outcome of the study suggested the IL approach instrumental for tuning biopharmaceutical properties, without structural changes of the API as required for preparation of prodrugs. Thus the toolbox for formulation strategies of poorly water soluble drugs could be extended by an efficient concept.
The third chapter focuses on the effect of different counterions on the physico-chemical properties of an API-IL, in particular to overcome the challenge of poor water solubility. Therefore, the same poorly water soluble acidic API against migraine attacks mentioned above was combined with 36 counterions resulting in ILs and low lattice enthalpy salts (LLES). Depending on the counterions, different dissolution rates, durations of supersaturation and hygroscopicities were obtained and release profiles could be tailored from immediate to sustained release. Besides, in vitro the cytotoxicity of the counterions was assessed in three cell lines. Using molecular descriptors such as the number of hydrophobic atoms, the graph theoretical diameter and the number of positive charges of the counterion, the dissolution rate, supersaturation and hygroscopicity as well as the cytotoxicity of counterions could be adequately modeled, rendering it possible to predict properties of new LLESs.
Within the forth chapter different poorly water soluble APIs were combined with the counterion tetrabutylphosphonium (TBP) studying the impact on the pharmaceutical and physical properties of the APIs. TBP-ILs and low lattice enthalpy salts were prepared of the acidic APIs Diclofenac, Ibuprofen, Ketoprofen, Naproxen, Sulfadiazine, Sulfamethoxazole and Tolbutamide. NMR and IR spectroscopy, DSC, XRPD, DVS and dissolution rate measurements, release profiles and saturation concentration measurements were used to characterize the free acids and TBP salts as compared to the corresponding sodium salts. The TBP salts as compared to the free acids displayed lower melting points and glass transition temperatures and up to 1000 times higher dissolution rates. The increase in the dissolution rate directly correlated with the salts’ hygroscopicity, an aspect which is critically discussed in terms of pharmaceutical translation challenges. In summary TBP ILs of solid salts were proved instrumental to approach the challenge of poor water solubility. The outcome profiled tailor-made counterions as a powerful formulation strategy to address poor water solubility, hence bioavailability and ultimately therapeutic potential of challenging APIs.
In summary, a plethora of ILs and LLESs were prepared by combination of different acidic APIs and counterions. The IL and LLESs concept was compared to conventional salt and prodrug strategies. By choice of the counterion, biopharmaceutical relevant parameters were deliberately modified and release profiles were tuned ranging from immediate to prolonged release. The impact of distinct structural counterion features controlling the dissolution, supersaturation, hygroscopicity and counterion cytotoxicity were identified, correlations were presented and predictive models were built. ILs and LLESs could be proven to be a powerful concept for the formulation of poorly water soluble acidic APIs.
\textbf{Molecular Determinants of Drug-Target Residence Times of Bacterial Enoyl-ACP Reductases.} Whereas optimization processes of early drug discovery campaigns are often affinity-driven, the drug-target residence time $t_R$ should also be considered due to an often strong correlation with \textit{in vivo} efficacy of compounds. However, rational optimization of $t_R$ is not straightforward and generally hampered by the lack of structural information about the transition states of ligand association and dissociation. The enoyl-ACP reductase FabI of the fatty acid synthesis (FAS) type II is an important drug-target in antibiotic research. InhA is the FabI enzyme of \textit{Mycobacterium tuberculosis}, which is known to be inhibited by various compound classes. Slow-onset inhibition of InhA is assumed to be associated with the ordering of the most flexible protein region, the substrate binding loop (SBL). Diphenylethers are one class of InhA inhibitors that can promote such SBL ordering, resulting in long drug-target residence times. Although these inhibitors are energetically and kinetically well characterized, it is still unclear how the structural features of a ligand affect $t_R$.
Using classical molecular dynamics (MD) simulations, recurring conformational families of InhA protein-ligand complexes were detected and structural determinants of drug-target residence time of diphenyl\-ethers with different kinetic profiles were described. This information was used to deduce guidelines for efficacy improvement of InhA inhibitors, including 5'-substitution on the diphenylether B-ring. The validity of this suggestion was then analyzed by means of MD simulations.
Moreover, Steered MD (SMD) simulations were employed to analyze ligand dissociation of diphenylethers from the FabI enzyme of \textit{Staphylococcus aureus}. This approach resulted in a very accurate and quantitative linear regression model of the experimental $ln(t_R)$ of these inhibitors as a function of the calculated maximum free energy change of induced ligand extraction. This model can be used to predict the residence times of new potential inhibitors from crystal structures or valid docking poses.
Since correct structural characterization of the intermediate enzyme-inhibitor state (EI) and the final state (EI*) of two-step slow-onset inhibition is crucial for rational residence time optimization, the current view of the EI and EI* states of InhA was revisited by means of crystal structure analysis, MD and SMD simulations. Overall, the analyses affirmed that the EI* state is a conformation resembling the 2X23 crystal structure (with slow-onset inhibitor \textbf{PT70}), whereas a twist of residues Ile202 and Val203 with a further opened helix $\alpha 6$ corresponds to the EI state. Furthermore, MD simulations emphasized the influence of close contacts to symmetry mates in the SBL region on SBL stability, underlined by the observation that an MD simulation of \textbf{PT155} chain A with chain B' of a symmetry mate in close proximity of the SBL region showed significantly more stable loops, than a simulation of the tetrameric assembly. Closing Part I, SMD simulations were employed which allow the delimitation of slow-onset InhA inhibitors from rapid reversible ligands.
\textbf{Prediction of \textit{Mycobacterium tuberculosis} Cell Wall Permeability.} The cell wall of \textit{M. tuberculosis} hampers antimycobacterial drug design due to its unique composition, providing intrinsic antibiotic resistance against lipophilic and hydrophilic compounds. To assess the druggability space of this pathogen, a large-scale data mining endeavor was conducted, based on multivariate statistical analysis of differences in the physico-chemical composition of a normally distributed drug-like chemical space and a database of antimycobacterial--and thus very likely permeable--compounds. The approach resulted in the logistic regression model MycPermCheck, which is able to predict the permeability probability of small organic molecules based on their physico-chemical properties. Evaluation of MycPermCheck suggests a high predictive power. The model was implemented as a freely accessible online service and as a local stand-alone command-line version.
Methodologies and findings from both parts of this thesis were combined to conduct a virtual screening for antimycobacterial substances. MycPermCheck was employed to screen the chemical permeability space of \textit{M. tuberculosis} from the entire ZINC12 drug-like database. After subsequent filtering steps regarding ADMET properties, InhA was chosen as an exemplary target. Docking to InhA led to a principal hit compound, which was further optimized. The quality of the interaction of selected derivatives with InhA was subsequently evaluated using MD and SMD simulations in terms of protein and ligand stability, as well as maximum free energy change of induced ligand egress. The results of the presented computational experiments suggest that compounds with an indole-3-acethydrazide scaffold might constitute a novel class of InhA inhibitors, worthwhile of further investigation.
An important kinetic parameter for drug efficacy is the residence time of a compound at a drug target, which is related to the dissociation rate constant koff. For the essential antimycobacterial target InhA, this parameter is most likely governed by the ordering of the flexible substrate binding loop (SBL). Whereas the diphenyl ether inhibitors 6PP and triclosan (TCL) do not show loop ordering and thus, no slow-binding inhibition and high koff values, the slightly modified PT70 leads to an ordered loop and a residence time of 24 minutes. To assess the structural differences of the complexes from a dynamic point of view, molecular dynamics (MD) simulations with a total sampling time of 3.0 µs were performed for three ligand-bound and two ligand-free (perturbed) InhA systems. The individual simulations show comparable conformational features with respect to both the binding pocket and the SBL, allowing to define five recurring conformational families. Based on their different occurrence frequencies in the simulated systems, the conformational preferences could be linked to structural differences of the respective ligands to reveal important determinants of residence time. The most abundant conformation besides the stable EI* state is characterized by a shift of Ile202 and Val203 toward the hydrophobic pocket of InhA. The analyses revealed potential directions for avoiding this conformational change and, thus, hindering rapid dissociation: (1) an anchor group in 2'-position of the B-ring for scaffold stabilization, (2) proper occupation of the hydrophobic pocket, and (3) the introduction of a barricade substituent in 5'-position of the diphenyl ether B-ring.
Bornyl caffeate (1) was previously isolated by us from Valeriana (V.) wallichii rhizomes and identified as an anti-leishmanial substance. Here, we screened a small compound library of synthesized derivatives 1–30 for activity against schistosomula of Schistosoma (S.) mansoni. Compound 1 did not show any anti-schistosomal activity. However, strong phenotypic changes, including the formation of vacuoles, degeneration and death were observed after in vitro treatment with compounds 23 (thymyl cinnamate) and 27 (eugenyl cinnamate). Electron microscopy analysis of the induced vacuoles in the dying parasites suggests that 23 and 27 interfere with autophagy.
The chloroform extract of Valeriana wallichii (V. wallichii) rhizomes was investigated to elucidate the structures responsible for reported antileishmanial activity. Besides bornyl caffeate (1, already been reported by us previously), bioassay-guided fractionation resulted in two additional cinnamic acid derivatives 2–3 with moderate leishmanicidal activity. The structure of a novel nepetolactone derivative 4 having a cinnamic acid moiety was elucidated by means of spectral analysis. To the best of our knowledge villoside aglycone (5) was isolated from this plant for the first time. The bioassay-guided fractionation yielded two new (compounds 6–7) and two known valtrates (compounds 8–9) with leishmanicidal potential against Leishmania major (L. major) promastigotes. In addition, β-bisabolol (10), α-kessyl alcohol (11), valeranone (12), bornyl isovalerate (13) and linarin-2-O-methylbutyrate (14) were identified. This is the first report on the isolation of 4'-demethylpodophyllotoxin (15), podophyllotoxin (16) and pinoresinol (17) in V. wallichii. In total thirteen known and four new compounds were identified from the extract and their cytotoxic and antileishmanial properties were evaluated.
Dietary polyphenols have been related to beneficial effects on humans’ health. Pycnogenol®, a dietary polyphenol-rich food supplement complies with the monograph “Maritime pine extract” in the United States Pharmacopeia (USP) and has demonstrated effects in different diseases. Several human trials concerning knee osteoarthritis have shown significant improvement of the symptoms like reducing the pain and the stiffness of the joint(s) upon intake of Pycnogenol®. After oral intake of multiple doses of Pycnogenol® previously low concentrations in the nanomolar range of monomeric extract constituents have been found in human plasma as well as a bioactive metabolite, δ-(3,4-dihydroxy-phenyl)-γ-valerolactone (M1), which is formed by the human intestinal flora from the procyanidins’ catechin units. It is not clear yet which compound(s) of the complex extract is (are) mainly responsible for the described clinical effects of Pycnogenol®. To gain deeper insights into the in vivo fate of the pine bark extract the distribution of its constitutents and metabolites was closer investigated in the present thesis.
Initial in vitro experiments suggested a facilitated cellular uptake of M1 into human erythrocytes, possibly via GLUT-1 transporter. For elucidating further the in vitro and in vivo metabolism of M1 in human blood cells, a metabolomic approach was performed using UPLC-ESI-qTOF-MSE analysis, which revealed a comprehensive and rapid metabolism of M1 to a variety of biotransformation products in human blood cells. Predominant metabolites were found to be conjugates of glutathione (GSH) isomers, namely M1-S-GSH and M1-N-GSH. Further sulfur-containing biotransformation products of M1 were conjugates with oxidized glutathione (M1-GSSG) and cysteine (M1-CYS) and the sulfated derivative of M1 (M1-sulfated). Other in vitro biotransformation products constituted the open-chained ester form of M1 (M1-COOH), hydroxybenzoic acid and the methylated (M1-methylated), acetylated (M1-acetylated), hydroxylated (M1-hydroxylated) and ethylated (M1-ethylated) derivatives of M1. Indeed, six of these in vitro metabolites, respectively M1-COOH, M1-sulfated, hydroxybenzoic acid, M1-S-GSH, M1-methylated and M1-acetylated, were also identified in vivo in blood cells of human volunteers after ingestion of Pycnogenol®. Related reference material was synthesized for reliable confirmation of the metabolites M1-GSH, M1-GSSG, M1-CYS and M1-COOH.
In the course of a randomized controlled clinical trial patients suffering from severe osteoarthritis ingested multiple doses of 200 mg/day Pycnogenol® for three weeks before they were scheduled for an elective knee replacement surgery. Various biological specimen, respectively blood cells, synovial fluid and serum samples, were to be analyzed to investigate the distribution and disposition of possibly bioactive constituents and metabolites. Therefore, highly sensitive methods were developed using liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS)- technology because of the expected low concentrations of the analytes in the related matrices.
Initially, for each matrix different sample preparation techniques (protein precipitation, liquid-liquid extraction, solid phase extraction and useful combinations thereof) were compared to achieve maximum detection sensitivity of the analytes that were of highest interest, namely M1, ferulic acid and taxifolin. By comparing 32 various sample clean-up procedures in human serum, the highest recovery of the metabolite M1 was achieved using a liquid-liquid extraction with ethyl acetate and tert-butyl methyl ether at a serum pH-value of 3.2. A similar extraction method was also chosen for analyte detection in human synovial fluid after comparing 31 different sample preparation techniques. Whole blood or blood cells are difficult to handle because of their high viscosity and strong coloration. The QuEChERS (quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged and safe) approach which was originally developed for the food safety and thus for the determination of pesticide residues in fruits and vegetables yielded the highest total recovery rate of M1 in human blood cells when assessing 18 different sample clean-up techniques. By applying the QuEChERS method for the first time for the simultaneous and highly sensitive quantification of selected polyphenols in human blood cells it was demonstrated that this fast and inexpensive technique can be applied in clinical fields for cleaning-up highly complex and thus challenging biological matrices. All developed methods for the different biological specimen were optimized to achieve maximum sensitivity of the target analytes. The determined lower limits of quantification (LLOQs) were sufficient for the quantification of the study samples. The LLOQs ranged from 113 pg/mL for taxifolin to 48 ng/mL for caffeic acid in blood cells and from 80 pg/mL for taxifolin to 3 ng/mL for caffeic acid in synovial fluid. In human serum the LLOQs even ranged down to 35 pg/mL for taxifolin and up to 8 ng/mL for caffeic acid. All analytical methods were subjected to a full validation according to current EMA and FDA guidelines and fulfilled those criteria, showing excellent performance and reliability of the developed and optimized methods.
Serum, blood cells and synovial fluid samples of the osteoarthritis patients were all processed with an enzymatic incubation with ß-glucuronidase/sulfatase to hydrolyse conjugates (phase-II-metabolism) prior the actual sample preparation. Additionally, serum samples of the osteoarthritis patients were prepared without enzymatic hydrolysis to determine the individual degree of conjugation with sulfate and glucuronic acid of the analytes.
All determined concentrations in the patients’ samples were in the lower ng/mL range. Notably, highest total concentrations of the polyphenols were not detected in serum, in which the degree of analyte conjugation with sulfate and glucuronic acid ranged from 54.29 ± 26.77% for catechin to 98.34 ± 4.40% for M1. The flavonoids catechin and taxifolin mainly partitioned into blood cells, whereas the metabolite M1, ferulic and caffeic acid primarily resided in the synovial fluid. The concentration of M1 in the blood cells was low, however, this could be explained by the previously observed extensive and rapid intracellular metabolism in vitro. This was now supported by the in vivo evidence in samples of patients who received Pycnogenol® in which the open-chained ester form of M1 (M1-COOH) as well as the glutathione conjugate of M1 (M1-GSH) were identified, indicating that M1 does not accumulate in its original form in vivo. Possibly, a variety of bioactive metabolites exist which might play an important role for the clinical effects of Pycnogenol®.
Although the study participants were requested to avoid polyphenol-rich food and beverages within the last two days before the blood samplings this was obviously difficult for most of the patients. Hence, no statistically significantly difference was observed in the mean polyphenol concentrations in serum, blood cells and synovial fluid between the intervention and the control group. Nevertheless, it was possible to identify marker compounds for Pycnogenol® intake under real life conditions with occasional or regular consumption of polyphenol-rich foods and beverages. Thereby, ferulic acid was found in serum samples exclusively after intake of Pycnogenol®, confirming that ferulic acid is a suitable marker of consumption of French maritime pine bark extract. Taxifolin was present in serum and synovial fluid exclusively in the intervention group indicating a role as further marker of Pycnogenol® intake. Taxifolin, ferulic acid and caffeic acid were detected in both serum and synovial fluid only in the intervention group. Moreover, the metabolite M1, taxifolin and ferulic acid were only detected simultaneously in all matrices (serum, blood cells and synovial fluid) after ingestion of Pycnogenol®.
Thus, deeper insights into the distribution of bioactive constituents and metabolites of Pycnogenol® into serum, blood cells and synovial fluid after oral administration to patients with severe osteoarthritis were gained. The present study provides the first evidence that polyphenols indeed distribute into the synovial fluid of patients with osteoarthritis where they might contribute to clinical effects.
Intraperitoneal adhesions are fibrous bands that connect tissues in the peritoneal cavity that are usually separated. These adhesions form as a consequence of trauma, inflammation or surgical interventions and often result in severe consequences such as chronic pain, small bowel obstructions or female infertility.
The aim of this thesis was to develop a synthetic barrier device for adhesion prevention made of modified poly(lactide) [PLA]. Solid PLA films (SurgiWrap®) are already successfully in clinical use due to the good biocompatibility and the biodegradability of the material resulting in non-toxic degradation products since lactic acid is naturally part of the metabolic circles of the human body. Considering the brittleness and stiffness of the films, the long degradation time of several months as well as the need for suturing, there is potential for optimization. Through a copolymerization with the hydrophilic poly(ethylene glycol) [PEG], a reduction of the degradation time was intendend. Moreover, the copolymerization should also lead to an improvement of the mechanical properties of the films since PEG acts as plasticizer for PLA. Linear PLA-PEG-PLA triblock copolymers as well as star-shaped PEG-PLA copolymers were synthesized via standard ring opening polymerization to tailor the barrier properties. Besides solid films, solution electrospun meshes from PLA and the synthesized PEG-PLA copolymers were investigated for a potential application as well. Since suturing of a barrier additionally induces adhesion formation, alginate coated membranes were prepared in order to achieve self-adhesiveness. With the intention to reduce infections and consequently inflammation, electrospun meshes and solvent cast films were loaded with the antibacterial drug triclosan and drug release as well as antibacterial efficacy was investigated.
Mechanical tests confirmed that through the variation of the PEG content and branching the mechanical properties can be tailored and are in good accordance with the glass transition temperatures [Tg] of the polymers. Consequently, potentially adequate mechanical properties for surgical handling as well as for the performance within the patient’s body were successfully achieved. Degradation studies revealed that the degradation time was significantly shorter for PEG-PLA membranes than for PLA films and with an appropriate PEG content could be adjusted to the intended time frame. Cell adhesion and viability tests confirmed the non-toxicity of the clinically used PLA films as well as of PEG-PLA films and meshes. With a bioadhesion test the benefit of an alginate coated side towards the pure PLA film concerning self-adhesiveness was successfully demonstrated. Moreover, optical evaluations and a T-peel test of different alginate coated PLA films showed that the cohesion between the chemically different layers was distinctly enhanced by the use of an appropriate PEG-PLA mesh as intermediate cohesion promoting layer. In in vitro release studies with triclosan loaded films a higher release was determined for PEG-PLA than for PLA films. In agar diffusion tests a higher and longer inhibition of staphylococcus aureus growth was observed confirming the release results. Moreover, drug loaded meshes (especially drug loaded after electrospinning) showed enhanced and elongated bacterial inhibition in comparison to films.
Protein-protein interactions play a crucial role in the development of drug delivery devices for the increasingly important biologicals, including antibodies, growth factors and cytokines. The understanding thereof might offer opportunities for tailoring carriers or drug proteins specifically for this purpose and thereby allow controlled delivery to a chosen target. The possible applications range from trigger-dependent release to sustained drug delivery and possibly permanently present stimuli, depending on the anticipated mechanism.
Silk fibroin (SF) is a biomaterial that is suitable as a carrier for protein drug delivery devices. It combines processability under mild conditions, good biocompatibility and stabilizing effects on incorporated proteins.
As SF is naturally produced by spiders and silkworms, the understanding of this process and its major factors might offer a blueprint for formulation scientists, interested in working with this biopolymer. The natural process of silk spinning covers a fascinating versatility of aggregate states, ranging from colloidal solutions through hydrogels to solid systems. The transition among these states is controlled by a carefully orchestrated process in vivo. Major players within the natural process include the control of spatial pH throughout passage of the silk dope, the composition and type of ions, and fluid flow mechanics within the duct, respectively. The function of these input parameters on the spinning process is reviewed before detailing their impact on the design and manufacture of silk based drug delivery systems (DDS). Examples are reported including the control of hydrogel formation during storage or significant parameters controlling precipitation in the presence of appropriate salts, respectively. The review details the use of silk fibroin to develop liquid, semiliquid or solid DDS with a focus on the control of SF crystallization, particle formation, and drug-SF interaction for tailored drug load.
Although we were able to show many examples for SF drug delivery applications and there are many publications about the loading of biologics to SF systems, the mechanism of interaction between both in solution was not yet extensively explored. This is why we made this the subject of our work, as it might allow for direct influence on pharmaceutical parameters, like aggregation and drug load.
In order to understand the underlying mechanism for the interaction between SF and positively charged model proteins, we used isothermal titration calorimetry for thermodynamic characterization. This was supported by hydrophobicity analysis and by colloidal characterization methods including static light scattering, nanoparticle tracking analysis and zeta potential measurements. We studied the effects of three Hofmeister salts – NaCl (neutral), NaSCN (chaotropic) and Na2SO4 (cosmotropic) – and the pH on the interaction of SF with the model proteins in dependence of the ratio from one to another. The salts impacted the SF structure by stabilizing (cosmotropic) or destabilizing (chaotropic) the SF micelles, resulting in completely abolished (cosmotropic) or strongly enhanced (chaotropic) interaction. These effects were responsible for different levels of loading and coacervation when varying type of salt and its concentration. Additionally, NaCl and NaSCN were able to prolong the stability of aqueous SF solution during storage at 25°C in a preliminary study.
Another approach to influence protein-protein interactions was followed by covalent modification. Interleukin-4 (IL-4) is a cytokine driving macrophages to M2 macrophages, which are known to provide anti-inflammatory effects. The possibility to regulate the polarization of macrophages to this state might be attractive for a variety of diseases, like atherosclerosis, in which macrophages are involved. As these cases demand a long-term treatment, this polarization was supposed to be maintained over time and we were planning to achieve this by keeping IL-4 permanently present in an immobilized way. In order to immobilize it, we genetically introduced an alkyne-carrying, artificial amino acid in the IL-4 sequence. This allowed access to a site-specific click reaction (Cu(I)-catalyzed Huisgen azide-alkyne cycloaddition) with an azide partner. This study was able to set the basis for the project by successful expression and purification of the IL-4 analogue and by proving the availability for the click reaction and maintained bioactivity. The other side of this project was the isolation of human monocytes and the polarization and characterization of human macrophages. The challenge here was that the majority of related research was based on murine macrophages which was not applicable to human cells and the successful work was so far limited to establishing the necessary methods.
In conclusion, we were able to show two different methods that allow the influence of protein-protein interactions and thereby the possible tailoring of drug loading. Although the results were very promising for both systems, their applicability in the development of drug delivery devices needs to be shown by further studies.
Heart failure is one of the growing causes of death especially in developed countries due to longer life expectancy. Although many pharmacological and instrumental therapeutic approaches have been introduced for prevention and treatment of heart failure, there are still limitations and challenges. Nuclear cardiology has experienced rapid growth in the last few decades, in particular the application of single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) and positron emission tomography (PET), which allow non-invasive functional assessment of cardiac condition including neurohormonal systems involved in heart failure; its application has dramatically improved the capacity for fundamental research and clinical diagnosis. In this article, we review the current status of applying radionuclide technology in non-invasive imaging of neurohormonal system in the heart, especially focusing on the tracers that are currently available. A short discussion about disadvantages and perspectives is also included.
Aims: The aim of the current study was to establish a simple and yet as much as possible physiologic approach for a simulation of the pulmonary absorption process to compare different inhaled drugs or drug formulations.
Methodology: We designed a dialysis setting that allowed monitoring the drug release from human lung tissue into a continuous-flow plasma compartment. For proof-of-concept experiments we chose the glucocorticoid fluticasone propionate (FP) as model compound. For subsequent experiments we selected a commercially available metered dose inhaler delivering a fixed combination of the short-acting ß2-agonist fenoterol and the muscarinic antagonist ipratropium bromide.
Results: With the novel dynamic dialysis model we observed high drug transport rates from the lung tissue into plasma including an elimination phase. The concentration profile in the plasma compartment of our model system was similar to the plasma concentration courses after inhalation of FP. Compared to FP significantly higher drug fractions of fenoterol and ipratropium bromide were released into plasma and the transfer of ipratropium was more pronounced compared to fenoterol. Again, concentration profiles in plasma were alike to those described in clinical studies.
Conclusion: We suggest that this model is appropriate for rapid assessment of comparative diffusion behaviour of drugs or drug formulations from lung tissue into plasma.
Background: Topical glucocorticosteroids are the first line therapy for airway inflammation. Modern compounds with higher efficacy have been developed, but head-to-head comparison studies are sparse.
Objective: To compare the activity of two intranasal glucocorticoids, fluticasone furoate (FF) and mometasone furoate (MF) with respect to the inhibition of T helper (Th)1, Th2 and Th17 cytokine release in airway mucosa.
Methods: We used an ex-vivo human nasal mucosal tissue model and employed pre-and post-Staphylococcus aureus enterotoxin B (SEB)-challenge incubations with various time intervals and drug concentrations to mimic typical clinical situations of preventive or therapeutic use.
Results: At a fixed concentration of 10(-10) M, FF had significantly higher suppressive effects on interferon (IFN)-gamma,interleukin (IL)-2 and IL-17 release, but not IL-5 or tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha, vs. MF. While the maximal suppressive activity was maintained when FF was added before or after tissue stimulation, the cytokine suppression capacity of MF appeared to be compromised when SEB-induced cell activation preceded the addition of the drug. In a pre-challenge incubation setting with removal of excess drug concentrations, MF approached inhibition of IL-5 and TNF-alpha after 6 and 24 hours while FF maximally blocked the release of these cytokines right after pre-incubation. Furthermore, FF suppressed a wider range of T helper cytokines compared to MF.
Conclusion: The study demonstrates the potential of our human mucosal model and shows marked differences in the ability to suppress the release of various cytokines in pre-and post-challenge settings between FF and MF mimicking typical clinical situations of preventive or therapeutic use.
Bioassay-guided fractionation of a chloroform extract of Valeriana wallichii (V. wallichii) rhizomes lead to the isolation and identification of caffeic acid bornyl ester (1) as the active component against Leishmania major (L. major) promastigotes (IC50 = 48.8 µM). To investigate the structure-activity relationship (SAR), a library of compounds based on 1 was synthesized and tested in vitro against L. major and L. donovani promastigotes, and L. major amastigotes. Cytotoxicity was determined using a murine J774.1 cell line and bone marrow derived macrophages (BMDM). Some compounds showed antileishmanial activity in the concentration range of pentamidine and miltefosine which are the standard drugs in use. In the L. major amastigote assay compounds 15, 19 and 20 showed good activity with relatively low cytotoxicity against BMDM, resulting in acceptable selectivity indices. Molecules with adjacent phenolic hydroxyl groups exhibited elevated cytotoxicity against murine cell lines J774.1 and BMDM. The Michael system seems not to be essential for antileishmanial activity. Based on the results compound 27 can be regarded as new lead structure for further structure optimization
Each year millions of plastic and reconstructive procedures are performed to regenerate soft tissue defects after, for example, traumata, deep burns or tumor resections. Tissue engineered adipose tissue grafts are a promising alternative to autologous fat transfer or synthetic implants to meet this demand for adipose tissue. Strategies of tissue engineering, especially the use of cell carriers, provide an environment for better cell survival, an easier positioning and supplemented with the appropriate conditions a faster vascularization in vivo. To successfully engineer an adipose tissue substitute for clinical use, it is crucial to know the actual intended application. In some areas, like the upper and lower extremities, only a thin subcutaneous fat layer is needed and in others, large volumes of vascularized fat grafts are more desirable. The use and interplay of stem cells and selected scaffolds were investigated and provide now a basis for the generation of fitted and suitable substitutes in two different application areas.
Complex injuries of the upper and lower extremities, in many cases, lead to excessive scarring. Due to severe damage to the subcutaneous fat layer, a common sequela is adhesion formation to mobile structures like tendons, nerves, and blood vessels resulting in restricted motion and disabling pain [Moor 1996, McHugh 1997]. In order to generate a subcutaneous fat layer to cushion scarred tissue after substantial burns or injuries, different collagen matrices were tested for clinical handling and the ability to support adipogenesis. When testing five different collagen matrices, PermacolTM and StratticeTM showed promising characteristics; additionally both possess the clinical approval. Under culture conditions, only PermacolTM, a cross-linked collagen matrix, exhibited an excellent long-term stability. Ranking nearly on the same level was StratticeTM, a non-cross-linked dermal scaffold; it only exhibited a slight shrinkage. All other scaffolds tested were severely compromised in stability under culture conditions. Engineering a subcutaneous fat layer, a construct would be desirable with a thin layer of emerging fat for cushioning on one side, and a non-seeded other side for cell migration and host integration. With PermacolTM and StratticeTM, it was possible to produce constructs with ASC (adipose derived stem cells) seeded on one side, which could be adipogenically differentiated. Additionally, the thickness of the cell layer could be varied. Thereby, it becomes possible to adjust the thickness of the construct to the surrounding tissue. In order to reduce the pre-implantation time ex vivo and the costs, the culture time was varied by testing different induction protocols. An adipogenic induction period of only four days was demonstrated to be sufficient to obtain a substantial adipogenic differentiation of the applied ASC. Thus, seeded with ASC, PermacolTM and StratticeTM are suitable scaffolds to engineer subcutaneous fat layers for reconstruction of the upper and lower extremities, as they support adipogenesis and are appropriately thin, and therefore would not compromise the cosmesis.
For the engineering of large-volume adipose tissue, adequate vascularization still represents a major challenge. With the objective to engineer vascularized fat pads, it is important to consider the slow kinetics of revascularization in vivo. Therefore, a decellularized porcine jejunum with pre-existing vascular structures and pedicles to connect to the host vasculature or the circulation of a bioreactor system was used. In a first step, the ability of a small decellularized jejunal section was tested for cell adhesion and for supporting adipogenic differentiation of hASC mono-cultures. Cell adhesion and adipogenic maturation of ASC seeded on the jejunal material was verified through histological and molecular analysis. After the successful mono-culture, the goal was to establish a MVEC (microvascular endothelial cells) and ASC co-culture; suitable culture conditions had to be found, which support the viability of both cell types and do not interfere with the adipogenic differentiation. After the elimination of EGF (epidermal growth factor) from the co-culture medium, substantial adipogenic maturation was observed. In the next step, a large jejunal segment (length 8 cm), with its pre-existing vascular structures and arterial/venous pedicles, was connected to the supply system of a custom-made bioreactor. After successful reseeding the vascular structure with endothelial cells, the lumen was seeded with ASC which were then adipogenically induced. Histological and molecular examinations confirmed adipogenic maturation and the existence of seeded vessels within the engineered construct. Noteworthily, a co-localization of adipogenically differentiating ASC and endothelial cells in vascular networks could be observed. So, for the first time a vascularized fat construct was developed in vitro, based on the use of a decellularized porcine jejunum. As this engineered construct can be connected to a supply system or even to a patient vasculature, it is versatile in use, for example, as transplant in plastic and reconstruction surgery, as model in basic research or as an in vitro drug testing system.
To summarize, in this work a promising substitute for subcutaneous fat layer reconstruction, in the upper and lower extremities, was developed, and the first, as far as reported, in vitro generated adipose tissue construct with integrated vascular networks was successfully engineered.
Development and validation of LC-MS/MS methods to determine PK/PD parameters of anti-infectives
(2014)
In the present thesis the development and validation of bioanalytical LC-MS/MS methods for the quantification of erythromycin A, erythromycin ethylsuccinate, roxithromycin, clarithromycin, 14 hydroxy clarithromycin, flucloxacillin, piperacillin and moxifloxacin in human plasma and human urine (piperacillin) is introduced. All methods were applied to analyze human plasma and urine samples from clinical trials and therefore, have been validated according to international guidelines. The methods were reliable in these studies and fulfilled all regulatory requirements known at the time of the study conduct.
Moreover, the validation data of the macrolides were compared on three different mass spectrometers (API III Plus, API 3000™, API 5000™). The new innovations in the ion source (horizontal versus vertical electrospray), the ionpath (skimmer, QJet) and the diameter of the orifice resulted in better sensitivity and a larger linearity range for the majority of the analytes. Sensitivity was improved up to a factor of 12 (for clarithromycin) between API III Plus to API 3000™ and up to a factor of 8 (for erythromycin and roxithromycin) between API 3000™ and API 5000™, keeping the accuracy and precision data at about the same level. The high sensitivity was a benefit for example for the flucloxacillin study, because concentrations from all subject samples were detectable up to approximately eight half-lives, i.e. no concentrations needed to be reported below the quantification limit. Also the linearity range were extended from two orders of magnitude to up to four orders of magnitude, which increases the likelihood to allow to analyze all samples from a pharmacokinetic study in the same run.
This is especially useful if a large concentration range needs to be analysed, for example, if the method shall be applied in an ascending dose study. Then, all low concentrations from the beginning of the study can be determined, as well as all high concentrations, without the need to dilute and analyse single samples repeatedly.
The pharmacokinetic data were compared to previously reported literature data and correlated graphically with MIC values of popular microorganisms which might be a starting point for further PK/PD investigations.
The PK/PD theory is a very helpful tool for prediction of the efficacy of given drugs against certain micro-organisms. Depending on the pharmacodynamic processes, e. g. the mode of action, three classes of drugs have been identified.
In the same way this applies to adverse effects, which need to be minimised by reducing plasma concentrations. These coherences are not well-investigated, yet, and are not discussed further in this thesis.
Still, a lot of research has to be done in this interdisciplinary field to minimise uncertainty in single values, like an AUC/MIC. These include:
Improve accuracy and precision of bioanalytical methods determining total and free concentration data in biological matrices for calculation of AUC and Cmax
These parameters are related to the MIC in pharmacodynamic considerations. Since the determination of the MIC often underlies significant variations and also differences between microbiological laboratories, the determination of concentrations of anti-infectives is particular important, being achievable by scientific exact techniques. Finally, from the volume of distribution of antibiotics can be used to derive information about intracellular concentrations and effectivity of antiinfectives.
The female sex hormone 17beta-estradiol, produced naturally in the body, seems to play an important role in the development of breast cancer, since (i) it can be activated to reactive metabolites, which are known to damage DNA and (ii) the stimulation of the estrogen receptor alpha by 17beta-estradiol enhances cell proliferation. Both processes together increase mutation frequency and subsequently lead to transformation of epithelial cells. Therefore, the aim of this work was to characterize the influence of polymorphisms and lifestyle factors on 17beta-estradiol metabolism in normal mammary gland tissue. [...]
In sum, the tissue specific 17beta-estradiol metabolism was described in mammary gland tissue homogenate, whereas differences in proliferation of epithelial cells were only reflected in isolated epithelial cells. Factors associated with breast cancer risk (age, BMI and age-related changes in mammary gland morphology) were shown to affect 17beta-estradiol tissue levels.
The 17beta-estradiol mediated genotoxicity was evaluated using bioinformatically calculated
DNA adduct fluxes, which were predominately influenced by individual mRNA patterns rather than individual genotypes and (DNA adduct fluxes) were correlated with known breast cancer risk factors (age, parity, BMI and polymorphism of glutathione-S-transferase theta 1).
It began with citrus
(2013)
Pentacyclic triterpenes from Cecropia telenitida with immunomodulatory activity on dendritic cells
(2013)
Pentacyclic triterpenes are a large family of plant metabolites that exhibit a wide array of biological activities. The genus Cecropia, which encompasses many plant species, has been used as traditional medicine for the treatment of inflammatory diseases and is known to produce many active pentacyclic triterpenes. In this study we investigated the chemical composition of a pentacyclic triterpene fraction from the roots of Cecropia telenitida Cuatrec., Urticaceae. A novel compound, which we termed yarumic acid, and four known molecules (serjanic acid, spergulagenic acid A, 20-hydroxy-ursolic acid and goreishic acid I) were isolated and characterised. In a dendritic cell (DC)-based assay, we demonstrated that non-toxic doses of these pentacyclic triterpenes inhibited the secretion of at least one of the proinflammatory cytokines tested (IL-1 beta, IL-12p40, IL-12p70, TNF-alpha). Spergulagenic acid A also inhibited nitric oxide production in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated dendritic cell. Serjanic acid and spergulagenic acid A, which were the most potent abundant compounds in the pentacyclic triterpene fraction, showed the most activity in the dendritic cell-based assay. These results show that all pentacyclic triterpenes might contribute to the anti-inflammatory activities of C. telenitida. Moreover, yarumic acid as well as the four known pentacyclic triterpenes, can be exploited as potential immunomodulatory/anti-inflammatory agents.
The trypanothione synthetase (TryS) catalyses the two-step biosynthesis of trypanothione from spermidine and glutathione and is an attractive new drug target for the development of trypanocidal and antileishmanial drugs, especially since the structural information of TryS from Leishmania major has become available. Unfortunately, the TryS structure was solved without any of the substrates and lacks loop regions that are mechanistically important. This contribution describes docking and molecular dynamics simulations that led to further insights into trypanothione biosynthesis and, in particular, explains the binding modes of substrates for the second catalytic step. The structural model essentially confirm previously proposed binding sites for glutathione, ATP and two \(Mg^{2+}\) ions, which appear identical for both catalytic steps. The analysis of an unsolved loop region near the proposed spermidine binding site revealed a new pocket that was demonstrated to bind glutathionylspermidine in an inverted orientation. For the second step of trypanothione synthesis glutathionylspermidine is bound in a way that preferentially allows \(N^1\)-glutathionylation of \(N^8\)-glutathionylspermidine, classifying \(N^8\)-glutathionylspermidine as the favoured substrate. By inhibitor docking, the binding site for \(N^8\)-glutathionylspermidine was characterised as druggable.
Cholinesterases are important biological targets responsible for regulation of cholinergic transmission, and their inhibitors are used for the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease. To design new cholinesterase inhibitors, of different structure-based design strategies was followed, including the modification of compounds from a previously developed library and a fragment-based design approach. This led to the selection of heterodimeric structures as potential inhibitors. Synthesis and biological evaluation of selected candidates confirmed that the designed compounds were acetylcholinesterase inhibitors with \(IC_{50}\) values in the mid-nanomolar to low micromolar range, and some of them were also butyrylcholinesterase inhibitors.
Baclofen (1) is a potent and selective agonist for bicuculline-insensitive GABAB receptors and is used clinically as an antispastic and muscle relaxant agent. In the search for new bioactive chemical entities that bind specifically to GABAB receptors, we report here the synthesis of certain baclofen homologues, namely (R,S)-5-amino-3-arylpentanoic acid hydrochlorides (R,S)-1a–h as well as (R,S)-5-amino-3-methylpentanoic acid [(RS)-1i] to be evaluated as GABABR agonists. Compound 1a is an agonist to GABAB receptors with an EC50 value of 46 μM on tsA201 cells transfected with GABAB1b/GABAB2/Gqz5, being the most active congener among all the synthesized compounds.
Many plant secondary metabolites exhibit some degree of biological activity in humans. It is a common observation that individual plant-derived compounds in vivo are present in the nanomolar concentration range at which they usually fail to display measurable activity in vitro. While it is debatable that compounds detected in plasma are not the key effectors of bioactivity, an alternative hypothesis may take into consideration that measurable concentrations also reside in compartments other than plasma. We analysed the binding of constituents and the metabolite δ-(3,4-dihydroxy-phenyl)-γ-valerolactone (M1), that had been previously detected in plasma samples of human consumers of pine bark extract Pycnogenol, to human erythrocytes. We found that caffeic acid, taxifolin, and ferulic acid passively bind to red blood cells, but only the bioactive metabolite M1 revealed pronounced accumulation. The partitioning of M1 into erythrocytes was significantly diminished at higher concentrations of M1 and in the presence of glucose, suggesting a facilitated transport of M1 via GLUT-1 transporter. This concept was further supported by structural similarities between the natural substrate α-D-glucose and the S-isomer of M1. After cellular uptake, M1 underwent further metabolism by conjugation with glutathione. We present strong indication for a transporter-mediated accumulation of a flavonoid metabolite in human erythrocytes and subsequent formation of a novel glutathione adduct. The physiologic role of the adduct remains to be elucidated.
The functional role of human gut microbiota has attracted substantial interest and recent research has uncovered various aspects of the interplay between the complex communities of microorganisms colonizing the intestine and their hosts’ health. The present review focuses on nutrition-derived bioactive metabolites produced by gut microbiota with potential beneficial effects upon human health. Thereby, the emphasis is on newly generated bacterial metabolites that are not concomitantly present at higher amounts in dietary sources and that have been previously detected in human blood samples. Since a multitude of different substances is generated by gut microbes primarily those metabolites which exert a more pronounced activity than their immediate precursor compound are discussed here. Specifically, the in vitro and in vivo nutridynamics as well as the nutrikinetics of equol, enterolactone / enterodiol, urolithins, 8-prenylnaringenin, 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid and 5-(3’,4’-dihydroxyphenyl)-g-valerolactone, the short-chain fatty acids butyrate, propionate and acetate, and indole-3-propionic acid are reviewed. Though the metabolites’ mechanism of action and the influence of health conditions on metabolite production are not always fully understood yet, there are many reasons to direct the attention to “gut health”. It could offer new options for preventing or treating a variety of disease states and nutrition-derived microbial products might inspire future drug development.
The novel refrigerant 2,3,3,3‐tetrafluoropropene (HFO‐1234yf) as well as the novel foam blowing and precision cleaning agent trans‐1‐chloro‐3,3,3‐trifluoropropene (trans‐HCFO‐1233zd) are both chlorofluorocarbon replacements with low GWPs and a short atmospheric life time. Whereas the hydrofluoroolefin HFO‐1234yf has no negative effect on stratospheric ozone due to the lack of chlorine in its structure, the hydrochlorofluoroolefine trans‐HCFO‐1233zd exhibits a very low potential for ozone depletion (ODP). This is approximately 100 times lower than the ozone depletion potential of precursor compounds such as 1,1,2‐trichloro‐1,2,2‐trifluoroethane (CFC‐113). Principle aims of this thesis were to investigate the unknown metabolism of the new solvent trans‐HCFO‐1233zd and to further investigate a possible biotransformation based toxicity of HFO‐1234yf observed in rabbits. Therefore study specimens of different in vitro and in vivo studies with trans‐HCFO‐1233zd and HFO‐1234yf were analyzed for metabolites using 19FNMR spectroscopy, LC‐MS/MS spectrometry and GC/MS spectrometry. Metabolites were identified by comparison with purchased or synthesized standard substances. Excretion kinetics of the predominant metabolites were determined by LC‐MS/MS quantification,inorganic fluoride was determined by potentiometry. Moreover cytochrome P‐450 2E1 and 3A4 liver enzyme activities were measured in a multi‐exposure study with HFO‐1234yf. ...
Whereas most currently used antibiotics act by interfering with essential bacterial processes, a smaller group of antibacterials disturbs the integrity of the cell membrane. Since fatty acids are a vital component of membrane phospholipids, the type-II fatty acid biosynthesis pathway (FAS-II) of bacteria constitutes a promising drug target. The front-line anti-tuberculosis prodrug isoniazid blocks the FAS-II pathway in M. tuberculosis thereby leading to morphological changes and finally to cell lysis. When it became evident that the enoyl-ACP reductase in the FAS-II pathway is the target of the activated isoniazid, several programs were initiated to develop novel inhibitors directed against this protein in different pathogens. The S. aureus enoyl-ACP reductase (saFabI) is of particular interest since three promising drug candidates inhibiting this homologue have reached clinical trials. However, despite these prospects, no crystal structures of saFabI were publicly available at the time the present work was initiated. Thus, one major goal of this thesis was the generation of high-resolution atomic models by means of X-ray crystallography. The development of a highly reproducible approach to co-crystallize saFabI in complex with NADP+ and diphenyl ether-based inhibitors led to crystal structures of 17 different ternary complexes. Additional crystallographic experiments permitted the view into two apo-structures and two atomic models of saFabI in complex with NADPH and 2-pyridone inhibitors. Based on the established saFabI structure, molecular dynamics (MD) simulations were performed to improve our understanding of the conformational mobility of this protein. Taken together, these investigations of the saFabI structure and its flexibility served as an ideal platform to address important questions surrounding substrate and inhibitor recognition by this enzyme. Intriguingly, our saFabI structures provide several vastly different snapshots along the reaction coordinate of ligand binding and hydride transfer, including the closure of the flexible substrate binding loop (SBL). The extraordinary mobility of saFabI was confirmed by MD simulations suggesting that conformational motions indeed play a pivotal role during substrate delivery and turnover. A water chain linking the active site with a water-basin inside the homo-tetrameric enzyme was found likely to be crucial for the closure and opening of the SBL and, thus, for the catalyzed reaction. Notably, the induced-fit ligand binding process involves a dimer-tetramer transition, which could be related to the observed positive cooperativity of cofactor and substrate binding. Overall, saFabI displays several unique characteristics compared to FabI proteins from other organisms that might be necessary for the synthesis of branched-chain fatty acids, which in turn are required for S. aureus fitness in vivo. This finding may explain why S. aureus is sensitive to FAS-II inhibitors even in the presence of exogenous fatty acids. Accordingly, saFabI remains a valid drug target and our structures can be used as a molecular basis for rational drug design efforts. In fact, binding affinity trends of diphenyl ether inhibitors and, more importantly, the correlated residence times could be rationalized at the molecular level. Furthermore, the structure of saFabI in complex with the 2-pyridone inhibitor CG400549 revealed unique interactions in the wider binding crevice of saFabI compared to other FabI homologues explaining the narrow activity spectrum of this clinical candidate with proven human efficacy. In summary, these studies provide an ideal platform for the development of new, effective saFabI inhibitors as exemplified by the promising 4-pyridone PT166. In the context of this dissertation, crystal structures of the condensing enzyme KasA in complex with several analogs of the naturally occurring inhibitor thiolactomycin have been solved.
In food and pharmaceutical analysis, the classical indices peroxide value (PV), acid value (AV) and p-anisidine value (ANV) still play an important role as quality and authenticity control parameters of fats and oils. These indices are sum parameters for certain deterioration products (PV for hydroperoxides, AV for free fatty acids, ANV for aldehydes) and are obtained using volumetric or UV/VIS spectroscopic analytical approaches. 1H NMR spectroscopy provides a fast and simple alternative to these classical approaches. In the present work, novel 1H NMR methods to determine hydroperoxides, free fatty acids and aldehydes in fats and oils were developed.
Hydroperoxides:
The influence of solvent, water, free fatty acids and sample weight on the hydroperoxide group proton (OOH) signal was investigated. On the basis of the obtained results, the sample preparation procedure of the new 1H NMR method was established. A rough assignment of the hydroperoxide group signals in edible fats and oils to methyl oleate, methyl linoleate and methyl linolenate was conducted. Furthermore, to gain information on how many different hydroperoxide species originate from trioleate autoxidation, a kinetic study on trioleate monohydroperoxides was performed. The evaluation of the data strongly indicates that all of the conceivable 18 trioleate monohydroperoxides were formed during trioleate autoxidation. The analytical performance of the NMR method was compared to that of the classical PV approach by means of the so-called “relative sensitivity” according to Mandel. It was shown that both methods exhibit a similar analytical performance. A total of 444 edible oil samples were analysed using both methods. For some oil varieties considerable discrepancies were found between the results. In the case of black seed oil and olive oil two substances were identified that influence the classical PV determination and thus cause positive (black seed oil) and negative (olive oil) deviations from the theoretical PV expected from the NMR values.
Free fatty acids:
In order to find the optimal solvent mixture to measure the carboxyl group protons (COOH) of free fatty acids in fats and oils, the effect of solvent on the COOH signal was investigated for different mixtures of CDCl3 and DMSO-d6. The comparison of the NMR method with the classical AV method by means of the relative sensitivity revealed that both methods exhibit a similar analytical performance. 420 edible oil samples were analysed by both approaches. Except for pumpkin seed oil, where slight deviations were observed, there was a good compliance between the results obtained from the two methods. Furthermore, the applicability of the 1H NMR assay to further lipids with relevance in pharmacy was tested. For hard fat, castor oil, waxes and oleyl oleate modifications of the original sample preparation procedure of the NMR method were necessary to achieve comparable results for both methods.
Aldehydes:
The new 1H NMR method enables the determination of the molar amounts of n-alkanals, (E)-2-alkenals and (E,E)-2,4-alkadienals. It was illustrated that the ANV can be modelled as a linear combination of the NMR integrals of these aldehyde species. A functional relationship was derived on the basis In conclusion, the new 1H NMR methods provide an excellent alternative to of calibration experiments. The suitability of the model was shown by comparing the NMR-determined ANVs with the measured classical ANVs of 79 commercially available edible oils of different oil types.
In conclusion, the new 1H NMR methods provide an excellent alternative to the determination of the classical indices PV, AV and ANV. They have several advantages over the classical methods including the consumption of small solvent amounts, the ability to automatize measurement and to acquire several different parameters out of the same NMR spectrum. Especially concerning their selectivity, the 1H NMR methods are highly superior to the classical methods.
The high failure rate of new drug candidates in preclinical or clinical studies due to hepatotoxicity represents a considerable problem in the drug development. Hence, there is an urgent need to develop new approaches for early and reliable prediction of drug-induced hepatotoxicity that enables a better identification of drug candidates with high potential for toxicity at early stages of drug development. Therefore, the aim of this work was to improve the prediction of drug-induced liver injury in preclinical studies through evaluation of more reliable and sensitive biomarkers of hepatotoxicity and a better understanding of the underlying mechanistic basis for drug-induced toxicity. First, the ability of a set of potential markers (NGAL, thiostatin, clusterin, PON1) to detect early signs of liver injury was assessed in rats treated with drug candidates that were dropped from further development, in part due to toxic adverse effects in the liver. In summary, PON1 and clusterin were not consistently altered in response to liver injury and thus provide no additive information to the traditional liver enzymes in detecting drug-induced hepatotoxicity. In contrast, thiostatin and NGAL were increased in serum and urine of treated animals in a time- and dose-dependent manner. These changes correlated well with mRNA expression in the target organ and generally reflected the onset and degree of drug-induced liver injury. Receiver-operating characteristics analyses supported serum thiostatin, but not NGAL, as a better indicator of drug-induced hepatobiliary injury than conventional clinical chemistry parameters, such as ALP, ALT and AST. Although thiostatin, an acute phase protein expressed in a range of tissues, may not be specific for liver injury, our results indicate that thiostatin may serve as a sensitive, minimally-invasive diagnostic marker of inflammation and tissue damage in preclinical safety assessment. In the second part of this work, combined application of genomics profiling technology and RNAi to inhibit the pharmacological target of a drug candidate BAY16, a glucagon receptor (GCGR) antagonist, was used to determine if interference with the pharmacological target plays a role in the toxic response to BAY16, and to narrow down those molecular changes that are associated with toxicity, and not the pharmacological action of BAY16. In contrast to Bay 16, which was found to be cytotoxic at concentrations of 75 µM, silencing of the glucagon receptor did not affect cell viability in primary rat hepatocytes. Thus, it can be concluded that hepatotoxicity of Bay 16 was not related to the drugs inhibitory effect on the glucagon receptor in vitro and in vivo. These findings were supported by the fact that most of BAY16-induced changes in gene expression occurred independently of the pharmacological modulation of GCGR. These off-target effects include altered xenobiotic metabolism, oxidative stress, increased fatty acid synthesis, and alterations in cholesterol and bile acid metabolic processes. Although it was not possible to draw a final conclusion about the mechanism of BAY16 hepatotoxicity, changes in these molecular mechanisms appear contribute to progression of hepatic injury. With regard to drug safety assessment in preclinical studies, the utilization of siRNA technology in vitro represents a new approach to improve mechanistic understanding of the nature of drug’s toxicity, being either chemically mediated or due to primary or secondary pharmacological mode of action.
The ITS2 Database
(2012)
The internal transcribed spacer 2 (ITS2) has been used as a phylogenetic marker for more than two decades. As ITS2 research mainly focused on the very variable ITS2 sequence, it confined this marker to low-level phylogenetics only. However, the combination of the ITS2 sequence and its highly conserved secondary structure improves the phylogenetic resolution1 and allows phylogenetic inference at multiple taxonomic ranks, including species delimitation.
The ITS2 Database presents an exhaustive dataset of internal transcribed spacer 2 sequences from NCBI GenBank accurately reannotated. Following an annotation by profile Hidden Markov Models (HMMs), the secondary structure of each sequence is predicted. First, it is tested whether a minimum energy based fold (direct fold) results in a correct, four helix conformation. If this is not the case, the structure is predicted by homology modeling. In homology modeling, an already known secondary structure is transferred to another ITS2 sequence, whose secondary structure was not able to fold correctly in a direct fold.
The ITS2 Database is not only a database for storage and retrieval of ITS2 sequence-structures. It also provides several tools to process your own ITS2 sequences, including annotation, structural prediction, motif detection and BLAST search on the combined sequence-structure information. Moreover, it integrates trimmed versions of 4SALE and ProfDistS for multiple sequence-structure alignment calculation and Neighbor Joining tree reconstruction. Together they form a coherent analysis pipeline from an initial set of sequences to a phylogeny based on sequence and secondary structure.
In a nutshell, this workbench simplifies first phylogenetic analyses to only a few mouse-clicks, while additionally providing tools and data for comprehensive large-scale analyses.
Background: Melatonin (MLT) has many health implications, therefore it is of valuable importance to develop specific analytical methods for determination of MLT in the presence of its main contaminant, N-{2-[1-({3-[2(acetylamino)ethyl]-5-methoxy-1H-indol-2-yl}methyl)-5-methoxy-1H-indol-3-yl]ethyl}acetamide (10). For development of these analytical methods, compound 10 had to be prepared in an adequate amount.
Results: Compound 10 was synthesized in six steps starting from 5-methoxyindole-2-carboxylic acid (1). Analytical performance of the proposed spectrofluorimetric methods was statistically validated with respect to linearity, accuracy, precision and specificity. The proposed methods were successfully applied for the assay of MLT in laboratory prepared mixtures containing up to 60 % of compound 10 and in commercial MLT tablets with recoveries not less than 99.00 %. No interference was observed from common pharmaceutical additives and the results were favorably compared with those obtained by a reference method.
Conclusions: This work describes simple, sensitive, and reliable second derivative spectrofluorimetric method in addition to two multivariate calibration methods, principal component regression (PCR) and partial least square (PLS), for the determination of MLT in the presence of compound 10.
The well-known Ugi reaction of aldehydes with amines, carboxylic acids and isocyanides leads to the formation of acyclic alpha-acylaminocarboxamides. Replacement of the carboxylic acid derivatives with beta-acyl substituted acrylic acids gives access to highly substituted 2,5-diketopiperazines in one single reaction-step without additives or complex reaction procedures. The obtained diketopiperazines show anti-proliferative effects on activated T cells and represent therefore potential candidates for targeting unwanted T cell-mediated immune responses.
Background: Melatonin (MLT) has many health implications, therefore it is of valuable importance to develop specific analytical methods for determination of MLT in the presence of its main contaminant, N-{2-[1-({3-[2-(acetylamino)ethyl]-5-methoxy-1H-indol-2-yl}methyl)-5-methoxy-1H-indol-3-yl]ethyl}acetamide (10). For development of these analytical methods, compound 10 had to be prepared in an adequate amount. Results: Compound 10 was synthesized in six steps starting from 5-methoxyindole-2-carboxylic acid (1). Analytical performance of the proposed spectrofluorimetric methods was statistically validated with respect to linearity, accuracy, precision and specificity. The proposed methods were successfully applied for the assay of MLT in laboratory prepared mixtures containing up to 60 % of compound 10 and in commercial MLT tablets with recoveries not less than 99.00 %. No interference was observed from common pharmaceutical additives and the results were favorably compared with those obtained by a reference method. Conclusions: This work describes simple, sensitive, and reliable second derivative spectrofluorimetric method in addition to two multivariate calibration methods, principal component regression (PCR) and partial least square (PLS), for the determination of MLT in the presence of compound 10.
Four new tetromycin derivatives, tetromycins 1-4 and a previously known one, tetromycin B (5) were isolated from Streptomyces axinellae Pol001(T) cultivated from the Mediterranean sponge Axinella polypoides. Structures were assigned using extensive 1D and 2D NMR spectroscopy as well as HRESIMS analysis. The compounds were tested for antiparasitic activities against Leishmania major and Trypanosoma brucei, and for protease inhibition against several cysteine proteases such as falcipain, rhodesain, cathepsin L, cathepsin B, and viral proteases SARS-CoV M(pro), and PL(pro). The compounds showed antiparasitic activities against T. brucei and time-dependent inhibition of cathepsin L-like proteases with K(i) values in the low micromolar range.
In this thesis eight robust and reliable LC-MS/MS methods were developed and validated to analyze atorvastatin, clopidogrel, furosemide, itraconazole, loratadine, naproxen, nisoldipine and sunitinib in human plasma. The active metabolites 2-hydroxyatorvastatin, 4-hydroxyatorvastatin, hydroxyitraconazole, descarboethoxy-loratadine, 4-hydroxynisoldipine and N-desethylsunitinib were also included in the corresponding methods. Due to the different physical, chemical and pharmacokinetic properties of the analytes a wide spectrum regarding sample preparation techniques, chromatography and mass spectrometric detection was covered. Protein precipitation methods were developed for furosemide, itraconazole, naproxen, nisoldipine and sunitinib. Liquid-liquid extraction methods were developed for atorvastatin, clopidogrel and loratadine. Criteria to choose protein precipitation or liquid-liquid extraction were the final plasma concentrations of the drugs, which are mainly dependant on the dose, bioavailability and t1/2 and of course cost-effectiveness. Altogether, the methods have a concentration range from 0.001 ng/mL (LLOQ of clopidogrel) to 50000 ng/mL (highest calibration point for naproxen), covering 5 x 107 orders of magnitude. The runtime of the methods ranged from 2 to 4 minutes, facilitating a high sample throughput. All developed methods were validated according to recent guidelines as they were used to analyze sampes from clinical trials. Excellent linearity, intra-day and inter-day precision and accuracy were observed in the validated calibration ranges. Hemolyzed, lipemic and different batches of human plasma as well as sample dilution did not affect the determiantion of the analytes. Clopidogrel, loratadine, nisoldipine and sunitinib and if available their metabolites were subjected to a matrix effect test, resulting in no influence of different batches of human plasma on the analytical methods. Noteworthy is clopidogrel that shows a slight effect on one of the two used mass spectrometers. However, that effect was reproducible and did therefore not affect clopidogrel determination. No evidence of instability during chromatography, extraction and sample storage processes for all analytes except 4-hydroxyatorvastatin was found, for which a significant decrease was observed after three months. During incurred sample reanalysis of study samples 95 % of the samples were within ±15 % with respect to the first analysis. Moreover, the atorvastatin, loratadine and clopidogrel method were compared on two generations of triple quadrupole mass spectrometers, the API 3000™ and the API 5000™. The new ion source and the changes in the ion path of the API 5000™ provided higher sensitivity, the extend depending on the substance. However, the API 3000™ had very good precision in the performed system comparison. The validated methods showed excellent performance and quality data during routine sample analysis of eight clinical trials. Moreover, they are suitable for high sample throughput due to their short run times.
The work presented in this thesis was mainly targeted at exploring the capabilities of evaporation based LC detectors as well as further alternatives for the control of impurities in substances not exhibiting a suitable chromophore for UV-detection. In the course of the work carried out, several new methods for the identification, impurities control and composition testing of APIs were elaborated. An evaporation based detector that entered into the field of pharmaceutical analysis in the recent years was the Evaporative Light Scattering Detector (ELSD). However, non-reproducible spikes were reported when injecting concentrated test solutions as they are usually required for the control of impurities. The reasons, for the appearance of these spikes as well as possibilities for their avoidance were explored in a systematic study. Moreover, the dependence of the detector sensitivity on different eluent composition, eluent flow-rate and ELSD settings was investigated. In the course of the revision of the Ph.Eur. monographs for aspartic acid and alanine, a C18 reversed phase ion-pair LC method using 1 mmol/L of perfluoroheptanoic acid as an ion-pair reagent and a charged aerosol detector (CAD) was developed and fully validated for the purity control of Asp. The method was capable of separating the organic acids and major amino acids known to occur as process related impurities. With a slight modification, the method was also applicable for the purity control of Ala. Based on the developed LC-CAD method for the impurity control of alanine, a comparative study of the performance characteristics of different evaporation based LC detectors, i.e. ELSD, CAD and the recently developed Nano Quantity Analyte Detector (NQAD) was carried out. Additionally, an MS detector and qNMR were included in this study. It was found that the control of impurities in Alanine at an ICH conform level could be ensured using LC coupled to CAD, MSD and NQAD detection as well as by the use of qNMR. In terms of performance, prize and ease of use CAD and NQAD were found to be the most suitable alternatives. In terms of repeatability and sensitivity, the CAD appeared slightly superior to the NQAD. The quality of streptomycin sulfate is not sufficiently controlled by the current Ph.Eur. monograph in that an appropriate test for the control of the related substances is missing. A study was carried out to develop a C18 reversed phase ion-pair LC method using pentafluoropropionic acid as an ion-pair reagent and a CAD for the identification and control of the related substances. The developed method allowed the separation of 21 impurities from streptomycin. Moreover, coupling of the method to MS allowed the identification of the separated impurities. The method was shown to be sufficiently sensitive to control the related substances with a disregard limit of 0.1% as it is normally applied in the Ph.Eur. for products derived from fermentation. Currently, the aescin content of horse-chestnut standardized dry extract is determined using a complex and laborious photometric determination. A more selective LC-UV assay determination for beta-aescin has been proposed for the Ph.Eur. draft monograph of horse-chestnut standardized dry extract. Possibilities were explored to further improve the LC-method using detection by CAD. It was demonstrated that by the use of a modified LC-CAD method several problems related to the differences in the UV-response of the various components contained in the active aescin fraction could be eliminated. Moreover the proposed reference standard strategy was reviewed. Eventually, it was demonstrated on the example of two different clusters of pharmacologically active peptides how low energy collision induced dissociation mass spectrometry (low energy CID-MS) can successfully be used for identification testing in pharmacopoeial monographs. In this respect, the combination of a direct confirmation of the molecular mass via the m/z-ratio of the molecule ions with structural sequence information obtained by low energy CID-MS experiments was found to deliver a higher degree of certainty of the identity of a given substance than the set of tests currently described in the monographs. A significant gain in efficiency and throughput and important reduction of the amount of sample consumed during testing were identified as being additional advantages of this approach. Taken together, it could be demonstrated on various examples how recent technological advancements in the field of analytical chemistry can contribute to improve the quality control of APIs.
Over the past decades, awareness has increased of multiple health-promoting effects of diets rich in anthocyanins and proanthocyanidins and, specifically, of these compounds’ potential for conferring neuroprotection. The present study compiles evidence obtained in vitro that expands our understanding of anthocyanin and proanthocyanidin functionalities at multiple levels. Firstly, anthocyanin and anthocyanidin bioavailability was addressed using a combination of ATPase assays, dye extrusion assays and vesicular transport assays. This approach highlights the contribution made by efflux transporters MDR1 and BCRP to the absorption of berry polyphenols and to their distribution to target tissues including the central nervous system. All test compounds interacted with the BCRP transporter in vitro, seven emerged as potential BCRP substrates and 12 as potential inhibitors of BCRP. Two anthocyanidins, malvidin and petunidin, exhibited bimodal activities, serving as BCRP substrates at low micromolar concentrations and, at higher concentrations, as BCRP inhibitors. Effects on MDR1, in contrast, were weak, as only aglycones exerted mild inhibitory activity in the high micromolar range. Distinct affinities of several anthocyanins and the respective aglycones for BCRP suggest that they may be actively transported out of endothelia. Agents that interfere with BCRP activity are therefore likely to facilitate crossing of the intestinal and blood-brain barriers and to augment anthocyanin bioavailability. Secondly, novel modes of action were sought to rationalize berry polyphenols’ direct modulation of neuronal transmission as opposed to their non-specific antioxidant activities. The candidate effectors include cellular monoamine oxidases (MAO) A and B, hypoxia inducible factor (HIF), the proteasome, and phospholipase A2 (PLA2). Elevated MAO activity has long been implicated in the etiology of depression, anxiety and neurodegenerative illness. MAO inhibiting compounds may thus hold promise in the prevention of behavioral symptoms and cognitive decline. For both MAO isoforms, inhibitory effects of anthocyanins and anthocyanidins are illustrated by IC50 values in the low micromolar range whereas proanthocyanidins and phenolic metabolites were less effective inhibitors. Kinetic analyses, performed with cyanidin and cyanidin-3-glucoside, indicated a competitive interaction of cyanidin in terms of MAO A, plus a mixed competitive and non-competitive mode of interaction of cyanidin in terms of MAO B as well as of cyanidin-3-glucoside with respect to both enzyme isoforms. Thus MAO inhibition by anthocyanins and their aglycones in vitro lends support to central nervous functionalities of diets rich in berry polyphenols and opens new opportunities in the prevention of neuronal pathologies. Effects on HIF expression were examined to assess candidate compounds’ role in enhancing cellular resistance to oxidative stress. By inducing a dose-dependent increase in HIF expression, delphinidin may initiate a variety of cellular survival processes that are inhibited by free iron. This finding argues in favor of iron-chelating properties as a further means of mediating neuroprotection. Other inducers of HIF expression in neuroblastoma cells included gallic acid, cyanidin and bilberry extract, all of which may modulate HIF-dependent transcription of downstream genes.
Marine sponges and their associated bacteria have been proven to be a rich source of novel secondary metabolites with therapeutic usefulness in infection and autoimmunity. This Ph.D. project aimed to isolate bioactive secondary metabolites from the marine sponges Amphimedon compressa, Aiolochroia crassa and Theonella swinhoei as well as from bacteria associated with different Caribbean sponges, specifically actinomycetes and sphingomonads. In this study, amphitoxin was isolated from the crude methanol extract of the sponge A. compressa and it was found to have antibacterial and anti-parasitic activities. Amphitoxin showed protease inhibitory activity when tested against the mammalian protease cathepsin B and the parasitic proteases rhodesain and falcipain-2. Furthermore, miraziridine A was identified in the dichloromethane extract of the sponge T. swinhoei collected offshore Israel in the Red Sea. Miraziridine A, a natural peptide isolated previously from the marine sponge Theonella aff. mirabilis, is a potent cathepsin B inhibitor with an IC50 value of 1.4 g/mL (2.1 M). Secondary metabolites from sponge-derived bacteria were also isolated and identified. A total of 79 strains belonging to 20 genera of the order Actinomycetales and seven strains belonging to two genera of the order Sphingomonadales were cultivated from 18 different Caribbean sponges and identified by 16S rRNA gene sequencing. Seven of these strains are likely to represent novel species. Crude extracts from selected strains were found to exhibit protease inhibition against cathepsins B and L, rhodesain, and falcipain-2 as well as immunomodulatory activities such as induction of cytokine release by human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. The isolates Sphingobium sp. CO105 and Lapillicoccus sp. BA53 were selected for cultivation, extraction and purification of bioactive metabolites based on initial bioactive screening results. The isoalloxazine isolumichrome was isolated from the strain Sphingobium sp. CO105 which inhibited the protease rhodesain with an IC50 of 0.2 M. The strain Lapillicoccus sp. BA53 was found to produce p-aminosalicylic acid methyl ester, which showed activity against the proteases cathepsins B and L, falcipain-2 and rhodesain. These results highlight the significance of marine sponge-associated bacteria to produce bioactive secondary metabolites with therapeutic potential in the treatment of infectious diseases and disorders of the immune system.
The inhaled pharmacotherapy is fundamental in the management of obstructive lung diseases such as asthma bronchiale or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. In this context short- and long-acting β2-agonists play a prominent role as relieve and control medication. Regarding the risk-benefit profile of an inhaled drug, the pattern of pulmonary deposition and the rate and extent of absorption into systemic circulation are essential parameters. New developments of drugs are characterized by high lung retention and improved efficacy. The aim of the present thesis was the parallel evaluation the pharmacokinetic (PK) and -dynamic (PD) properties of inhaled β2-agonists employing an isolated human lung perfusion model (IPL). The short-acting β2-agonist salbutamol and the newly developed ultra long-acting β2-agonist GW597901 were chosen for the analysis of pulmonary drug absorption and bronchodilation. In a pharmacokinetic enabling study an established human IPL setting was modified to monitor the pharmacokinetics of the β2-agonists by measuring the concentrations in perfusion fluid, lung tissue and BAL samples obtained during and after the experiments. The IPL model revealed differences in the pulmonary absorption behaviour of GW597901 and salbutamol. The lipophilic compound GW597901 was distributed to a lower extent into the perfusion fluid compared to the more hydrophilic compound salbutamol. The analyzed time profiles of nebulized salbutamol in the perfusate were consistent to with a clinical study if considering experimental conditions as the actual deposited doses and the differing volume of distribution. Thus, the suitability of the IPL model for the PK analysis of inhaled β2-agonists was confirmed. In a PK/PD study the human ex vivo model was employed for the first time for the evaluation of the clinical relevant bronchodilating effect induced by inhaled β2-agonists in addition to the analysis of their pharmacokinetics. Thereby the focus was to determine the onset and extent of bronchodilation. A new method was established to monitor changes in lung function parameters due to pharmacodynamic interventions over the duration of the experiment that allowed permanent online recording of the ventilation volume and lung mechanic parameters. Bronchial challenges with aerolised MCh were performed successfully in isolated ventilated human lung lobes, even though the responder rate was lower than expected despite high administered doses. The administration of the short acting agent salbutamol led to an immediate onset of action recognized as a sudden increase of the ventilation volumes. The bronchodilation following the application of GW597901 was observed delayed after about 6 min. Monitored lung function parameters considerably improved by both β2 - agonists in the IPL setting but not significantly different. Thus, in regard of the different applied doses GW597901 had a higher intrinsic activity and bronchodilating potency than salbutamol. The concentrations of salbutamol and GW597901 in the perfusate determined in the PK/PD study were significantly lower than those observed in the pharmacokinetic enabling study, while the tmax values and the course of the distribution profiles remained similar. Most likely, the application of nebulized MCh prior to the administration of the β2 - agonists had a substantial influence on their pharmacokinetic behaviour. It is yet not clear whether pharmacodynamic effects or molecular competition processes for the passage to the systemic circulation or both influenced the redistribution of the β2 - agonists as seen in the PK/PD study. The potential clinical relevance of this observation has to be further investigated. The development of pulmonary edema during the experiment was one limitation of the IPL model. For the determination of the onset of edema formation four potential biochemical markers, specifically surfactant-protein A (SP-A), angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE), urea and lactate dehydrogenase, were measured in perfusion fluids. In this context, an ELISA method for the quantification of human SP-A in biological matrices was successfully established. The investigations showed that the concentrations of SP-A and ACE in the perfusate increased over time as a sign for lung tissue damage and correlated with the degree of edema formation. For the first time the IPL model was used for the evaluation of potential pulmonary edema marker and the results have shown that it is valuable tool for further investigations in this field. In conclusion, the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic characterization of GW597901 and salbutamol was successfully achieved using the IPL model. This ex vivo methodology may contribute to further insights and understanding of the complex pharmacokinetic processes of inhaled β2 – agonists in the lung.
In this thesis, computational structure-based design approaches were employed to target the HIV-1 integrase and the macrophage infectivity potentiator (MIP) of Legionella pneumophila. The thesis yields valuable information about the mechanism of action of a known class of integrase inhibitors and a novel approach towards enzyme inhibition, which still is mainly unaddressed in current integrase research. For the MIP enzyme, two small-molecule MIP inhibitors were discovered. The computational studies of HIV-1 integrase have provided valuable information for IN inhibitor design. Docking experiments supported the hypothesis that the well-known diketo acid inhibitors enter the IN active site not as free ligands, but rather as metal complexes. These results help to reveal the mechanism of action of this important class of IN inhibitors.To give an impulse for the development of a novel class of inhibitors, a new strategy towards IN inhibition was introduced: An alternative binding site, the dimerization interface of an IN catalytic core domain monomer, was explored for inhibitor design. The lack of structural data of the free monomer was overcome by extensive MD studies. Snapshots derived from the MD simulation were used as protein input structures in a docking study with the inhibitory peptide YFLLKL to reveal its potential binding mode. The docking procedure showed that the peptidic ligand binds to a dimerization interface conformation which shows a Y-shaped binding site.. The next step was to address this protein conformation with small, non-peptidic molecules. The first strategy towards finding small-molecule interface binders was to create a pharmacophore model with hydrophobic features and shape constraints, aiming to find molecules with a good complementarity to the Y-shaped dimerization interface. Virtual screening yielded a total of 10 compounds, which all displayed good shape complementarity and favorable hydrophobic interactions. Unfortunately, none of the compounds showed a reproducible inhibitory activity in biological assays. Some doubts remain about the validity of the assay results: The use of BSA was critical, since it is not unlikely that BSA “intercepted” the hydrophobic candidate compounds. The first strategy towards finding small-molecule dimerization inhibitors was reconsidered: In the second approach, the satisfaction of hydrogen bonding residues at the dimerization interface, was of major interest. Two pharmacophore models were employed, which retrieved several hundred hit molecules. However, docking of these molecules showed that still many hydrogen bonding groups of the protein remained unaddressed by the ligands. Eventually, after visual inspection, only eight molecules were selected as candidate compounds for further testing (results pending). This small “yield” underlines the difficulties in finding interface binders: The IN dimerization interface is a peculiar target with frequently alternating basic, acidic, and hydrophobic residues. It is not a well-ordered binding site with continuous hydrophobic areas and distinct hydrogen bond donors / acceptors. Other protein-protein interfaces show such well-ordered binding sites. Accordingly, the peculiarity of the IN dimerization interface, in addition to the delicate task of disrupting protein-protein interactions at all, makes the development of IN dimerization inhibitors very challenging. For MIP, the studies revealed two experimentally validated MIP inhibitors, which significantly reduce MIP enzymatic activity. To our knowledge, no small-molecule MIP inhibitor has been reported in the literature so far. A detailed analysis of the available structural data of MIP and a comparison to the human PPIase counterpart, FKBP12, pointed out a conformational diversity among the MIP structures and a crucial difference between the two PPIases, which could be traced to mainly one residue (Tyr109). The detailed comparison of FKBP12 and MIP complex structures made it possible to give an explanation, why a ketoacyl-substituted pipecoline derivative most probably does not bind to MIP, but a sulfone-substituted pipecoline derivative does bind to MIP. Knowledge of Legionella MIP inhibitors could be transferred also to other organisms (e.g. trypanosoms), where homologous MIP proteins are also pathological factors.
The widely used chemical acrylamide (AA) has been classified as a probable human carcinogen. This classification was based on positive results in rodent carcinogenicity studies as well as on a number of in vitro mutagenicity assays. In 2002, AA was discovered to be formed during the preparation of starch-containing foods. According to the latest FDA exposure assessment (2006), the average daily intake has been estimated from AA levels in foodstuffs and from nutritional habits to be around 0.4 µg/kg b.w. with a 90th percentile of 0.95 µg/kg b.w.. In children and adolescents however, the daily AA intake is about 1.5 times higher, due to lower body weight and differing consumption patterns. Apart from the diet, humans may be exposed to AA during the production or handling of monomeric AA, from AA residues in polyacrylamides, and from cigarette smoke. After oral administration, AA is readily absorbed and distributed throughout the organism. AA is metabolized to the reactive epoxide glycidamide (GA) via the CYP 450 isoenzyme CYP 2E1. Both, AA and GA are conjugated with glutathione. After enzymatic processing, the mercapturic acids N-Acetyl-S-(2-carbamoylethyl)-L-cysteine (AAMA) as well as the regioisomers N-Acetyl-S-(2-carbamoyl-2-hydroxyethyl)-L-cysteine (GAMA) and N-Acetyl-S-(1-carbamoyl-2-hydroxy-ethyl)-L-cysteine (iso-GAMA) are excreted with urine. An additional pathway for the metabolic conversion of GA is the epoxide hydrolase mediated hydrolysis to the diol compound glyceramide. Following administration of AA at doses exceeding the daily dietary intake by a factor of 1000 - 6000 to human subjects, a new urinary metabolite was found, which could be identified as the S-oxide of AAMA (AAMA-sulfoxide). In general, data from animal studies are used for risk assessment of (potential) human carcinogens. However, inter-species differences in toxicodynamics or toxicokinetics, e.g. in biotransformation may lead to under- or overestimation of human risk. The objective of this work was to establish a highly specific and sensitive analytical method to quantify the major urinary metabolites of AA. Other aims apart from measurements concerning the human background exposure were the evaluation of biotransformation and toxicokinetics of AA in humans and rats after oral administration of 13C3-AA. The obtained data was intended to help avoid linear extrapolation from animal models for future risk assessments of AA carcinogenicity.
Gas chromatography – isotope ratio mass spectrometry (HRGC-IRMS) is an established technology for the authenticity assessment of achiral aroma compounds. For this technique, authentic reference data for both ‘natural’ and ‘synthetic’ origins of the aroma compounds is needed to define the limits and possibilities of authenticity assessments. For different fruit aroma compounds databases have been accumulated and have been used successfully. But this simplicity in the procedure of accumulating samples and filling the database fails, when the generation of aroma compounds are dependant on, not only the fruit itself, but also on a technological process as in the case of roasting coffee beans. In such a case, it is not enough simply to analyse samples from different origins for the database, but an examination of the influence of the technological process of roasting on the aroma is also needed. Furthermore, the generation process of the aroma compounds from their precursors during roasting should be analysed and determined. The aim of this study was, therefore, to build up a database for alkylpyrazines (and pyridine) from roasted coffee, and to elucidate the questions determining the alkylpyrazine and pyridine generation in coffee beans in all aspects. For this purpose arabica and robusta green coffees from different regions of the world were roasted, and the stable isotope ratios, 15N/14N and 2H/1H, of the produced alkylpyrazines and pyridine were compared to those of references, commercially available roast coffees, unspecified roast coffees, coffee products and coffee aromas. Additionally, the δ2HV-SMOW isotopic stability of alkylpyrazines in different solvents was determined to exclude isotopic effects in coffee products and coffee aromas. To elucidate the question as to how the stable isotope values, 15N/14N, 2H/1H and 13C/12C, of alkylpyrazine references were obtained and if these could be influenced somehow, different alkylpyrazines were synthesised. The generation process of alkylpyrazines during the roasting of coffee was analysed, by both roasting experiments and the fractionation of green coffee beans, into compound classes with subsequent roastings.
The work deals with the synthesis and characterization of cerulenin analogues as inhibitors of efflux pump mediated resistance of Candida albicans isolates and as inhibitors of the fatty acid synthesis enzyme KasA of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Cerulenin was chosen as the lead structure, being a substrate of the efflux pumps in Candida albicans on one hand and therefore variations on the structure could lead to a blocking of the efflux pumps as in the case of tetracycline and inhibitor 13-CPTC of the TetB efflux pump. On the other hand, cerulenin is a known inhibitor of the FAS system but inhibition is unselective in type I and II FAS. Therefore, analogues could result in increased selectivity towards the type II FAS system in M. tuberculosis. The first cerulenin derivatives were prepared by coupling 2,3-dihydrofuran to the before synthesized 1-octaniodide, followed by ring opening and oxidation in one step by chromic acid and transfer of the resulting 4-keto acid to amides to give analogues 4a-d, 4e was prepared in analogy. To include the epoxide function especially with regard to the mechanism of action of cerulenin in the FAS system (considering known crystal structures of cerulenin and the KasA analogue of E. coli) tetrahydro- and dihydrocerulenin analogues were synthesized. Starting from the corresponding aldehyde, lactone 5 (tetrahydrocerulenin analogues) was obtained via two different routes A and B. Route A included the coupling of the aldehyde 1-nonanal to propiolic acid via a Grignard reaction with subsequent hydrogenation with the Lindlar catalyst under hydrogen pressure to give 5. Via Route B 1-nonanal was coupled to methyl propiolate by n-BuLi with subsequent hydrogenation under reflux with the catalytic system Lindlar cat./NH4HCO2 to yield 5. These hydrogenations were also executed in a microwave oven resulting in better yields and/or reaction times. The lactone 5 was then epoxidized, the ring opened by amidation and the remaining alcohol was oxidized via Collins oxidation to result in tetrahydrocerulenin analogues 8a-e. The same procedure was used for dihydrocerulenin analogues 10a-c except that to obtain the corresponding lactone 9a only route A was used and a further step had to be executed for ring closure. To obtain analogues with all structural features of cerulenin including two double bonds and the epoxide function, a third pathway was chosen. To obtain the future side chain, aldehyde 12 was synthesized by coupling protected 4-pentyn-1-ol to either crotyl bromide or crotyl chloride, which then was deprotected, hydrogenated with Lindlar catalyst under hydrogen pressure and oxidized via a Swern oxidation. The following synthesis sequence starting from 12 was executed similar to that of dihydrocerulenins via the corresponding lactone (51) with the major exception of the oxidation procedure in the last step via TPAP/NMO to result in (4Z,7E)-cerulenin analogues 15a-b. A fourth class of cerulenin analogues was synthesized with the aromatic analogues 17a-e. This synthesis pathway started with the formation of the benzoyl acrylamides 16a-e from benzoylacrylic acid via a mixed anhydride which was prepared with isobutylchloroformate followed by the addition of the corresponding amine. Subsequent epoxidation with H2O2 in basic EtOH gave the aromatic cerulenin analogues 17a-e. Pharmacological testings for the synthesized substances were executed on efflux pump-resistant and -sensitive Candida albicans isolates, on the fatty acid synthesis enzyme KasA of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and on other organisms such as Leishmania major, Trypanosoma brucei brucei, Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa within the Sonderforschungsbereich 630.
The aim of the present study was to design different dosage forms as carrier systems to deliver sorafenib to the lung of BXB-23 transgenic mice using different routes of administration. Three dosage forms were used one of them was an oil-in-water emulsion and the oral route was chosen for this experiment. The other delivery system was a liposome preparation for intratracheal instillation. In this case the oral route was considered as a control experiment. The last dosage form was PLGA microspheres. Before sorafenib administration it was important to develop a HPLC method to assess sorafenib absorption after its administration and to determine its concentrations in mouse serum. The HPLC method allowed sorafenib quantification in small volumes (30 µl) of mouse serum and tissues. The developed HPLC method was validated resulting in satisfactory selectivity, good linearity, good accuracy and precision over the concentration range examined. Sorafenib was successfully incorporated in a fat emulsion (o/w) using a traditional method resulting in a white homogenous emulsion and no particle aggregation was observed. Sorafenib exhibited antitumor activity on the lung adenoma in BXB-23 transgenic mice when administered orally (2 mg sorafenib per mouse) in the emulsion preparation. The determined effect was an approximately 29 % reduction in the tumor area of the adenoma foci and a proliferation reduction. In order to improve the pharmacological effects of sorafenib on the lung adenoma in BXB-23 mice, the targeting of sorafenib directly to the site of action (the lung) was an attractive concept. For this purpose the intratracheal route was used. Since sorafenib administration by instillation required incorporation of sorafenib in a dosage form suitable for its lipophilic nature, a liposome suspension was the second dosage form used. A lyophilization method was employed for sorafenib liposome preparation utilizing dilauroylphosphatidylcholine (DLPC) which is safe and tolerable for the lung. Incorporation of sorafenib in the liposomes did not influence the particle size and its distribution. The sorafenib liposomes showed high encapsulation efficiency, good stability at 4 °C for one month and satisfactory in vitro release properties and inhibited Raf-1 mediated activation of ERK in cell culture assay. In a pharmacokinetic experiment sorafenib loaded liposomes were instilled directly into the lung. The results revealed that a significant level of sorafenib was achieved in the lung tissues after 2 hours and then reduced after 48 h and remained nearly constant for one week. On the other hand, only traces of sorafenib were found in the mice serum up to 48 h. Subsequently, the pharmacological activity of sorafenib (1 mg per mouse) was studied when delivered in a liposomal suspension intratracheally to treat the lung adenoma of BXB-23 mice. The data of this experiment demonstrated that sorafenib intratracheal instillation resulted in a reduction of tumor area of adenoma foci (67 %) and an elevation of the percent of apoptotic cells. In contrast, prolongation of the treatment period did not further enhance sorafenib activity on the lung adenoma. This previous finding suggested a development of multidrug resistance (MDR) by the adenoma foci cells against sorafenib instillation, which was examined by immunohistochemistry staining. The percent of MDR positive cells was higher after two and three weeks sorafenib liposome instillation treatment than that after one week treatment. The last dosage form used for sorafenib was microspheres, which were prepared by emulsion-diffusion-evaporation method using biodegradable PLGA 50:50 resulting in a white lyophilized powder. The system was characterized physicochemically and revealed a good microspheres yield, high encapsulation efficiency, a homogenous particle size distribution and slow in vitro release of sorafenib. The other strategy studied in the present research project was gene delivery to target the lung bearing tumor of BXB-23 mice using a non-viral vector (polyethylenimine). Polyethylenimine (PEI) was used to investigate its efficiency in transfecting lung bearing tumor of BXB-23 mice model and its ability to transfect the adenoma foci cells. LacZ, which encodes Beta-galactosidase was used in the present study as a reporter gene and was complexed with PEI before delivered intravenously. A high LacZ expression in the alveolar region with some expression in the adenoma foci was observed. On contrary, a low LacZ expression in the alveoli and in the adenoma foci was achieved after instillation of the same polyplex intratracheally.
Background: Population pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic (PKPD) modeling and simulations were applied to identify optimal dosage regimens for antibiotics. As the emergence of bacterial resistance is increasing and as only a few new antibiotics became available during the last decade, optimal use of established agents and preserving their effectiveness seems vital. Objectives: 1) To find the descriptor of body size and body composition which allows to achieve target concentrations and target effects in patients with cystic fibrosis (CF) most precisely. 2) To identify the mode of administration with the highest probability of successful treatment for intravenous beta-lactams. 3) To develop formulas for optimal dose selection for patients of various body size. General methods: Drug analysis in plasma and urine was performed by HPLC or LC-MS/MS in a single laboratory, at the IBMP. Drug analysis was not done by the author of this thesis. We used non-compartmental analysis and parametric population PK analysis for all studies. We used non-parametric bootstrapping to assess the uncertainty of PK parameters for our meta-analysis of the PK in CF-patients and healthy volunteers. Plasma concentration time profiles for several thousand virtual subjects were simulated by MCS which account for average PK parameters, their between subject variability (BSV), and patient specific demographic data. Convincing literature data show that the duration of non-protein bound concentration above MIC (fT>MIC) best predicts the microbiological and clinical success of beta-lactams and the area under the non-protein bound concentration curve divided by the MIC (fAUC/MIC) best predicts success for quinolones. We used PKPD targets from literature that were based on the fT>MIC or fAUC/MIC, respectively. Achieving a PKPD target was used as a surrogate measure for successful treatment. In our MCS, we calculated the fT>MIC or fAUC/MIC for all simulated concentration profiles and compared it to the value of the PKPD target. The fraction of subjects who achieved the target at the respective MIC approximates the probability of target attainment (PTA). The PTA can be interpreted as probability of successful treatment under certain assumptions. Studies in CF-patients Methods: We had data from ten studies (seven beta-lactams and three quinolones) in CF-patients which all included a healthy volunteer control group. Clinical procedures were very similar for all ten studies. Both subject groups had study conditions as similar as possible. We had data on 90 CF-patients (average +/- SD, age: 21+/-3.6 yrs) and on 111 healthy volunteers (age: 25+/-3.5 yrs). We compared the average clearance and volume of distribution between CF-patients and healthy volunteers for various body size descriptors including total body weight (WT), fat-free mass (FFM), and predicted normal weight (PNWT). We considered linear and allometric scaling of PK parameters by body size and used a meta-analysis based on population PK parameters for the comparison of CF-patients and healthy volunteers. Target concentrations can be achieved more precisely, if a size descriptor reduces the random, unexplained BSV. Therefore, we studied the reduction of unexplained BSV for each size descriptor relative to linear scaling by WT, since doses for CF-patients are commonly selected as mg/kg WT. Results: Without accounting for body size, average total clearance was 15% lower (p=0.005) and volume of distribution at steady-state was 17% lower (p=0.001) in CF-patients compared to healthy volunteers. For linear scaling by WT, average total clearance in CF-patients divided by total clearance in healthy volunteers was 1.15 (p=0.013). This ratio was 1.06 (p=0.191) for volume of distribution. A ratio of 1.0 indicates that CF-patients and healthy volunteers of the same body size have identical average clearances or volumes of distribution. For allometric scaling by FFM or PNWT, the ratio of total clearance and volume of distribution between CF-patients and healthy volunteers was within 0.80 and 1.25 for almost all drugs and the average ratio was close to 1. Allometric scaling by FFM or PNWT reduced the unexplained BSV in renal clearance by 24 to 27% (median of 10 drugs) relative to linear scaling by WT. The unexplained BSV was reduced for seven or eight of the ten drugs by more than 15% and the remaining two or three drugs had essentially unchanged (+/-15%) unexplained BSVs in renal clearance. Conclusions: The PK in CF-patients was comparable to the PK in healthy volunteers after accounting for body size and body composition by allometric scaling with FFM or PNWT. Target concentrations and target effects in CF-patients can be achieved most precisely by dose selection based on an allometric size model with FFM or PNWT. Future studies are warranted to study the clinical superiority of allometric dosing by FFM or PNWT compared to dose selection as mg/kg WT in CF-patients.
There are numerous areas of application for which PKPD models are a valuable tool. We studied dose linearity, bone penetration and drug-drug interactions of antibiotics by PKPD modeling. Knowledge about possible saturation of elimination pathways at therapeutic concentrations is important for studying the probability of successful treatment of dosage regimens via MCS at various doses, other modes of administration, or both. We studied the dose linearity of flucloxacillin and piperacillin. For data analysis of the dose linearity studies, population PK modeling and MCS was used. Population PK has been reported to detect saturable elimination at lower doses, and to estimate BSV more precisely than the STS approach. The variability in PK and the expected variability in PD are combined in a MCS to predict the probability of successful treatment. Flucloxacillin showed no saturation of elimination at the studied doses of 500 mg and 1000 mg. Comparison of various dosage regimens showed, that only one third of the daily dose is needed with prolonged or continuous infusion to achieve the same probability of successful treatment as short-term infusions at the full dose. For serious infections with sensitive staphylococci that are treated with intravenous flucloxacillin, prolonged infusion and continuous infusion are an appealing treatment option. Contrary to flucloxacillin, renal elimination and to a lesser extent also nonrenal elimination of piperacillin were saturable at therapeutic concentrations. Renal clearance decreased by 24% (p = 0.02) after a dose of 3000 mg piperacillin compared to the 1500 mg dose. A model without saturable elimination predicted PTA expectation values that were 6 to 11% lower for high dose short-term infusions and 2 to 5% higher for low dose continuous infusions, compared to models with saturable elimination. These differences depend on the MIC distributions of the local hospital. However, more accurate estimates for the PTA expectation value can be obtained by including an existent saturable elimination pathway into the PK model. Developing a mechanistic model of an interaction allows one to predict the extent of the interaction for other doses of drug and inhibitor. We studied the interactions between gemifloxacin and probenecid, between ciprofloxacin, its metabolite M1 and probenecid, and between flucloxacillin and piperacillin. Mechanistic models for drug-drug interactions were developed by the STS approach. This approach directly accounts for the concentration dependence of an interaction and describes the full time course of an interaction. Probenecid significantly inhibited the renal elimination of gemifloxacin, ciprofloxacin and ciprofloxacin’s metabolite M1, and slightly decreased nonrenal clearance of gemifloxacin. Piperacillin significantly decreased renal and nonrenal clearance of flucloxacillin, but hardly vice versa. For all three interactions competitive inhibition of a capacity-limited renal elimination pathway was identified as the most likely mechanism. As those drugs are all actively secreted in the renal tubules, competitive interaction is physiologically reasonable. Probenecid had a lower affinity to the renal transporter than gemifloxacin, ciprofloxacin and M1. Due to its substantially higher concentrations, probenecid inhibited the elimination of the quinolones. The affinity of piperacillin for the renal transporter was 13 times higher compared to flucloxacillin. Piperacillin PK was only slightly affected by flucloxacillin. PK interactions with piperacillin are likely to occur also with other betalactam combinations. PK interactions may be useful to improve the PD profile of an antibiotic, however possibly increased risks for side effects (e.g. risk of rash for gemifloxacin and probenecid) have to be considered.