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Parkinson's disease (PD) provokes bradykinesia, resting tremor, rigidity and postural instability, and also non-motor symptoms such as depression, anxiety, sleep and cognitive impairments. Similar phenotypes can be induced in Drosophila melanogaster through modification of PD-relevant genes or the administration of PD inducing toxins. Recent studies correlated deregulation of human p21-activated kinase 4 (PAK4) with PD, leaving open the question of a causative relationship of mutations in this gene for manifestation of PD symptoms. To determine whether flies lacking the PAK4 homolog Mushroom bodies tiny (Mbt) show PD-like phenotypes, we tested for a variety of PD criteria. Here, we demonstrate that mbt mutant flies show PD-like phenotypes including age-dependent movement deficits, reduced life expectancy and fragmented sleep. They also react to a stressful situation with higher immobility, indicating an influence of Mbt on emotional behavior. Loss of Mbt function has a negative effect on the number of dopaminergic protocerebral anterior medial (PAM) neurons, most likely caused by a proliferation defect of neural progenitors. The age-dependent movement deficits are not accompanied by a corresponding further loss of PAM neurons. Previous studies highlighted the importance of a small PAM subgroup for age-dependent PD motor impairments. We show that impaired motor skills are caused by a lack of Mbt in this PAM subgroup. In addition, a broader re-expression of Mbt in PAM neurons improves life expectancy. Conversely, selective Mbt knockout in the same cells shortens lifespan. We conclude that mutations in Mbt/PAK4 can play a causative role in the development of PD phenotypes.
Purpose
Integrating moderate hypofractionation to the macroscopic tumor with elective nodal irradiation while sparing the organs at risk (OAR) in chemoradiotherapy of locally advanced non-small-cell lung cancer.
Methods
From 2010-2018, treatment, patient and tumor characteristics of 138 patients from two radiation therapy centers were assessed. Chemoradiotherapy by intensity-modulated radiation therapy (IMRT) with a simultaneous integrated boost (SIB) to the primary tumor and macroscopic lymph node metastases was used.
Results
A total of 124 (90%) patients received concurrent chemotherapy. 106 (76%) patients had UICC (Union for International Cancer Control) stage ≥IIIB and 21 (15%) patients had an oligometastatic disease (UICC stage IV). Median SIB and elective total dose was 61.6 and 50.4 Gy in 28 fractions, respectively. Furthermore, 64 patients (46%) had an additional sequential boost to the primary tumor after the SIB-IMRT main series: median 6.6 Gy in median 3 fractions. The median cumulative mean lung dose was 15.6 Gy (range 6.2-29.5 Gy). Median follow-up and radiological follow-up for all patients was 18.0 months (range 0.6-86.9) and 16.0 months (range 0.2-86.9), respectively. Actuarial local control rates at 1, 2 and 3 years were 80.4, 68.4 and 57.8%. Median overall survival and progression-free survival was 30.0 months (95% confidence interval [CI] 23.5-36.4) and 12.1 months (95% CI 8.2-16.0), respectively. Treatment-related toxicity was moderate. Radiation-induced pneumonitis grade 2 and grade 3 occurred in 13 (9.8%) and 3 (2.3%) patients.
Conclusions
Chemoradiotherapy using SIB-IMRT showed promising local tumor control rates and acceptable toxicity in patients with locally advanced and in part oligometastatic lung cancer. The SIB concept, resulting in a relatively low mean lung dose, was associated with low numbers of clinically relevant pneumonitis. The overall survival appears promising in the presence of a majority of patients with UICC stage ≥IIIB disease.
Purpose
A signal dependence on dose rate was reported for the ArcCHECK array due to recombination processes within the diodes. The purpose of our work was to quantify the necessary correction and apply them to quality assurance measurements.
Methods
Static 10 × 10 cm\(^2\) 6-MV fields delivered by a linear accelerator were applied to the detector array while decreasing the average dose rate, that is, the pulse frequency, from 500 to 30 MU/min. An ion chamber was placed inside the ArcCHECK cavity as a reference. Furthermore, the instantaneous dose rate dependence (DRD) was studied. The position of the detector was adjusted to change the dose-per-pulse, varying the distance between the focus and the diode closest to the focus between 69.6 and 359.6 cm. Reference measurements were performed with an ion chamber placed inside a PMMA slab phantom at the same source-to-detector distances (SDDs). Exponential saturation functions were fitted to the data, with different parameters to account for two generations of ArcCHECK detectors (types 2 and 3) and both DRDs. Corrections were applied to 12 volumetric modulated arc therapy plans.
Results
The sensitivity decreased by up to 2.8% with a decrease in average dose rate and by 9% with a decrease in instantaneous dose rate. Correcting the average DRD, the mean gamma pass rates (2%/2-mm criterion) of the treatment plans were improved by 5 percentage points (PP) for diode type 3 and 0.4 PP for type 2. Correcting the instantaneous DRD, the improvement was 8.4 PP for type 3 and 0.9 PP for type 2.
Conclusions
The instantaneous DRD was identified as the prevailing effect on the diode sensitivity. We developed and validated a method to correct this behavior. The number of falsely not passed treatment plans could be considerably reduced.
Ischemia-like stress conditions stimulate trophic activities of adipose-derived stromal/stem cells
(2020)
Adipose-derived stromal/stem cells (ASCs) have been shown to exert regenerative functions, which are mainly attributed to the secretion of trophic factors. Upon transplantation, ASCs are facing an ischemic environment characterized by oxygen and nutrient deprivation. However, current knowledge on the secretion capacity of ASCs under such conditions is limited. Thus, the present study focused on the secretory function of ASCs under glucose and oxygen deprivation as major components of ischemia. After exposure to glucose/oxygen deprivation, ASCs maintained distinct viability, but the metabolic activity was greatly reduced by glucose limitation. ASCs were able to secrete a broad panel of factors under glucose/oxygen deprivation as revealed by a cytokine antibody array. Quantification of selected factors by ELISA demonstrated that glucose deprivation in combination with hypoxia led to markedly higher secretion levels of the angiogenic and anti-apoptotic factors IL-6, VEGF, and stanniocalcin-1 as compared to the hypoxic condition alone. A conditioned medium of glucose/oxygen-deprived ASCs promoted the viability and tube formation of endothelial cells, and the proliferation and migration of fibroblasts. These findings indicate that ASCs are stimulated by ischemia-like stress conditions to secrete trophic factors and would be able to exert their beneficial function in an ischemic environment.
Mbt/PAK4 together with SRC modulates N-Cadherin adherens junctions in the developing Drosophila eye
(2019)
Tissue morphogenesis is accompanied by changes of adherens junctions (AJ). During Drosophila eye development, AJ reorganization includes the formation of isolated N-Cadherin AJ between photoreceptors R3/R4. Little is known about how these N-Cadherin AJ are established and maintained. This study focuses on the kinases Mbt/PAK4 and SRC, both known to alter E-Cadherin AJ across phyla. Drosophila p21-activated kinase Mbt and the non-receptor tyrosine kinases Src64 and Src42 regulate proper N-Cadherin AJ. N-Cadherin AJ elongation depends on SRC kinase activity. Cell culture experiments demonstrate binding of both Drosophila SRC isoforms to N-Cadherin and its subsequent tyrosine phosphorylation. In contrast, Mbt stabilizes but does not bind N-Cadherin in vitro. Mbt is required in R3/R4 for zipping the N-Cadherin AJ between these cells, independent of its kinase activity and Cdc42-binding. The mbt phenotype can be reverted by mutations in Src64 and Src42. Because Mbt neither directly binds to SRC proteins nor has a reproducible influence on their kinase activity, the conclusion is that Mbt and SRC signaling converge on N-Cadherin. N-Cadherin AJ formation during eye development requires a proper balance between the promoting effects of Mbt and the inhibiting influences of SRC kinases.
Endogenous molecular circadian clocks drive daily rhythmic changes at the cellular, physiological, and behavioral level for adaptation to and anticipation of environmental signals. The core molecular system consists of autoregulatory feedback loops, where clock proteins inhibit their own transcription. A complex and not fully understood interplay of regulatory proteins influences activity, localization and stability of clock proteins to set the pace of the clock. This study focuses on the molecular function of Ribosomal S6 Kinase (RSK) in the Drosophila melanogaster circadian clock. Mutations in the human rsk2 gene cause Coffin–Lowry syndrome, which is associated with severe mental disabilities. Knock-out studies with Drosophila ortholog rsk uncovered functions in synaptic processes, axonal transport and adult behavior including associative learning and circadian activity. However, the molecular targets of RSK remain elusive. Our experiments provide evidence that RSK acts in the key pace maker neurons as a negative regulator of Shaggy (SGG) kinase activity, which in turn determines timely nuclear entry of the clock proteins Period and Timeless to close the negative feedback loop. Phosphorylation of serine 9 in SGG is mediated by the C-terminal kinase domain of RSK, which is in agreement with previous genetic studies of RSK in the circadian clock but argues against the prevailing view that only the N-terminal kinase domain of RSK proteins carries the effector function. Our data provide a mechanistic explanation how RSK influences the molecular clock and imply SGG S9 phosphorylation by RSK and other kinases as a convergence point for diverse cellular and external stimuli.
Loss of function mutations in the rsk2 gene cause Coffin-Lowry syndrome (CLS), which is associated with multiple symptoms including severe mental disabilities. Despite the characterization of ribosomal S6 kinase 2 (RSK2) as a protein kinase acting as a downstream effector of the well characterized ERK MAP-kinase signaling pathway, it turns out to be a challenging task to link RSK2 to specific neuronal processes dysregulated in case of mutation. Animal models such as mouse and Drosophila combine advanced genetic manipulation tools with in vivo imaging techniques, high-resolution connectome analysis and a variety of behavioral assays, thereby allowing for an in-depth analysis for gene functions in the nervous system. Although modeling mental disability in animal systems has limitations because of the complexity of phenotypes, the influence of genetic variation and species-specific characteristics at the neural circuit and behavioral level, some common aspects of RSK2 function in the nervous system have emerged, which will be presented. Only with this knowledge our understanding of the pathophysiology of CLS can be improved, which might open the door for development of potential intervention strategies.
Mushroom body defect is required in parallel to Netrin for midline axon guidance in Drosophila
(2016)
The outgrowth of many neurons within the central nervous system is initially directed towards or away from the cells lying at the midline. Recent genetic evidence suggests that a simple model of differential sensitivity to the conserved Netrin attractants and Slit repellents is insufficient to explain the guidance of all axons at the midline. In the Drosophila embryonic ventral nerve cord, many axons still cross the midline in the absence of the Netrin genes (NetA and NetB) or their receptor frazzled. Here we show that mutation of mushroom body defect (mud) dramatically enhances the phenotype of Netrin or frazzled mutants, resulting in many more axons failing to cross the midline, although mutations in mud alone have little effect. This suggests that mud, which encodes a microtubule-binding coiled-coil protein homologous to NuMA and LIN-5, is an essential component of a Netrin-independent pathway that acts in parallel to promote midline crossing. We demonstrate that this novel role of Mud in axon guidance is independent of its previously described role in neural precursor development. These studies identify a parallel pathway controlling midline guidance in Drosophila and highlight a novel role for Mud potentially acting downstream of Frizzled to aid axon guidance.
Background
Fabry disease is characterized by a progressive deposition of sphingolipids in different organ systems, whereby cardiac involvement leads to death. We hypothesize that lysosomal storage of sphingolipids in the heart as occurring in Fabry disease does not reflect in higher cardiac lipid concentrations detectable by \(^1\)H magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) at 3 Tesla.
Methods
Myocardial lipid content was quantified in vivo by \(^1\)H-MRS in 30 patients (12 male, 18 female; 18 patients treated with enzyme replacement therapy) with genetically proven Fabry disease and in 30 healthy controls. The study protocol combined \(^1\)H-MRS with cardiac cine imaging and LGE MRI in a single examination.
Results
Myocardial lipid content was not significantly elevated in Fabry disease (p = 0.225). Left ventricular (LV) mass was significantly higher in patients suffering from Fabry disease compared to controls (p = 0.019). Comparison of patients without signs of myocardial fibrosis in MRI (LGE negative; n = 12) to patients with signs of fibrosis (LGE positive; n = 18) revealed similar myocardial lipid content in both groups (p > 0.05), while the latter showed a trend towards elevated LV mass (p = 0.076).
Conclusions
This study demonstrates the potential of lipid metabolic investigation embedded in a comprehensive examination of cardiac morphology and function in Fabry disease. There was no evidence that lysosomal storage of sphingolipids influences cardiac lipid content as measured by \(^1\)H-MRS. Finally, the authors share the opinion that a comprehensive cardiac examination including three subsections (LGE; \(^1\)H-MRS; T\(_1\) mapping), could hold the highest potential for the final assessment of early and late myocardial changes in Fabry disease.
Cord blood hematopoietic stem cells (CB-HSCs) are an outstanding source for transplantation approaches. However, the amount of cells per donor is limited and culture expansion of CB-HSCs is accompanied by a loss of engraftment potential. In order to analyze the molecular mechanisms leading to this impaired potential we profiled global and local epigenotypes during the expansion of human CB hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HPSCs). Human CB-derived CD34+ cells were cultured in serum-free medium together with SCF, TPO, FGF, with or without Igfbp2 and Angptl5 (STF/STFIA cocktails). As compared to the STF cocktail, the STFIA cocktail maintains in vivo repopulation capacity of cultured CD34+ cells. Upon expansion, CD34+ cells genome-wide remodel their epigenotype and depending on the cytokine cocktail, cells show different HK4me3 and H3K27me3 levels. Expanding cells without Igfbp2 and Angptl5 leads to higher global H3K27me3 levels. ChIPseq analyses reveal a cytokine cocktail-dependent redistribution of H3K27me3 profiles. Inhibition of the PRC2 component EZH2 counteracts the culture-associated loss of NOD scid gamma (NSG) engraftment potential. Collectively, our data reveal chromatin dynamics that underlie the culture-associated loss of engraftment potential. We identify PRC2 component EZH2 as being involved in the loss of engraftment potential during the in vitro expansion of HPSCs.
Plastic changes in synaptic properties are considered as fundamental for adaptive behaviors. Extracellular-signal-regulated kinase (ERK)-mediated signaling has been implicated in regulation of synaptic plasticity. Ribosomal S6 kinase 2 (RSK2) acts as a regulator and downstream effector of ERK. In the brain, RSK2 is predominantly expressed in regions required for learning and memory. Loss-of-function mutations in human RSK2 cause Coffin-Lowry syndrome, which is characterized by severe mental retardation and low IQ scores in affected males. Knockout of RSK2 in mice or the RSK ortholog in Drosophila results in a variety of learning and memory defects. However, overall brain structure in these animals is not affected, leaving open the question of the pathophysiological consequences. Using the fly neuromuscular system as a model for excitatory glutamatergic synapses, we show that removal of RSK function causes distinct defects in motoneurons and at the neuromuscular junction. Based on histochemical and electrophysiological analyses, we conclude that RSK is required for normal synaptic morphology and function. Furthermore, loss of RSK function interferes with ERK signaling at different levels. Elevated ERK activity was evident in the somata of motoneurons, whereas decreased ERK activity was observed in axons and the presynapse. In addition, we uncovered a novel function of RSK in anterograde axonal transport. Our results emphasize the importance of fine-tuning ERK activity in neuronal processes underlying higher brain functions. In this context, RSK acts as a modulator of ERK signaling.
Background
Myc proteins are essential regulators of animal growth during normal development, and their deregulation is one of the main driving factors of human malignancies. They function as transcription factors that (in vertebrates) control many growth- and proliferation-associated genes, and in some contexts contribute to global gene regulation.
Results
We combine chromatin immunoprecipitation-sequencing (ChIPseq) and RNAseq approaches in Drosophila tissue culture cells to identify a core set of less than 500 Myc target genes, whose salient function resides in the control of ribosome biogenesis. Among these genes we find the non-coding snoRNA genes as a large novel class of Myc targets. All assayed snoRNAs are affected by Myc, and many of them are subject to direct transcriptional activation by Myc, both in Drosophila and in vertebrates. The loss of snoRNAs impairs growth during normal development, whereas their overexpression increases tumor mass in a model for neuronal tumors.
Conclusions
This work shows that Myc acts as a master regulator of snoRNP biogenesis. In addition, in combination with recent observations of snoRNA involvement in human cancer, it raises the possibility that Myc’s transforming effects are partially mediated by this class of non-coding transcripts.
Parent-of-origin imprints have been implicated in the regulation of neural differentiation and brain development. Previously we have shown that, despite the lack of a paternal genome, human parthenogenetic (PG) embryonic stem cells (hESCs) can form proliferating neural stem cells (NSCs) that are capable of differentiation into physiologically functional neurons while maintaining allele-specific expression of imprinted genes. Since biparental ("normal") hESC-derived NSCs (N NSCs) are targeted by immune cells, we characterized the immunogenicity of PG NSCs. Flow cytometry and immunocytochemistry revealed that both N NSCs and PG NSCs exhibited surface expression of human leukocyte antigen (HLA) class I but not HLA-DR molecules. Functional analyses using an in vitro mixed lymphocyte reaction assay resulted in less proliferation of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) with PG compared with N NSCs. In addition, natural killer (NK) cells cytolyzed PG less than N NSCs. At a molecular level, expression analyses of immune regulatory factors revealed higher HLA-G levels in PG compared with N NSCs. In line with this finding, MIR152, which represses HLA-G expression, is less transcribed in PG compared with N cells. Blockage of HLA-G receptors ILT2 and KIR2DL4 on natural killer cell leukemia (NKL) cells increased cytolysis of PG NSCs. Together this indicates that PG NSCs have unique immunological properties due to elevated HLA-G expression.
All organisms have to adapt to acute as well as to regularly occurring changes in the environment. To deal with these major challenges organisms evolved two fundamental mechanisms: the p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway, a major stress pathway for signaling stressful events, and circadian clocks to prepare for the daily environmental changes. Both systems respond sensitively to light. Recent studies in vertebrates and fungi indicate that p38 is involved in light-signaling to the circadian clock providing an interesting link between stress-induced and regularly rhythmic adaptations of animals to the environment, but the molecular and cellular mechanisms remained largely unknown. Here, we demonstrate by immunocytochemical means that p38 is expressed in Drosophila melanogaster's clock neurons and that it is activated in a clock-dependent manner. Surprisingly, we found that p38 is most active under darkness and, besides its circadian activation, additionally gets inactivated by light. Moreover, locomotor activity recordings revealed that p38 is essential for a wild-type timing of evening activity and for maintaining ∼ 24 h behavioral rhythms under constant darkness: flies with reduced p38 activity in clock neurons, delayed evening activity and lengthened the period of their free-running rhythms. Furthermore, nuclear translocation of the clock protein Period was significantly delayed on the expression of a dominant-negative form of p38b in Drosophila's most important clock neurons. Western Blots revealed that p38 affects the phosphorylation degree of Period, what is likely the reason for its effects on nuclear entry of Period. In vitro kinase assays confirmed our Western Blot results and point to p38 as a potential "clock kinase" phosphorylating Period. Taken together, our findings indicate that the p38 MAP Kinase is an integral component of the core circadian clock of Drosophila in addition to playing a role in stress-input pathways.
The aim of this study was to investigate the prognostic value of 18F-fluoro-deoxyglucose positron emission tomography–computed tomography (18F-FDG-PET/CT) in 37 patients with a history of multiple myeloma (MM) and suspected or confirmed recurrence after stem cell transplantation (SCT). All patients had been heavily pre-treated. Time to progression (TTP) and overall survival (OS) were correlated to a number of different PET-derived as well as clinical parameters. Impact on patient management was assessed.
Absence of FDG-avid MM foci was a positive prognostic factor for both TTP and OS (p<0.01). Presence of >10 focal lesions correlated with both TTP (p<0.01) and OS (p<0.05). Interestingly, presence of >10 lesions in the appendicular skeleton proved to have the strongest association with disease progression. Intensity of glucose uptake and presence of extramedullary disease were associated with shorter TTP (p=0.037 and p=0.049, respectively). Manifestations in soft tissue structures turned out to be a strong negative predictor for both, TTP and OS (p<0.01, respectively). PET resulted in a change of management in 30% of patients.
Our data underline the prognostic value of 18F-FDG-PET/CT in MM patients also in the setting of post-SCT relapse. PET/CT has a significant impact on patient management.
Cell growth and cell division are two interconnected yet distinct processes. Initiation of proliferation of central brain progenitor cells (neuroblasts) after the late embryonic quiescence stage requires cell growth, and maintenance of proper cell size is an important prerequisite for continuous larval neuroblast proliferation. Beside extrinsic nutrition signals, cell growth requires constant supply with functional ribosomes to maintain protein synthesis.
Mutations in the mushroom body miniature (mbm) gene were previously identified in a screen for structural brain mutants. This study focused on the function of the Mbm protein as a new nucleolar protein, which is the site of ribosome biogenesis. The comparison of the relative expression levels of Mbm and other nucleolar proteins in different cell types showed a pronounced expression of Mbm in neuroblasts, particularly in the fibrillar component of the nucleolus, suggesting that in addition to nucleolar components generally required for ribosome biogenesis, more neuroblast specific nucleolar factors exist. Mutations in mbm cause neuroblast proliferation defects but do not interfere with cell polarity, spindle orientation or asymmetry of cell division of neuroblasts. Instead a reduction in cell size was observed, which correlates with an impairment of ribosome biogenesis. In particular, loss of Mbm leads to the retention of the small ribosomal subunit in the nucleolus resulting in decreased protein synthesis. Interestingly, the defect in ribosome biogenesis was only observed in neuroblasts. Moreover, Mbm is apparently not required for cell size and proliferation control in wing imaginal disc and S2 cells supporting the idea of a neuroblast-specific function of Mbm.
Furthermore, the transcriptional regulation of the mbm gene and the functional relevance of posttranslational modifications were analyzed. Mbm is a transcriptional target of dMyc. A common feature of dMyc target genes is the presence of a conserved E-box sequence in their promoter regions. Two E-box motifs are found in the vicinity of the transcriptional start site of mbm. Gene reporter assays verified that only one of them mediates dMyc-dependent transcription. Complementary studies in flies showed that removal of dMyc function in neuroblasts resulted in reduced Mbm expression levels.
At the posttranslational level, Mbm becomes phosphorylated by protein kinase CK2. Six serine and threonine residues located in two acidic amino acid rich clusters in the C-terminal half of the Mbm protein were identified as CK2 phosphorylation sites.
Mutational analysis of these sites verified their importance for Mbm function in vivo and indicated that Mbm localization is controlled by CK2-mediated phosphorylation.
Although the molecular function of Mbm in ribosome biogenesis remains to be determined, the results of this study emphasize the specific role of Mbm in neuroblast ribosome biogenesis to control cell growth and proliferation.
The CK2 Kinase Stabilizes CLOCK and Represses Its Activity in the Drosophila Circadian Oscillator
(2013)
Phosphorylation is a pivotal regulatory mechanism for protein stability and activity in circadian clocks regardless of their evolutionary origin. It determines the speed and strength of molecular oscillations by acting on transcriptional activators and their repressors, which form negative feedback loops. In Drosophila, the CK2 kinase phosphorylates and destabilizes the PERIOD (PER) and TIMELESS (TIM) proteins, which inhibit CLOCK (CLK) transcriptional activity. Here we show that CK2 also targets the CLK activator directly. Downregulating the activity of the catalytic alpha subunit of CK2 induces CLK degradation, even in the absence of PER and TIM. Unexpectedly, the regulatory beta subunit of the CK2 holoenzyme is not required for the regulation of CLK stability. In addition, downregulation of \(CK2\alpha\) activity decreases CLK phosphorylation and increases per and tim transcription. These results indicate that CK2 inhibits CLK degradation while reducing its activity. Since the CK1 kinase promotes CLK degradation, we suggest that CLK stability and transcriptional activity result from counteracting effects of CK1 and CK2.
Ablation of BRaf Impairs Neuronal Differentiation in the Postnatal Hippocampus and Cerebellum
(2013)
This study focuses on the role of the kinase BRaf in postnatal brain development. Mice expressing truncated, non-functional BRaf in neural stem cell-derived brain tissue demonstrate alterations in the cerebellum, with decreased sizes and fuzzy borders of the glomeruli in the granule cell layer. In addition we observed reduced numbers and misplaced ectopic Purkinje cells that showed an altered structure of their dendritic arborizations in the hippocampus, while the overall cornus ammonis architecture appeared to be unchanged. In male mice lacking BRaf in the hippocampus the size of the granule cell layer was normal at postnatal day 12 (P12) but diminished at P21, as compared to control littermates. This defect was caused by a reduced ability of dentate gyrus progenitor cells to differentiate into NeuN positive granule cell neurons. In vitro cell culture of P0/P1 hippocampal cells revealed that BRaf deficient cells were impaired in their ability to form microtubule-associated protein 2 positive neurons. Together with the alterations in behaviour, such as autoaggression and loss of balance fitness, these observations indicate that in the absence of BRaf all neuronal cellular structures develop, but neuronal circuits in the cerebellum and hippocampus are partially disturbed besides impaired neuronal generation in both structures.
Background: Ketogenic diets (KDs) have gained some popularity not only as effective weight-loss diets and treatment options for several diseases, but also among healthy and physically active individuals for various reasons. However, data on the effects of ketosis in the latter group of individuals are scarce. We therefore collected pilot data on the physiological response to a self-prescribed ketogenic diet lasting 5-7 weeks in a small cohort of healthy and physically active individuals. Methods: Twelve subjects (7 males, 5 females, age 24-60 years) who followed moderate to intensive exercise routines underwent blood testing, bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) and spiroergometry during an incremental treadmill test. On the next day, they went on a self-prescribed KD for a median of 38 days (range 35-50 days), after which the same tests were performed again. Ketosis was self-monitored by urinary ketone strips. Subjective feeling during the diet was assessed by a questionnaire after the intervention. Due to the small and heterogenous sample, the results are interpreted in the context of the already existing literature. Results: The KDs were tolerated well by the majority of individuals. Impaired recovery from exercise remained the most frequently reported side effect until the end of the study. Most blood parameters remained stable during the intervention. However, there were significant elevations of total and LDL cholesterol concentrations (p<0.01) and a trend towards increased HDL-cholesterol (p=0.05). The drastic reduction of carbohydrates had no statistically significant influence on running performance judged by the time to exhaustion, VO2max and respiratory compensation points. BIA measurements showed significant increases in phase angle (p=0.01) indicating improvements of body composition with an estimated decrease of 3.4 kg of fat mass (p=0.002) and gain of 1.3 kg of fat free mass. We discuss the validity of these estimates taking into account a possibly altered hydration status due to the KD. Conclusions: Active healthy individuals will probably experience no major problems during a short term KD lasting several weeks. The drastically reduced carbohydrate content of the diet seems to be no limiting factor for running performance. In addition, improvements in body composition can be expected. While most biochemical parameters are not influenced by the diet, there seems to be an impact on the blood lipid profile that could be considered problematic with respect to cardiovascular disease risk. However, the predictive role of cholesterol levels alone in individuals undergoing regular physical activity remains to be elucidated.
Polycomb group (PcG) proteins are chromatin modifiers involved in heritable gene repression. Two main PcG complexes have been characterized: Polycomb repressive complex (PRC) 2 is involved in the initiation of gene silencing, whereas PRC1 participates in the stable maintenance of gene repression. Pcgf4 (Polycomb group protein, Bmi1) is one of the most studied PRC1 members with essential functions for embryonic development and adult stem cell self renewal. In embryonic stem cells (ES cells), Pcgf4 is poorly expressed while its paralogs (Pcgf1, Pcgf2, Pcgf3, Pcgf5 and Pcgf6) are expressed at higher levels. The relevance of the Pcgf paralog Pcgf6 for the maintenance of ESC pluripotency has not been addressed so far. My analyses revealed that Pcgf6 was the most expressed Pcgf paralog in undifferentiated ES cells. When ES cells differentiated, gene expression of Pcgf6 strongly declined. To investigate the functions of Pcgf6 in ES cells, we established a doxycycline (dox) inducible shRNA-targeted knockdown system according to publications by Seibler et al. (Seibler et al. 2005; Seibler et al. 2007). Following dox-induced knockdown (KD) of Pcgf6, we observed decreased ES cell colony formation. In parallel, gene expression of pluripotency markers Oct4, Nanog and Sox2 was reduced upon dox-treatment, wheras the expression of mesoderm genes such as T (Brachyury) were up-regulated. Further, microarray analysis revealed de-repression of several spermatogenesis-specic genes upon Pcgf6-KD, suggesting that Pcgf6 may play a role during spermatogenesis. Upon in vitro differentiation, Pcgf6-KD ES cells showed increased hemangioblast formation, paralleled by increased hematopoietic development. In summary, results of this study suggest that Pcgf6 is involved in maintaining ES cell identity by repressing lineage-specific gene expression in undifferentiated ES cells.
The actin cytoskeleton is essential for many cellular functions, such as the regulation of cell morphology, cell migration and vesicle transport processes. The functional diversity of actin structures is reflected in a variety of distinct molecular mechanisms regulating the polymerization of actin filaments. The spontaneous polymerization of actin however is inhibited, by both the instability of small actin oligomers and by actin monomer binding proteins, which prevent the formation of such oligomers. Actin nucleation factors help to overcome this kinetic barrier of filament initiation and are essential for the generation of novel actin filaments at specified subcellular compartments. Spir proteins are the founding members of the novel class of WH2 domain containing actin nucleation factors. They initiate actin polymerization by binding of actin monomers to four WH2 domains in the central part of the protein. Despite their ability to nucleate actin polymerization in vitro by themselves, Spir proteins form a regulatory complex with the distinct actin nucleators of the formin subgroup of formins. Spir functions in the regulation of vesicular originated filamentous actin structures, vesicle transport processes and the assembly of the cleavage furrow during asymmetric meiotic cell divisions. The mammalian genome encodes two spir genes, spir-1 and spir-2. The corresponding proteins have an identical structural array and share a high degree of homology. In order to elucidate the Spir function in developing and adult mouse tissues, the yet unknown expression of the mouse spir-2 gene was addressed. Real-time PCR analysis revealed highest expression of spir-2 in oocytes, the brain, throughout the gastrointestinal tract, testis and kidney of adult mice. In situ hybridizations were performed to substantiate the cellular nature of spir gene expression. During embryogenesis in situ hybridizations show spir-2 to be expressed in the developing nervous system and intestine. In adult mouse tissues highest expression of spir-2 was detected in the epithelial cells of the digestive tract, in neuronal cells of the nervous system and in spermatocytes. In contrast to the more restricted expression of the mouse spir-1 gene, which is mainly found in the nervous system, oocytes and testis, the data presented here show a distinct and broader expression pattern of the spir-2 gene and by this support a more general cell biological function of the novel actin nucleators. In order to address the function of Spir proteins in the developing and adult nervous system, Spir-1 deficient mice were generated by a gene trap method. Spir-1 deficient mice are viable and provide a perfect tool to address the neurobiological function of the Spir-1 protein. Analyses of primary cortical neurons from Spir-1 deficient mice revealed a specific reduction of dendritic branchpoints and are the first description of a neuronal Spir-1 function. Further, a transgenic mouse line (thy1-GFP-M) was employed that expresses the green fluorescent protein (GFP) under the control of neuron specific elements from the thy1 promoter. GFP is thereby expressed in only a subset of neurons and labels the neurons in their entirety. Spir-1 deficient mice carrying the GFP transgene were generated and analyzed. It was found that Spir-1 deficient mice exhibit a reduced number of dendritic spines in the entorhinal cortex compared to wildtype littermates. All together this study gives novel information about the cell biological function of Spir and provides insights how cytoskeletal functions structure the mammalian neuronal network.
Imprinted genes play important roles in brain development. As the neural developmental capabilities of human parthenogenetic embryonic stem cells (hpESCs) with only a maternal genome were not assessed in great detail, hence here the potential of hpESCs to differentiate into various neural subtypes was determined. In addition DNA methylation and expression of imprinted genes upon neural differentiation was also investigated. The results demonstrated that hpESC-derived neural stem cells (hpNSCs) showed expression of NSC markers Sox1, Nestin, Pax6, and Musashi1 (MS1), the silencing of pluripotency genes (Oct4, Nanog) and the absence of activation of neural crest (Snai2, FoxD3) and mesodermal (Acta1) markers. Moreover, confocal images of hpNSC cultures exhibited ubiquitous expression of NSC markers Nestin, Sox1, Sox2 and Vimentin. Differentiating hpNSCs for 28 days generated neural subtypes with neural cell type-specific morphology and expression of neuronal and glial markers, including Tuj1, NeuN, Map2, GFAP, O4, Tau, Synapsin1 and GABA. hpNSCs also responded to region-specific differentiation signals and differentiated into regional phenotypes such as midbrain dopaminergic- and motoneuron-type cells. hpESC-derived neurons showed typical neuronal Na+/K+ currents in voltage clamp mode, elicited multiple action potentials with a maximum frequency of 30 Hz. Cell depicted a typical neuron-like current pattern that responded to selective pharmacological blockers of sodium (tetrodotoxin) and potassium (tetraethylammonium) channels. Furthermore, in hpESCs and hpNSCs the majority of CpGs of the differentially methylated regions (DMRs) KvDMR1 were methylated whereas DMR1 (H19/Igf2 locus) showed partial or complete absence of CpG methylation, which is consistent with a parthenogenetic (PG) origin. Upon differentiation parent-of-origin-specific gene expression was maintained in hpESCs and hpNSCs as demonstrated by imprinted gene expression analyses. Together this shows that despite the lack of a paternal genome, hpNSCs are proficient in differentiating into glial- and neuron-type cells, which exhibit electrical activity similar to newly formed neurons. Moreover, maternal-specific gene expression and imprinting-specific DNA-methylation are largely maintained upon neural differentiation. hpESCs are a means to generate histocompatible and disease allele-free ESCs. Additionally, hpESCs are a unique model to study the influence of imprinting on neurogenesis.
We identified eukaryotic translation elongation factor 1A (eEF1A) Raf-mediated phosphorylation sites and defined their role in the regulation of eEF1A half-life and of apoptosis of human cancer cells. Mass spectrometry identified in vitro S21 and T88 as phosphorylation sites mediated by B-Raf but not C-Raf on eEF1A1 whereas S21 was phosphorylated on eEF1A2 by both B- and C-Raf. Interestingly, S21 belongs to the first eEF1A GTP/GDP-binding consensus sequence. Phosphorylation of S21 was strongly enhanced when both eEF1A isoforms were preincubated prior the assay with C-Raf, suggesting that the eEF1A isoforms can heterodimerize thus increasing the accessibility of S21 to the phosphate. Overexpression of eEF1A1 in COS 7 cells confirmed the phosphorylation of T88 also in vivo. Compared with wt, in COS 7 cells overexpressed phosphodeficient (A) and phospho-mimicking (D) mutants of eEF1A1 (S21A/D and T88A/D) and of eEF1A2 (S21A/D), resulted less stable and more rapidly proteasome degraded. Transfection of S21 A/D eEF1A mutants in H1355 cells increased apoptosis in comparison with the wt isoforms. It indicates that the blockage of S21 interferes with or even supports C-Raf induced apoptosis rather than cell survival. Raf-mediated regulation of this site could be a crucial mechanism involved in the functional switching of eEF1A between its role in protein biosynthesis and its participation in other cellular processes.
We identified eukaryotic translation elongation factor 1A (eEF1A) Raf-mediated phosphorylation sites and defined their role in the regulation of eEF1A half-life and of apoptosis of human cancer cells. Mass spectrometry identified in vitro S21 and T88 as phosphorylation sites mediated by B-Raf but not C-Raf on eEF1A1 whereas S21 was phosphorylated on eEF1A2 by both B-and C-Raf. Interestingly, S21 belongs to the first eEF1A GTP/GDP-binding consensus sequence. Phosphorylation of S21 was strongly enhanced when both eEF1A isoforms were preincubated prior the assay with C-Raf, suggesting that the eEF1A isoforms can heterodimerize thus increasing the accessibility of S21 to the phosphate. Overexpression of eEF1A1 in COS 7 cells confirmed the phosphorylation of T88 also in vivo. Compared with wt, in COS 7 cells overexpressed phosphodeficient (A) and phospho-mimicking (D) mutants of eEF1A1 (S21A/D and T88A/D) and of eEF1A2 (S21A/D), resulted less stable and more rapidly proteasome degraded. Transfection of S21 A/D eEF1A mutants in H1355 cells increased apoptosis in comparison with the wt isoforms. It indicates that the blockage of S21 interferes with or even supports C-Raf induced apoptosis rather than cell survival. Raf-mediated regulation of this site could be a crucial mechanism involved in the functional switching of eEF1A between its role in protein biosynthesis and its participation in other cellular processes.
Although progenitor cells of the conducting airway have been spatially localized and some insights have been gained regarding their molecular phenotype, relatively little is known about the mechanisms regulating their maintenance, activation, and differentiation. This study investigates the potential roles of E-cadherin in mouse Clara cells, as these cells were shown to represent the progenitor/stem cells of the conducting airways and have been implicated as the cell of origin of human non-small cell lung cancer. Postnatal inactivation of E-cadherin affected Clara cell differentiation and compromised airway regeneration under injury conditions. In steady-state adult lung, overexpression of the dominant negative E-cadherin led to an expansion of the bronchiolar stem cells and decreased differentiation concomitant with canonical Wnt signaling activation. Expansion of the bronchiolar stem cell pool was associated with an incessant proliferation of neuroepithelial body-associated Clara cells that ultimately gave rise to bronchiolar hyperplasia. Despite progressive hyperplasia, only a minority of the mice developed pulmonary solid tumors, suggesting that the loss of E-cadherin function leads to tumor formation when additional mutations are sustained. The present study reveals that E-cadherin plays a critical role in the regulation of proliferation and homeostasis of the epithelial cells lining the conducting airways.
Parent of origin imprints on the genome have been implicated in the regulation of neural cell type differentiation. The ability of human parthenogenetic (PG) embryonic stem cells (hpESCs) to undergo neural lineage and cell type-specific differentiation is undefined. We determined the potential of hpESCs to differentiate into various neural subtypes. Concurrently, we examined DNA methylation and expression status of imprinted genes. Under culture conditions promoting neural differentiation, hpESC-derived neural stem cells (hpNSCs) gave rise to glia and neuron-like cells that expressed subtype-specific markers and generated action potentials. Analysis of imprinting in hpESCs and in hpNSCs revealed that maternal-specific gene expression patterns and imprinting marks were generally maintained in PG cells upon differentiation. Our results demonstrate that despite the lack of a paternal genome, hpESCs generate proliferating NSCs that are capable of differentiation into physiologically functional neuron-like cells and maintain allele-specific expression of imprinted genes. Thus, hpESCs can serve as a model to study the role of maternal and paternal genomes in neural development and to better understand imprinting-associated brain diseases.
Virotherapy using oncolytic vaccinia virus (VACV) strains is one promising new strategy for canine cancer therapy. In this study we describe the establishment of an in vivo model of canine soft tissue sarcoma (CSTS) using the new isolated cell line STSA-1 and the analysis of the virus-mediated oncolytic and immunological effects of two different Lister VACV LIVP1.1.1 and GLV-1h68 strains against CSTS. Cell culture data demonstrated that both tested VACV strains efficiently infected and destroyed cells of the canine soft tissue sarcoma line STSA-1. In addition, in our new canine sarcoma tumor xenograft mouse model, systemic administration of LIVP1.1.1 or GLV-1h68 viruses led to significant inhibition of tumor growth compared to control mice. Furthermore, LIVP1.1.1 mediated therapy resulted in almost complete tumor regression and resulted in long-term survival of sarcoma-bearing mice. The replication of the tested VACV strains in tumor tissues led to strong oncolytic effects accompanied by an intense intratumoral infiltration of host immune cells, mainly neutrophils. These findings suggest that the direct viral oncolysis of tumor cells and the virus-dependent activation of tumor-associated host immune cells could be crucial parts of anti-tumor mechanism in STSA-1 xenografts. In summary, the data showed that both tested vaccinia virus strains and especially LIVP1.1.1 have great potential for effective treatment of CSTS.
Growth factor induced signaling cascades are key regulatory elements in tissue development, maintenance and regeneration. Deregulation of the cascades has severe consequences, leading to developmental disorders and neoplastic diseases. As a major function in signal transduction, activating mutations in RAF family kinases are the cause of many human cancers. In the first project described in this thesis we focused on B-RAF V600E that has been identified as the most prevalent B-RAF mutant in human cancer. In order to address the oncogenic function of B-RAF V600E, we have generated transgenic mice expressing the activated oncogene specifically in lung alveolar epithelial type II cells. Constitutive expression of B-RAF V600E caused abnormalities in alveolar epithelium formation that led to airspace enlargements. These lung lesions showed signs of tissue remodeling and were often associated with chronic inflammation and low incidence of lung tumors. Inflammatory cell infiltration did not precede the formation of emphysema-like lesions but was rather accompanied with late tumor development. These data support a model where the continuous regenerative process initiated by oncogenic B-RAF-driven alveolar disruption provides a tumor-promoting environment associated with chronic inflammation. In the second project we focused on wild type B-RAF and its role in an oncogenic-C-RAF driven mouse lung tumor model. Toward this aim we have generated compound mice in which we could conditionally deplete B-RAF in oncogenic-C-RAF driven lung tumors. Conditional elimination of B-RAF did not block lung tumor formation however led to reduced tumor growth. The diminished tumor growth was not caused by increased cell death instead was a consequence of reduced cell proliferation. Moreover, B-RAF ablation caused a reduction in the amplitude of the mitogenic signalling cascade. These data indicate that in vivo B-RAF is dispensable for the oncogenic potential of active C-RAF; however it cooperates with oncogenic C-RAF in the activation of the mitogenic cascade.
Growth factor induced signaling cascades are key regulatory elements in tissue development, maintenance and regeneration. Perturbations of these cascades have severe consequences, leading to developmental disorders and neoplastic diseases. As a major function in signal transduction, activating mutations in RAF family kinases are the cause of human tumorigenesis, where B-RAF V600E has been identified as the prevalent mutant. In order to address the oncogenic function of B-RAF V600E, we have generated transgenic mice expressing the activated oncogene specifically in lung alveolar epithelial type II cells. Constitutive expression of B-RAF V600E caused abnormalities in alveolar epithelium formation that led to airspace enlargements. These lung lesions showed signs of tissue remodeling and were often associated with chronic inflammation and low incidence of lung tumors. The inflammatory cell infiltration did not precede the formation of the lung lesions but was rather accompanied with late tumor development. These data support a model where the continuous regenerative process initiated by oncogenic B-RAF-driven alveolar disruption provides a tumor-promoting environment associated with chronic inflammation.
Malignant transformation in a defined genetic background: proteome changes displayed by 2D-PAGE
(2010)
Background: Cancer arises from normal cells through the stepwise accumulation of genetic alterations. Cancer development can be studied by direct genetic manipulation within experimental models of tumorigenesis. Thereby, confusion by the genetic heterogeneity of patients can be circumvented. Moreover, identification of the critical changes that convert a pre-malignant cell into a metastatic, therapy resistant tumor cell, however, is one necessary step to develop effective and selective anti-cancer drugs. Thus, for the current study a cell culture model for malignant transformation was used: Primary human fibroblasts of the BJ strain were sequentially transduced with retroviral vectors encoding the genes for hTERT (cell line BJ-T), simian virus 40 early region (SV40 ER, cell line BJ-TE) and H-Ras V12 (cell line BJ-TER). Results: The stepwise malignant transformation of human fibroblasts was analyzed on the protein level by differential proteome analysis. We observed 39 regulated protein spots and therein identified 67 different proteins. The strongest change of spot patterns was detected due to integration of SV40 ER. Among the proteins being significantly regulated during the malignant transformation process well known proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) as well as the chaperones mitochondrial heat shock protein 75 kDa (TRAP-1) and heat shock protein HSP90 were identified. Moreover, we find out, that TRAP-1 is already up-regulated by means of SV40 ER expression instead of H-Ras V12. Furthermore Peroxiredoxin-6 (PRDX6), Annexin A2 (p36), Plasminogen activator inhibitor 2 (PAI-2) and Keratin type II cytoskeletal 7 (CK-7) were identified to be regulated. For some protein candidates we confirmed our 2D-PAGE results by Western Blot. Conclusion: These findings give further hints for intriguing interactions between the p16-RB pathway, the mitochondrial chaperone network and the cytoskeleton. In summary, using a cell culture model for malignant transformation analyzed with 2D-PAGE, proteome and cellular changes can be related to defined steps of tumorigenesis.
Macrophages are important effector cells of the innate and adaptive immune response and exert a wide variety of immunological functions which necessitates a high level of plasticity on the chromatin level. In response to pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) or inflammatory signals macrophages undergo a process of cellular activation which is associated with morphologic, functional and biochemical changes. Toll-like receptors (TLR) are able to sense many different PAMPs. TLR4 is an important sensor for lipopolysaccharide (LPS) which elicits a major portion of the host’s inflammatory response through the activation of many different signaling pathways such as the NF-κB and the MAPK protein kinase pathways RASRAF- MEK-ERK, p38 and JNK. Polycomb group (PcG) proteins are well known chromatin modifiers which function in large complexes and are required to maintain chromatin structure in a transcriptionally repressed state. It has previously been shown that the PcG protein Bmi1 is phosphorylated by 3pK, a downstream effector kinase of the MAPK protein kinase pathways RAS-RAF-MEK-ERK, p38 and JNK. In this work I analyzed the role of Bmi1 as a downstream effector of MAPK signaling during macrophage activation. Unexpectedly a rapid up-regulation on the Bmi1 protein level was observed in bone marrow derived macrophages (BMDMs) after LPS treatment. The Bmi1 induction was associated with transient protein phosphorylation that occured downstream of MAPK signaling. LPS treatment of BMDMs in the absence of Bmi1 resulted in a pronounced increase of IL-10 secretion. This secretion of the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 was associated with increased IL-10 mRNA levels. Furthermore, siRNA mediated knock down of Bmi1 in J774A.1 macrophages also resulted in elevated IL-10 mRNA levels in response to LPS. ChIP analysis revealed that Bmi1 binds to throughout the il-10 locus. Alternative activation of wild type BMDMs via concomitant TLR4 and FcγR activation which triggers high IL-10 expression is paralleled by an attenuated Bmi1 protein expression. These results identify Bmi1 as a repressor of IL-10 expression during activation of macrophages.
Stem cells with the particular potential to self renew and to differentiate into multiple cell lineages are fascinating cell types for basic and applied research. Pluripotent embryonic stem (ES) cells are derived from the inner cell mass (ICM) of preimplantation embryos. Upon differentiation ES cells can give rise to cells of ecto-, meso- and endoderm including germ cells. In contrast, multipotent adult stem cells are more restricted in their differentiation outcomes,they differentiate into cells of their tissue of origin. For example, hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) that reside in hemogenic tissues such as the bone marrow (BM) differentiate into hemato-/lymphoid cell lineages. Upon differentiation of stem cells not the genome, but the epigenetic regulation changes. Differentiation-associated epigenetic changes generate cell types with distinct phenotypes and functions. For stem cell-based therapies it is important to deeper understand the relation between epigenome and cellular function. In the scope of this thesis I aimed to analyze cultures of differentiating stem cells with respect to gene expression, chromatin regulation and differentiation potential. For the analysis of global histone modification levels, which represent one mechanism for epigenetic regulation, fow cytometric protocols were established that allow single cell measurements. By applying this methodology decreased histone acetylation levels were shown in differentiated ES cell populations. In contrast, comparable histone acetylation levels were observed in differentiated and undifferentiated BM cells. In addition, I investigated effects of the histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitor trichostatin A (TSA) on murine BM cells, comprising also HSCs. Upon TSA treatment the frequency of cells with in vitro and in vivo hematopoietic activity was increased, while lineage committed cells underwent apoptosis. Next, the loss of pluripotency was assessed in differentiating ES cell cultures. Using short-term in vitro differentiation protocols marker-based analyses and functional assays were performed.Functionally pluripotency was diminished after 2 days of differentiation as assessed by colony formation, embryoid body (EB) formation and cardiomyogenic differentiation approaches. In contrast, pluripotency marker expression was reduced at later time points. Further, the application of distinct differentiation systems (aggregation EB, clonal EB or monolayer (ML) culture) had an impact on the progression and homogeneity of differentiation cultures. To further study the end of pluripotency, differentiated ES cells were placed under ES cell culture conditions. The data suggest that 3 days differentiated ES cells had passed a point of no return and failed to regain Oct4-eGFP expression and that HDAC inhibitor treatment selectively killed differentiated ES cells. Finally, I aimed to study the effect of EED - a core subunit of the histone methylating Polycomb repressive complex 2 (PRC2) - on ES cell chromatin and function. ES cells lacking EED showed loss of histone H3 lysine 27 trimethylation (H3K27me3) accompanied by increased histone acetylation and reduced H3K9me3 levels. Despite typical ES cell morphology and pluripotency marker expression, EED knockout (KO) ES cells exhibited altered nuclear heterochromatin organization, delayed chromatin mobility and a failure in proper differentiation. Conclusively, my data provide insights into the epigenetic regulation of stem cells. Particularly, the results suggest that HDAC inhibitor treatment was detrimental for differentiated BM as well as for differentiated ES cells and that ES cells after 3 days of differentiation had lost pluripotency. Further, the data demonstrate that EED KO ES cells self renewed, exhibited morphology and pluripotency marker expression similar to wild type ES cells, but failed to differentiate. This indicates an important role of EED not only for undifferentiated but also for differentiating ES cells.
Development of novel Listeria monocytogenes strains as therapeutic agents for targeted tumor therapy
(2010)
Despite marked progress in development and improvement of cancer therapies the rate of cancer related death remained stable over the last years. Especially in treating metastases alternative approaches supporting current therapies are required. Bacterial and viral vectors have been advanced from crude tools into highly sophisticated therapeutic agents detecting and treating neoplastic leasions. They might be potent enough to fill in this therapeutic demand. In this thesis Listeria monocytogenes was investigated as carrier for targeted bacterial cancer therapy. One part of the study focussed on modification of a functional bacterial mRNA delivery system. Genomic integration of T7 RNA polymerase driving mRNA production allowed reduction to an one-plasmid-system and thereby partially relieved the growth retardation exerted by mRNA delivery. Importantly the integration allowed metabolic attenuation of the mRNA delivery mutant potentially enabling in vivo applications. Further expansion of the bacterial RNA delivery system for transfer of shRNAs was examined. Bacterial mutants producing high amounts of RNA containing shRNA sequences were constructed, however a functional proof of gene silencing on delivery in eukaryotic cell lines was not achieved. The second part of this thesis focussed on increasing tumor colonization by Listeria monocytogenes in vivo. Coating bacteria with antibodies against receptors overexpressed on distinct tumor cell lines enabled specific bacterial internalization into these cells in vitro. Optimization of the bacterial antibody coating process resulted in an up to 104-fold increase of intracellular bacteria. Combination of this antibody-mediated targeting with the delivery of prodrug-converting enzymes showed a cytotoxic effect in cell lines treated with the corresponding prodrug. Since incubation in murine serum completely abrogated antibodymediated bacterial internalization the antibodies were covalently linked to the bacteria for application in xenografted tumor mice. Bacteria coated and crosslinked in this manner showed enhanced tumor targeting in a murine tumor model demonstrating antibodymediated bacterial tumor targeting in vivo. Independent of antibody-mediated tumor targeting the intrinsic tumor colonization of different Listeria monocytogenes mutants was examined. Listeria monocytogenes ΔaroA ΔinlGHE colonized murine melanoma xenografts highly efficient, reaching up to 108 CFU per gram of tumor mass 7 days post infection. Taken together the presented data shows highly promising aspects for potential bacterial application in future tumor therapies. Combination of the delivery systems with antibodymediated- and intrinsic bacterial tumor targeting might open novel dimensions utilizing Listeria monocytogenes as therapeutic vector in targeted tumor therapy.
Members of the RAF protein kinase family are key regulators of diverse cellular processes. The need for isoform-specific regulation is reflected by the fact that all RAFs not only display a different degree of activity but also perform isoform-specific functions at diverse cellular compartments. Protein-protein-interactions and phosphorylation events are essential for the signal propagation along the Ras-RAF-MEK-ERK cascade. More than 40 interaction partners of RAF kinases have been described so far. Two of the most important regulators of RAF activity, namely Ras and 14-3-3 proteins, are subject of this work. So far, coupling of RAF with its upstream modulator protein Ras has only been investigated using truncated versions of RAF and regardless of the lipidation status of Ras. We quantitatively analyzed the binding properties of full-length B- and C-RAF to farnesylated H-Ras in presence and absence of membrane lipids. While the isolated Ras-binding domain of RAF exhibit a high binding affinity to both, farnesylated and nonfarnesylated H-Ras, the full-length RAF kinases demonstrate crucial differences in their affinity to Ras. In contrast to C-RAF that requires carboxyterminal farnesylated H-Ras for interaction at the plasma membrane, B-RAF also binds to nonfarnesylated H-Ras in the cytosol. For identification of the potential farnesyl binding site we used several fragments of the regulatory domain of C-RAF and found that the binding of farnesylated H-Ras is considerably increased in the presence of the cysteine-rich domain of RAF. In B-RAF a sequence of 98 amino acids at the extreme N terminus enables binding of Ras independent of its farnesylation status. The deletion of this region altered Ras binding as well as kinase properties of B-RAF to resemble C-RAF. Immunofluorescence studies in mammalian cells revealed essential differences between B- and C-RAF regarding the colocalization with Ras. In conclusion, our data suggest that that B-RAF, in contrast to C-RAF, is also accessible for nonfarnesylated Ras in the cytosolic environment due to its prolonged N terminus. Therefore, the activation of B-RAF may take place both at the plasma membrane and in the cytosolic environment. Furthermore, the interaction of RAF isoforms with Ras at different subcellular sites may also be governed by the complex formation with 14-3-3 proteins. 14-3-3 adapter proteins play a crucial role in the activation of RAF kinases, but so far no information about the selectivity of the seven mammalian isoforms concerning RAF association and activation is available. We analyzed the composition of in vivo RAF/14-3-3 complexes isolated from mammalian cells with mass spectrometry and found that B-RAF associates with a greater variety of 14-3-3 proteins than C- and A-RAF. In vitro binding assays with purified proteins supported this observation since B-RAF showed highest affinity to all seven 14-3-3 isoforms, whereas C-RAF exhibited reduced affinity to some and A-RAF did not bind to the 14-3-3 isoforms epsilon, sigma, and tau. To further examine this isoform specificity we addressed the question of whether both homo- and heterodimeric forms of 14-3-3 proteins participate in RAF signaling. By deleting one of the two 14-3-3 isoforms in Saccharomyces cerevisiae we were able to show that homodimeric 14-3-3 proteins are sufficient for functional activation of B- and C-RAF. In this context, the diverging effect of the internal, inhibiting and the activating C-terminal 14-3-3 binding domain in RAF could be demonstrated. Furthermore, we unveil that prohibitin stimulates C-RAF activity by interfering with 14-3-3 at the internal binding site. This region of C-RAF is also target of phosphorylation as part of a negative feedback loop. Using tandem MS we were able to identify so far unknown phosphorylation sites at serines 296 and 301. Phosphorylation of these sites in vivo, mediated by activated ERK, leads to inhibition of C-RAF kinase activity. The relationship of prohibitin interference with 14-3-3 binding and phosphorylation of adjacent sites has to be further elucidated. Taken together, our results provide important new information on the isoform-specific regulation of RAF kinases by differential interaction with Ras and 14-3-3 proteins and shed more light on the complex mechanism of RAF kinase activation.
Metastasis is the cause of death in 90% of cancer-related deaths in men. Melanoma and Non-Small-Cell Lung Cancer (NSCLC) are both tumour types with poor prognosis, lacking appropriate therapeutic possibilities, not least because of their high rate of metastasis. Thus understanding the process of metastasis might unravel therapeutic targets for developing further therapeutic strategies. The generation of a transgenic mouse model expressing B-RafV600E in melanocytes, a mutation that is found in about 60% of all melanoma, would result in an ideal tool to study melanoma progression and metastasis. In this work, a doxycycline-inducible system was constructed for expression of B-RafV600E and transgenic animals were generated, but the expression system has to be improved, since this strategy didn’t give rise to any viable, transgene carrying mice. Furthermore, since it was shown in the work of others that the metastatic behavior of tumour cell lines could be reversed by an embryonic microenvironment and the influence of a tumourigenic microenvironment on melanocytes lead to the acquisition of tumour cell-like characteristics, the question arose, whether B-Raf is as important in melanocyte development as it is in melanoma progression. In this work, the embryonal melanocyte development in B-Raf-deficient and wildtype mouse embryos was examined and there were no differences observed in the localization and number of neural crest stem cells as well as in the localization of the dopachrome-tautomerase positive melanoblasts in the embryos and in cultured neural tube explants. The expression of oncogenic C-Raf in lung epithelial cells has yielded a model for NSCLC giving rise to adenomas lacking spontaneous progression or metastasis. The co-expression of c-Myc in the same cells accelerates the tumour development and gives rise to liver and lymphnode metastases. The expression of c-Myc alone in lung epithelial cells leads to late tumour development with incomplete penetrance. A mutation screen in this work resulted in the observation that a secondary mutation in KRas or LKB1 is necessary for tumour formation in the c-Myc single transgenic animals and suggested metastasis as an early event, since the corresponding metastases of the mutation-prone primary lung tumours were negative for the observed mutations. Furthermore, in this work it was shown that the expression of chicken c-Myc in a non-metastatic NSCLC cell line leads to metastatic clones, showing that c-Myc is sufficient to induce metastasis. Additionally a panel of metastasis markers was identified, that might serve as diagnostic markers in the future.
Extracellular signals are translated and amplified via cascades of serially switched protein kinases, MAP kinases (MAPKs). One of the MAP pathways, the classical RAS/RAF/MEK/ERK pathway, transduces signals from receptor tyrosine kinases and plays a central role in regulation of cell proliferation. RAF kinases (A-, B- and C-RAF) function atop of this cascade and convert signals emanating from conformational change of RAS GTPases into their kinase activity, which in turn phosphorylates their immediate substrate, MEK. Disregulated kinase activity of RAF can result in tumor formation, as documented for many types of cancer, predominantly melanomas and thyroid carcinomas (B-RAF). A-RAF is the least characterized RAF, possibly due to its low intrinsic kinase activity and comparatively mild phenotype of A-RAF knockout mice. Nevertheless, the unique phenotype of araf -/- mice, showed predominantly neurological abnormalities such as cerebellum disorders, suggesting that A-RAF participates in a specific process not complemented by activities of B- and CRAF. Here we describe the role of A-RAF in membrane trafficking and identify its function in a specific step of endocytosis. This work led to the discovery of a C-terminally truncated version of A-RAF, AR149 that strongly interfered with cell growth and polarization in yeast and with endocytosis and actin polymerization in mammalian cells. As this work was in progress two splicing isoforms of ARAF, termed DA-RAF1 and DA-RAF2 were described that act as natural inhibitors of RAS-ERK signaling during myogenic differentiation (Yokoyama et al., 2007). DA-RAF2 contains the first 153 aa of A-RAF and thus is nearly identical with AR149. AR149 localized specifically to the recycling endosomal compartments as confirmed by colocalization and coimmunoprecipitation with ARF6. Expression of AR149 interferes with recycling of endocytosed transferrin (Tfn) and with actin polymerization. The endocytic compartment, where internalized Tfn is trapped, was identified as ARF6- and RAB11- positive endocytic vesicles. We conclude that the inhibition of Tfn trafficking in the absence of A-RAF or under overexpression of AR149 occurs between tubular- and TGNassociated recycling endosomal compartments. siRNA-mediated depletion of endogenous A-RAF or inhibition of MEK by U0126 mimic the AR149 overexpression phenotype, supporting a role of ARAF regulated ERK signalling at endosomes that is controlled by AR149 and targets ARF6. Our data additionally suggest EFA6 as a partner of A-RAF during activation of ARF6. The novel findings on the A-RAF localization and the interaction with ARF6 have led to a new model of ARAF function were A-RAF via activation of ARF6 controls the recycling of endocytic vesicles.Endocytosis and rapid recycling of synaptic vesicles is critically important for the physiological function of neurons. The finding, that A-RAF regulates endocytic recycling open a new perspective for investigation of the role of A-RAF in the nervous system.
In mammals, the RAF family of serine/threonine kinases consists of three members, A-, B- and C-RAF. Activation of RAF kinases involves a complex series of phosphorylations. Although the most prominent phosphorylation sites of B- and C-RAF are well characterized, little is known about regulatory phosphorylation of A-RAF. Using mass spectrometry, we identified here a number of novel in vivo phosphorylation sites in A-RAF. The physiological role and the function of these sites were investigated subsequently by amino acid exchange at the relevant positions. In particular, we found that S432 participates in MEK binding and is indispensable for A-RAF signaling. On the other hand, phosphorylation within the activation segment does not contribute to epidermal growth factor-mediated activation. Regarding regulation of A-RAF activity by 14-3-3 proteins, we show that A-RAF activity is regulated differentially by its C-terminal and internal 14-3-3 binding domain. Furthermore, by use of SPR technique, we found that 14-3-3 proteins associate with RAF in an isoform-specific manner. Of importance, we identified a novel regulatory domain in A-RAF (referred to as IH-segment) positioned between amino acids 248 and 267, which contains seven putative phosphorylation sites. Three of these sites, serines 257, 262 and 264, regulate A-RAF activation in a stimulatory manner. The spatial model of the A-RAF fragment including residues between S246 and E277 revealed a “switch of charge” at the molecular surface of the IH-region upon phosphorylation, suggesting a mechanism in which the high accumulation of negative charges may lead to an electrostatic destabilization of protein/membrane interaction resulting in depletion of A-RAF from the plasma membrane. Activation of B- and C-RAF is regulated by phosphorylation at conserved residues within the negative-charge regulatory region (N-region). Identification of phosphopeptides covering the sequence of the N-region led to the conclusion that, similar to B- and C-RAF, kinase activity of A-RAF is regulated by phosphorylation of the N-region. Abrogation of A-RAF activity by S299A substitution and elevated activity of the A-RAF-Y301D-Y302D mutant confirmed this conclusion. In addition, we studied the role of the non-conserved residues within the N-region in the activation process of RAF kinases. The non-conserved amino acids in positions –3 and +1 relative to the highly conserved S299 in A-RAF and S338 in C-RAF have so far not been considered as regulatory residues. Here, we demonstrate that Y296R substitution in A-RAF led to a constitutively active kinase. In contrast, G300S substitution (mimicking B- and C-RAF) acts in an inhibitory manner. These data were confirmed by analogous mutations in C-RAF. Based on the three-dimensional structure of the catalytic domain of B-RAF, a tight interaction between the N-region residue S339 and the catalytic domain residue R398 was identified in C-RAF and proposed to inhibit the kinase activity of RAF proteins. Furthermore, Y296 in A-RAF favors a spatial orientation of the N-region segment, which enables a tighter contact to the catalytic domain, whereas a glutamine residue at this position in C-RAF abrogates this interaction. Considering this observation, we suggest that Y296, which is unique for A-RAF, is a major determinant of the low activating potency of this RAF isoform. Finally, the residues R359 in A-RAF and R398 in C-RAF, which interact with the N-region, are also involved in binding of phosphatidic acid. Substitution of this conserved arginine by alanine resulted in accumulation of hyper-phosphorylated form of RAF, suggesting that this residue play a crucial role in phosphorylation-mediated feedback regulation of A- and C-RAF. Collectively, we provide here for the first time a detailed analysis of in vivo A-RAF phosphorylation status and demonstrate that regulation of A-RAF by phosphorylation exhibits unique features compared with B- and C-RAF.
Uniparental zygotes with two genomes from the same sex can be established from fertilised oocytes after pronuclear exchange. They contain two maternal (gynogenetic; GG) or paternal (androgenetic; AG) pronuclei and are not competent to develop into viable offspring but they can form blastocysts from which embryonic stem cells (ES cells) can be derived. The developmental potential of uniparental ES cells is not fully investigated. The restricted developmental potential of uniparental cells is cell-intrinsic and probably reflects the different roles maternal and paternal genomes play during development. Following blastocyst injection, both GG and AG ES cells show biased and parent-of-origin-specific chimaera formation. While the in vitro and in vivo neural differentiation potential of GG ES cells is well characterised the neural developmental potential of AG ES cells is less clear. In an earlier study the group of K. John McLaughlin reported that AG and GG ES cell-derived hematopoietic stem cells conveyed long-term, multi-lineage hematopoietic engraftment with no associated pathologies (Eckardt et al., 2007). The aim of this study was to investigate the potential of AG uniparental murine ES cells to differentiate in vitro and in vivo into neural progenitor / stem cells and further into neurons, astro- and oligodendroglia in comparison to GG and biparental (normal fertilised; N) ES cells. Uniparental and biparental ES cells were obtained from K. John McLaughlin’s group and a cell culture system was established to expand uniparental (AG, GG) and biparental N ES cells on murine embryonic fibroblasts (MEF). A multistep-protocol was used to differentiate ES cells towards pan-neural progenitor cells and neuronal and glial cell types (Brüstle et al., 1997). The ability of terminal neural differentiation in vitro was analysed by fluorescence microscopy using neuronal and glial lineage markers. In parallel, eGFP+ AG or N ES cells were injected into blastocysts prior to their transfer into foster mothers. At E12.5 and E14.5, embryos were isolated, forebrains were dissected and by means of fluorescence activated cell sorting (FACS) eGFP+ donor cells were isolated from chimeric brains. Both eGFP+ donor and corresponding eGFP- blastocyst-derived brain cells were expanded and analyses of differentiation potential and self-renewal capacity were performed. Also, cryosections of E12.5 chimeric brains were analysed for donor contribution to the neuronal lineage by immunofluorescence microscopy. Here it is described that following in vitro differentiation, AG pan-neural progenitor cells have similar abilities to differentiate into neuronal and glial lineages as GG and N pan-neural progenitor cells. In cryosections of E12.5 chimeric brains no differences in brain engraftment and formation of immature neuronal cells between uniparental AG and N donor cells were detected. AG and N ES cell-derived cells isolated from chimeric foetal brains by FACS exhibited similar neurosphere initiating cell frequencies and neural multi-lineage differentiation potential. Therefore, the data of this study suggest that the previously described differences in the in vivo engraftment pattern of uniparental inner cell mass (ICM) cells in foetal brains (Keverne et al., 1996) are not primarily due to limitations in the proliferation or differentiation properties of uniparental neural progenitor cells. The results presented here indicate that AG ES cell-derived neural progenitor / stem cells did not differ from N neural progenitor / stem cells in their self-renewal and their neural multi-lineage differentiation potential. Also AG ES cell-derived cells contributed to developing brains at early foetal developmental stages showing a widespread and balanced distribution in chimeric brains. AG brain cells form neurospheres with self-renewal and neural differentiation capacity similar to N ES cell-derived brain cells. Thus, the data of this study together indicate that the neural developmental potential in vivo and in vitro of AG and N ES cells does not differ.
In neoplastic diseases the tumor stroma and especially tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) play an important role in tumor growth and progression. TAMs exhibit an intensive cross-talk with tumor cells resulting in the promotion of angiogenesis and the inhibition of local protective immune responses in certain tumor entities. Therefore, TAMs are a potential target for tumor therapy. Here it was shown that intravenously applied intracellular bacteria like Salmonella and Shigella primarily target TAMs. To exploit this feature a growth attenuated Shigella strain with the capacity to induce apoptosis in macrophages was designed. Shigella are invasive bacteria that penetrate the colonic tissue and initiate an acute inflammation. In macrophages, Shigella rapidly induces caspase-1 processing and apoptosis via the virulence factor IpaB. By genomic deletion of the aroA-locus a metabolically attenuated strain defective in intracellular growth but with retained capacity of infection, cell-to-cell spread, caspase-1 processing and apoptosis induction in macrophages was designed. It was shown that this strain primarily targets TAMs in 4T1 cell induced and transgenic MMTV-HER2/new breast cancer models. Shigella were almost exclusively found intracellularly, whereas growth attenuated Salmonella were also found extracellularly at late time points. The metabollically attenuated Shigella strain with retained virulence, but not avirulent Shigella strains, was able to activate caspase-1 and induce apoptosis in TAMs at all time points (4 h, 6 h and 7 d p.i.) in both breast cancer models. This unrestricted apoptosis induction translated into a substantial, long-lasting and highly significant reduction of TAMs number (up to 70 %) in both models. In contrast, Salmonella could only induce apoptosis in TAMs at early time points (6 h p.i.) and failed to reduce TAMs in both models. In the 4T1 model, the effect on tumor size was monitored and treatment of the mice with the attenuated Shigella strain resulted in a complete block of tumor growth. Finally, Shigella primarily infected the macrophage fraction, activated caspase-1 and induced apoptosis in cells derived from a human ovarian carcinoma ex vivo. Taken together, this data suggests that growth attenuated intracellular bacteria capable of inducing apoptosis in TAMs are a promising therapeutic option for certain cancer diseases where TAMs have a proven role for tumor growth or progression.
Steps involved in the progression of non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) to metastasis are poorly understood. Expression of oncogenic C-RAF in lung epithelial cells has yielded a model for non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). The induced adenomas are characterised by high genomic stability, a lack of tumor progression and pronounced cell-cell contacts raising the question whether disruption of E-cadherin complexes would promote progression to metastasis. Two genetic approaches were used to evaluate the role of adherens junctions in a C-RAF driven mouse model for NSCLC: conditional ablation of the Cdh1 gene and expression of dominant negative (dn) E-cadherin. Disruption of E-cadherin function caused massive formation of intratumoral vessels that was reversible in the early phase of induction. Vascularized tumors grew more rapidly, developed invasive fronts and gave rise to micrometastasis. ß-catenin was identified as a critical effector of E-cadherin disruption leading to up-regulation of angiogenic inducers (VEGF-A and VEGF-C) in mouse and human lung tumor cell lines. In vivo, lung tumor cells with disrupted E-cadherin expressed ß-catenin target genes of endodermal and other lineages suggesting that reprogramming may be involved in metastatic progression.
The proteins of the RAF family (A-RAF, B-RAF, and C-RAF) are serine/threonine-kinases that play important roles in development, mature cell regulation and cancer. Although it is widely held that their localization on membranes is an important aspect of their function, there are few data addressing this aspect of their mode of action. Here, we report that each member of the RAF family exhibits a specific distribution at the level of cellular membranes, and that C-RAF is the only isoform that directly targets mitochondria. We find that the RAF kinases exhibit intrinsic differences in terms of mitochondrial affinity, and that C-RAF is the only isoform that binds this organelle efficiently. This affinity is conferred by the C-RAF amino-terminal domain, and does not depend on the presence of RAS GTPases on the surface of mitochondria. Furthermore, we analyze the consequences of C-RAF activation on the cellular and molecular level. C-RAF activation on mitochondria dramatically changes their morphology and their subcellular distribution. On the molecular level, we examine the role of C-RAF in the regulation of the pro-apoptotic Bcl-2 family member BAD. This protein exhibits the original mode of regulation by phosphorylation. Although several reports addressed the regulation of BAD by C-RAF, the exact mode of action as well as the consequences of C-RAF activation on BAD are still not completely understood. We show that the inducible activation of C-RAF promotes the rapid phosphorylation of BAD on Serine-112 (Ser-75 in the human protein), through a cascade involving the kinases MEK and RSK. Our findings reveal a new aspect of the regulation of BAD protein and its control by the RAF pathway: we find that C-RAF activation promotes BAD poly-ubiquitylation in a phosphorylation-dependent fashion, and increases the turn-over of this protein through proteasomal degradation.
In neurons the Ras signaling pathway is activated by a large number of various stimuli, including trophic factors, neurotransmitters and modulatory peptides. Guanine nucleotide exchange factors (GEFs) mediate the activation of Ras GTPases, by catalyzing the exchange of GDP for GTP, and facilitate signaling networks crosstalk. In this work, very-KIND (VKIND), a new brain specific RasGEF was structurally and functionally characterized. VKIND belongs to the KIND protein family along with the non-receptor tyrosine phosphatases type 13 and Spir actin nucleation factors. The kinase non-catalytic C-lobe domain (KIND) is similar to the C-terminal protein kinase catalytic fold (C-lobe) of the p21-activated kinase (PAK). The open reading frame (ORF) of the VKIND gene of 5229 base pairs was cloned. The VKIND ORF translates into a protein of 1742 amino acids residues with a size of 191 kD. The VKIND protein structure is highly conserved among species and at present the protein is found only in Vertebratae and Echinodermatae. The arrangement of two KIND domains at its amino-terminal region, KIND1 and KIND2, is depicted in its name. The KIND module functions as a molecular interaction structure that is deprived of any enzymatic activity. While the precise occupation of the KIND1 domain remains elusive, the KIND2 domain binds to the microtubules-associated protein 2 (MAP2). The protein central portion features two clusters of high conservation of yet unknown function as well as a coiled-coil motif with a putative multiple protein-protein interaction activity. At the carboxy-terminal region VKIND features a guanine nucleotide exchange factor for Ras-like small GTPases (RasGEF) with a structural RasGEFN motif attached at its N-terminal site. The VKIND RasGEF motif is structurally related to the yeast catalytic domain CDC25. The closest relation of the VKIND RasGEF domain with an average sequence identity of 23% is assigned to the RasGEF domains of exchange factors specific for Rap GTPases with two unique insertions: the first one of 24 amino acids in the N-terminal end of the domain (between helixes αA and αB of the SOS1 RasGEF module) and the second one of 11 amino acids in the C-terminal part (between, helixes αJ and αK of the Sos1 RasGEF module). The RasGEFN domain plays a critical role in sustaining the structural and catalytical integrity of the guanidine exchange factor. VKIND is specifically and highly expressed in the murine nervous system during embryonic development and adulthood. During embryogenesis VKIND expression is present in the murine neural tube, telencephalon, retinal ganglion cells, and rhombencephalon. In the adult murine brain VKIND expression is most prominent in the cerebellum, however exclusively restricted to the granular and Purkinje cell layers. Subcellular distribution studies and time-lapse analysis revealed the gradual accumulation of VKIND into highly motile circular particles which featured estimated maximum velocity of 12 μm/min. By merging the nascent structures progressively grew to estimated 2 μm in size suggesting a role for VKIND in the vesicular transport process. Furthermore, the KIND1/KIND2 region of the VKIND protein was found to be phosphorylated by the p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), recently discovered to induce neurite outgrowth in response to hyperosmotic shock. In the light of VKIND negatively controlling neurite outgrowth, further elucidation of the complex Ras pathways may provide rewarding insights in the neuronal physiology.
The RAF family of protein kinases consists of three members, A-RAF, B-RAF and C-RAF. Unlike the other isotypes, B-RAF has been found to have an important function for normal development of the central nervous system (CNS), because newly generated embryonic neurons lacking B-RAF cannot respond to survival factors and undergo cell death in vitro. A second cell lineage affected by the absence of B-RAF are endothelial cells and their death leads to internal bleedings and lethality of B-RAF-/- mice between embryonic day 10.5 (E10.5) and E12.5 precluding an opportunity to further analyze neural B-RAF function at a later stage. In contrast to B-RAF-/- mice, B-RAFKIN/KIN mice, which are B-RAF deficient but express a chimeric protein consisting of the unique N terminus of B-RAF and all the domains of A-RAF in the B-RAF gene locus, survive after midgestation because their endothelial cells are protected from apoptosis. More importantly, overall prevention of abnormal neural apoptosis in the forebrain allows us to study proliferation- or differentiation-oriented function of B-RAF other than its survival effects in CNS development. The detailed investigation of B-RAFKIN/KIN animals was concentrated on cortical development. There were apparent cortical defects in B-RAFKIN/KIN forebrain: Loss of B-RAF led to severe reduction of Brn-2 expressing pyramidal projection neurons accompanied by a disruption of dendrite formation in the upper layers. In further analysis, BrdU labelling experiments showed that from E14.5 to E16.5 cell proliferation in the ventricular zone of the mutant mice was reduced and that the late-born cortical neurons failed to migrate properly. While the proliferation defect of cortical progenitors was associated with reduced ERK activation, the mechanism causing impaired neuronal migration remains to be determined. Our hypothesis is that the subcellular localization of phospho-ERK may be altered in migrating cortical neurons in B-RAFKIN/KIN mice. To confirm in vivo function of B-RAF and further study unknown roles in embryonic neurogenesis as well as other morphogenesis, conditional B-RAF knockouts would be the ideal models, which can efficiently avoid embryonic lethality, prevent unwanted pleiotropic side effects and exclude accumulative compensatory developmental changes from the earliest developmental stage on, through the deletion of genetic material/gene function in selected cells at a specific time. The use of site-specific recombinases such as Cre and the successful development of the reversible tetracycline-based switch have provided powerful venues for creating conditional loss-of-function mouse models. Generation of tetracycline-regulated B-RAF and floxed B-RAF mouse embryonic stem (ES) cell lines was performed. Up to now, high-grade chimeric mice were obtained after blastocyst injection of the modified ES cell clones. The germline transmission from these chimeric mice is currently under investigation. When either of conditional mouse lines is ready, detailed examination in their CNS development would be done to reveal how B-RAF plays a real role for normal development of the nervous system.
In spite of the progress made in deciphering regulatory networks of cancer cells on the molecular level, the interaction of tumour cells with their stroma has not been adequately analyzed. Earlier, we have addressed the hypothesis that the murine embryonic microenvironment can induce the differentiation of human tumour cells. To examine such interactions, human leukaemic AML cells were injected into pre-implantation murine blastocysts at embryonic day 3.5 of gestation. Analysis of developing mice revealed the presence of human AML cells in chimaeric embryos and adults and the appearance of haematopoietic differentiation markers on progeny of injected human AML cells. This finding strengthens the notion that the embryonic microenvironment is capable of regulating the proliferation and differentiation of leukaemic AML cells. Based on these results, I embarked to analyse the consequences of stromal environment-induced changes in human AML cells upon in vitro coculture with selected haematopoietic stromal cell lines in terms of changes in differentiation and proliferation properties of AML cells. For this purpose, established human AML cell lines were cocultured on a variety of mitotically inactivated stromal cell lines derived from different murine embryonic/foetal haematopoietic sites such as yolk sac, aorta-gonad-mesonephros (AGM) region and foetal liver. To score for coculture-induced changes, I compared the morphology, histo-chemical properties, immunophenotype, proliferation rate, and gene expression profile in cocultured and non-cocultured AML cells. Results show that, upon coculture of Kasumi-1 cells- a cell line established from a FAB class M2 patient - with AGM-derived DAS 104-4, but not with other stromal cell lines, Kasumi-1 AML cells exibit decreased proliferation and colony formation capabilities and acquire differentiated morphologies. Along this line, coculturing of Kasumi-1 cells resulted in the up-regulation of the myelo-monocytic lineage cell surface markers CD11b and CD14. Coculture also resulted in increase in lysosomal marker CD68, a hallmark of myeloid differentiation. Interestingly, apart from cell lines, coculture on DAS 104-4 stroma was also efficient in inducing myeloid differentiation of patient derived primary M2-AML cells. Moreover, cocultivation of KG-1 cell line on DAS 104-4 showed activation of -globin transcription and up-regulation of Glycophorin A on its surface, which indicate DAS 104-4 coculture-induced erythroid differentiation of KG-1 cells. Analysis of the proliferation rate of Kasumi-1 cells using the CFSE retention assay revealed that upon cocultivation on DAS 104-4, but not on NIH 3T3 cells, there is a decrease both in the proliferation rate and in the frequency of colony forming cells in clonogenic methyl cellulose cultures. Cell cycle analysis revealed the coculture-induced accumulation of G1-G0 stage cells. Gene-expression analysis by quantitative RT-PCR revealed a substantial decrease in the amount of AML1 and AML1-ETO fusion transcripts in parallel with an increase in p16, p21, C/EBP and PU.1 transcription levels. Interestingly, AML1-ETO transcription down-regulation of AML cells needs direct contact with DAS 104-4 cells. Knocking down AML1-ETO expression by siRNA strategy led to reduction in proliferation and depletion of colony forming cells in Kasumi1 cell population. siRNA-mediated AML1-ETO knock-down Kasumi-1 cells showed increased susceptibility to stroma-induced myeloid differentiation. However, on its own, AML1-ETO down-regulation was not sufficient to induce myeloid differentiation. This indicates that AML1-ETO down-regulation may have an active role on the coculture-induced effect but in addition to AML1-ETO down-regulation, further stimuli are required for the coculture-induced myeloid differentiation in the AML cells. In summary, in the present study I established and characterised a coculture-based in vitro system, which is capable of reducing the proliferation while inducing differentiation of human AML cells. The concept emerging from the studies indicates that the stroma environment can affect leukaemic cell proliferation and differentiation in contact-dependent and CD44 activation-independent manner. Furthermore, this study emphasizes the role of AML1-ETO in AML and indicates that AML1-ETO down-regulation is involved in the stroma-induced differentiation of Kasumi-1 cells. The result described here encourages further investigation into the mechanistic details of molecular and cellular interactions between the leukaemic cells and their stroma, which in turn may lead to the identification of new paradigms for a knowledge-based control and reprogramming of leukaemic cells.
The experimental work of this thesis addresses the questions of whether established cell lines injected into murine blastocysts find their way back home and seed preferentially at the site of their origin. Furthermore, can they change their fate and differentiate to unrelated cell types when exposed to the embryonic environment. This survey was based on the fact that different cell lines have different potentials in developing embryos, dependent on their cellular identity. The cell lines used in this survey were AGM region-deriving DAS 104-4, DAS 104-8 cells, yolk sac-deriving YSE cells and bone marrow-deriving FDCP mix cells. These cells were injected into mouse blastocysts. Donor cells were traced in developing embryos via specific markers. Analysis of the embryos revealed that DAS cells are promiscuous in their seeding pattern, since they were found in all analysed tissues with similar frequencies. YSE cells showed preferences in seeding yolk sac and liver. YSE donor cells in chimaeric tissues were not able to change their immuno-phenotype, indicating that they did not change their destiny. Analysis of adult mice did not reveal any of YSE-derived cells donor contribution. In contrast, FDCP mix cells mostly engrafted haematopoietic tissues, although the embryos analysed by in situ hybridization had donor signals frequently in cartilage primordia, heads, and livers. Analysis of whether FDCPmix-derived cells found in foetal livers were of haematopoietic or hepatocytes nature showed that progeny of injected FDCP mix cells do not differentiate into cells that express a hepatocyte-specific marker. Further analysis showed that FDCPmix-derived donor cells found in brain express neural or haematopoietic markers. In order to reveal if they transdifferentiate to neurons or fuse with neurons/glial cells, nuclear diameters of donor and recipient cells were determined. Comparison of the nuclear diameters of recipient and donor cells revealed no differences. Therefore this suggests that progeny of FDCP mix in brain are not fusion products. Analysis of adult mice tissues revealed that presence of FDCP mix-derived cells was the highest in brains. These results confirmed the assumption that the developmental potential of the analysed cells cannot be easily modified, even when exposed to early embryonic environment. Therefore one can conclude that the analysed cell types had different homing patterns depending on their origins.
Cellular proliferation, differentiation and survival in response to extracellular signals are controlled by the signal transduction pathway of Ras, Raf and MAP kinase. The Raf proteins are serine/threonine kinases with essential function in growth/differentiation/survival - related signal transduction events. In mammals, three functional (A-, B-, and C-Raf) genes were described. Biochemical studies suggest overlapping and differential utilization of Raf isozymes. However, the frequent co-expression of Raf isozymes and their multiple activators and effectors impedes the full understanding of their specific roles. The elucidation of these roles is important due to the involvement of the Ras/Raf/MEK/MAP kinase cascade in human disorders especially in tumor development and progression. B-Raf was shown to posses the strongest kinase activity among Raf kinases and display antiapoptotic properties. Mice deficient in B-Raf show overall growth retardation and die between E10.5 and E12.5 of vascular defects caused by excessive death of differentiated endothelial cells. To elucidate the redundancy of Raf isozymes during embryonic development and to rescue B-Raf-/- (KO) phenotype, B-Raf alleles were disrupted by introducing A-Raf cDNA under the control of endogenous B-Raf promoter. The resulting BRaf A-Raf/A-Raf (KIN) phenotype depends on genetic background. The living embryos displaying normal development but size reduction were found with low incidence at E12.5d-16.5d. All of them displayed the rescue of vascular system. One adult p20 mouse without any visible defects in development and behavior was obtained. On the other hand, the processes of neurogenesis and neural precursors migration in survived embryos were disturbed which led in some cases to underdevelopment of different brain compartments. TUNEL and cell proliferation (PCNA staining) assays revealed more apoptotic (E13.5d) and less proliferating(E12.5d cells within ventricular and sub-ventricular zones of brain ventricles and in striatum of KIN embryos. In addition, more apoptotic cells were detected in many other tissues of E13.5d and in lung of E16.5d KIN embryos but not in adult KIN mouse. p20 KIN mouse demonstrated reduced fraction of neural precursor cells in sub-granular zone of hippocampus and mature neurons in olfactory bulb. The other processes of neurogenesis were not disturbed in adult KIN animal. Fibroblasts obtained from KIN embryos demonstrated less proliferative ability and were more susceptible to apoptotic stimuli compared to WT. This was accompanied by the reduction of active ERK and Akt required for survival, and with decrease of inactive phosphorylated BAD. The kinetic of both ERK and Akt phosphorylation upon serum stimulation was delayed. All these data indicate that moderate A-Raf kinase activity can prevent the endothelial apoptosis but is not enough to completely rescue the other developmental consequences.