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This research was aimed to evaluate the time-course of changes in the brain insulin and some elements of the insulin receptor (IR) signalling cascade in the streptozotocin-intracerebroventricullarly (STZ-icv) treated rats representing experimental model of sporadic Alzheimer’s disease (sAD) and to compare them with effects of chronically increased corticosterone on the brain insulin system. This study shows down-regulation in mRNA expression of insulin, insulin receptor (IR), and insulin degrading enzyme (IDE) but no changes were observed in the expression of tau mRNA in hippocampus of STZ-icv treated rats. Comparing these results to the ones found in corticosterone treated rats similarities at the level of insulin, IR and IDE mRNA expression can be assumed. In contrast tau mRNA expression in corticosterone treated rats were increased, data which are in line with sAD. Behavioural deficits were found in both STZ-icv and corticosterone treated rats. In conclusion, these results demonstrate that many of the characteristic features of sporadic Alzheimer’s disease (sAD) can be produced experimentally by impairing the insulin/IR signaling pathway combined with a chronic increase of corticosterone. This supports our hypothesis that sAD represents a neuro-endocrine disorder associated with brain-specific disregulation in insulin and IR signaling, caused in part by increased level of corticosterone. In line with that our study puts a question on the classical amyloid β (Aβ) hypothesis, supporting the view of brain insulin system dysfunction as a trigger for the Aβ pathology in an experimental sAD model.
Charcot-Marie-Tooth 1B (CMT1B) is a progressive inherited demyelinating disease of human peripheral nervous system leading to sensory and/or motor function disability and is caused by mutations in the P0 gene. Mice heterozygously deficient for P0 (P0+/-) are an adequate model of this human disorder showing myelin degeneration, formation of onion bulbs, remyelination and a reduced motor conduction velocity of around 30m/s similar to patients. Previously, it had been shown that T-lymphocytes and macrophages play a crucial role during pathogenesis in peripheral nerves of P0+/- mice. Both, T-lymphocytes and macrophages increase in number in the endoneurium and deletion of T-lymphocytes or deletion of a macrophage-directed cytokine ameliorates the disease. In this study the monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) was identified as an early regulated cytokine before onset of disease is visible at the age of six months. MCP-1 mRNA and protein expression could be detected in femoral quadriceps and sciatic nerves of P0+/- mice already at the age of one month but not in cutaneous saphenous nerves which are never affected by the disease. MCP-1 was shown to be expressed by Schwann cells and to mediate the immigration of immune cells into peripheral nerves. Deletion of MCP-1 in P0+/- mice accomplished by crossbreeding P0 and MCP-1 deficient mice revealed a substantial reduction of immune cells in peripheral nerves of P0+/-/MCP-1+/- and P0+/-/MCP-1-/- mice at the age of six months. In twelve months old mice reduction of immune cells in peripheral nerves is accompanied by amelioration of demyelinating disease in P0+/-/MCP-1+/- and aggravation of demyelinating disease in lumbar ventral roots of P0+/ /MCP-1-/- mice in comparison to P0+/ /MCP 1+/+ mice. Furthermore, activation of the MEK1/2-ERK1/2 signalling cascade could be demonstrated to take place in Schwann cells of affected peripheral nerves of P0+/- mice overlapping temporarily and spatially with MCP-1 expression. An animal experiment using a MEK1/2-inhibitor in vivo, CI-1040, revealed that upon reduction of ERK1/2 phosphorylation MCP-1 mRNA expression is diminished suggesting that the activation of the MEK1/2-ERK1/2 signalling cascade is necessary for MCP-1 expression. Additionally, peripheral nerves of P0+/- mice showing reduced ERK1/2 phosphorylation and MCP-1 mRNA expression also show reduced numbers of macrophages in the endoneurium. This study shows a molecular link between a Schwann cell based mutation and immune cell function. Inhibition of the identified signalling cascade might be a putative target for therapeutic approaches.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) is an imaging modality which provides anatomical or functional images of the human body with variable contrasts in an arbitrarily positioned slice without the need for ionizing radiation. In MRI, data are not acquired directly, but in the reciprocal image space (otherwise known as k-space) through the application of spatially variable magnetic field gradients. The k-space is made up of a grid of data points which are generally acquired in a line-by-line fashion (Cartesian imaging). After the acquisition, the k-space data are transformed into the image domain using the Fast Fourier Transformation (FFT). However, the acquisition of data is not limited to the rectilinear Cartesian sampling scheme described above. Non-Cartesian acquisitions, where the data are collected along exotic trajectories, such as radial and spiral, have been shown to be beneficial in a number of applications. However, despite their additional properties and potential advantages, working with non-Cartesian data can be complicated. The primary difficulty is that non-Cartesian trajectories are made up of points which do not fall on a Cartesian grid, and a simple and fast FFT algorithm cannot be employed to reconstruct images from non-Cartesian data. In order to create an image, the non-Cartesian data are generally resampled on a Cartesian grid, an operation known as gridding, before the FFT is performed. Another challenge for non-Cartesian imaging is the combination of unusual trajectories with parallel imaging. This thesis has presented several new non-Cartesian parallel imaging methods which simplify both gridding and the reconstruction of images from undersampled data. In Chapter 4, a novel approach which uses the concepts of parallel imaging to grid data sampled along a non-Cartesian trajectory called GRAPPA Operator Gridding (GROG) is described. GROG shifts any acquired k-space data point to its nearest Cartesian location, thereby converting non-Cartesian to Cartesian data. The only requirements for GROG are a multi-channel acquisition and a calibration dataset for the determination of the GROG weights. Chapter 5 discusses an extension of GRAPPA Operator Gridding, namely Self-Calibrating GRAPPA Operator Gridding (SC-GROG). SC-GROG is a method by which non-Cartesian data can be gridded using spatial information from a multi-channel coil array without the need for an additional calibration dataset, as required in standard GROG. Although GROG can be used to grid undersampled datasets, it is important to note that this method uses parallel imaging only for gridding, and not to reconstruct artifact-free images from undersampled data. Chapter 6 introduces a simple, novel method for performing modified Cartesian GRAPPA reconstructions on undersampled non-Cartesian k-space data gridded using GROG to arrive at a non-aliased image. Because the undersampled non-Cartesian data cannot be reconstructed using a single GRAPPA kernel, several Cartesian patterns are selected for the reconstruction. Finally, Chapter 7 discusses a novel method of using GROG to mimic the bunched phase encoding acquisition (BPE) scheme. In MRI, it is generally assumed that an artifact-free image can be reconstructed only from sampled points which fulfill the Nyquist criterion. However, the BPE reconstruction is based on the Generalized Sampling Theorem of Papoulis, which states that a continuous signal can be reconstructed from sampled points as long as the points are on average sampled at the Nyquist frequency. A novel method of generating the “bunched” data using GRAPPA Operator Gridding (GROG), which shifts datapoints by small distances in k-space using the GRAPPA Operator instead of employing zig-zag shaped gradients, is presented in this chapter. With the conjugate gradient reconstruction method, these additional “bunched” points can then be used to reconstruct an artifact-free image from undersampled data. This method is referred to as GROG-facilitated Bunched Phase Encoding, or GROG-BPE.
Chondrogenic differentiation of human mesenchymal stem cells and articular cartilage reconstruction
(2008)
Articular cartilage defects are still one of the major challenges in orthopedic and trauma surgery. Today, autologous chondrocyte transplantation (ACT), as a cell-based therapy, is an established procedure. However, one major limitation of this technique is the loss of the chondrogenic phenotype during expansion. Human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs) have an extensive proliferation potential and the capacity to differentiate into chondrocytes when maintained under specific conditions. They are therefore considered as candidate cells for tissue engineering approaches of functional cartilage tissue substitutes. First in this study, hMSCs were embedded in a collagen type I hydrogel to evaluate the cartilaginous construct in vitro. HMSC collagen hydrogels cultivated in different culture media showed always a marked contraction, most pronounced in chondrogenic differentiation medium supplemented with TGF-ß1. After stimulation with chondrogenic factors (dexamethasone and TGF-ß1) hMSCs were able to undergo chondrogenesis when embedded in the collagen type I hydrogel, as evaluated by the temporal induction of cartilage-specific gene expression. Furthermore, the cells showed a chondrocyte-like appearance and were homogeneously distributed within a proteoglycan- and collagen type II-rich extracellular matrix, except a small area in the center of the constructs. In this study, chondrogenic differentiation could not be realized with every hMSC preparation. With the improvement of the culture conditions, e.g. the use of a different FBS lot in the gel fabrication process, a higher amount of cartilage-specific matrix deposition could be achieved. Nevertheless, the large variations in the differentiation capacity display the high donor-to-donor variability influencing the development of a cartilaginous construct. Taken together, the results demonstrate that the collagen type I hydrogel is a suitable carrier matrix for hMSC-based cartilage regeneration therapies which present a promising future alternative to ACT. Second, to further improve the quality of tissue-engineered cartilaginous constructs, mechanical stimulation in specific bioreactor systems are often employed. In this study, the effects of mechanical loading on hMSC differentiation have been examined. HMSC collagen hydrogels were cultured in a defined chondrogenic differentiation medium without TGF-ß1 and subjected to a combined mechanical stimulation protocol, consisting of perfusion and cyclic uniaxial compression. Bioreactor cultivation neither affected overall cell viability nor the cell number in collagen hydrogels. Compared with non-loaded controls, mechanical loading promoted the gene expression of COMP and biglycan and induced an up-regulation of matrix metalloproteinase 3. These results circumstantiate that hMSCs are sensitive to mechanical forces, but their differentiation to chondrocytes could not be induced. Further studies are needed to identify the specific metabolic pathways which are altered by mechanical stimulation. Third, for the development of new cell-based therapies for articular cartilage repair, a reliable cell monitoring technique is required to track the cells in vivo non-invasively and repeatedly. This study aimed at analyzing systematically the performance and biological impact of a simple and efficient labeling protocol for hMSCs. Very small superparamagnetic iron oxide particles (VSOPs) were used as magnetic resonance (MR) contrast agent. Iron uptake was confirmed histologically with prussian blue staining and quantified by mass spectrometry. Compared with unlabeled cells, VSOP-labeling did neither influence significantly the viability nor the proliferation potential of hMSCs. Furthermore, iron incorporation did not affect the differentiation capacity of hMSCs. The efficiency of the labeling protocol was assessed with high resolution MR imaging at 11.7 Tesla. VSOP-labeled hMSCs were visualized in a collagen type I hydrogel indicated by distinct hypointense spots in the MR images, resulting from an iron specific loss of signal intensity. This was confirmed by prussian blue staining. In summary, this labeling technique has great potential to visualize hMSCs and track their migration after transplantation for articular cartilage repair with MR imaging.
Steps involved in the progression of non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) to metastasis are poorly understood. Expression of oncogenic C-RAF in lung epithelial cells has yielded a model for non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). The induced adenomas are characterised by high genomic stability, a lack of tumor progression and pronounced cell-cell contacts raising the question whether disruption of E-cadherin complexes would promote progression to metastasis. Two genetic approaches were used to evaluate the role of adherens junctions in a C-RAF driven mouse model for NSCLC: conditional ablation of the Cdh1 gene and expression of dominant negative (dn) E-cadherin. Disruption of E-cadherin function caused massive formation of intratumoral vessels that was reversible in the early phase of induction. Vascularized tumors grew more rapidly, developed invasive fronts and gave rise to micrometastasis. ß-catenin was identified as a critical effector of E-cadherin disruption leading to up-regulation of angiogenic inducers (VEGF-A and VEGF-C) in mouse and human lung tumor cell lines. In vivo, lung tumor cells with disrupted E-cadherin expressed ß-catenin target genes of endodermal and other lineages suggesting that reprogramming may be involved in metastatic progression.
The Internet sees an ongoing transformation process from a single best-effort service network into a multi-service network. In addition to traditional applications like e-mail,WWW-traffic, or file transfer, future generation networks (FGNs) will carry services with real-time constraints and stringent availability and reliability requirements like Voice over IP (VoIP), video conferencing, virtual private networks (VPNs) for finance, other real-time business applications, tele-medicine, or tele-robotics. Hence, quality of service (QoS) guarantees and resilience to failures are crucial characteristics of an FGN architecture. At the same time, network operations must be efficient. This necessitates sophisticated mechanisms for the provisioning and the control of future communication infrastructures. In this work we investigate such echanisms for resilient FGNs. There are many aspects of the provisioning and control of resilient FGNs such as traffic matrix estimation, traffic characterization, traffic forecasting, mechanisms for QoS enforcement also during failure cases, resilient routing, or calability concerns for future routing and addressing mechanisms. In this work we focus on three important aspects for which performance analysis can deliver substantial insights: load balancing for multipath Internet routing, fast resilience concepts, and advanced dimensioning techniques for resilient networks. Routing in modern communication networks is often based on multipath structures, e.g., equal-cost multipath routing (ECMP) in IP networks, to facilitate traffic engineering and resiliency. When multipath routing is applied, load balancing algorithms distribute the traffic over available paths towards the destination according to pre-configured distribution values. State-of-the-art load balancing algorithms operate either on the packet or the flow level. Packet level mechanisms achieve highly accurate traffic distributions, but are known to have negative effects on the performance of transport protocols and should not be applied. Flow level mechanisms avoid performance degradations, but at the expense of reduced accuracy. These inaccuracies may have unpredictable effects on link capacity requirements and complicate resource management. Thus, it is important to exactly understand the accuracy and dynamics of load balancing algorithms in order to be able to exercise better network control. Knowing about their weaknesses, it is also important to look for alternatives and to assess their applicability in different networking scenarios. This is the first aspect of this work. Component failures are inevitable during the operation of communication networks and lead to routing disruptions if no special precautions are taken. In case of a failure, the robust shortest-path routing of the Internet reconverges after some time to a state where all nodes are again reachable – provided physical connectivity still exists. But stringent availability and reliability criteria of new services make a fast reaction to failures obligatory for resilient FGNs. This led to the development of fast reroute (FRR) concepts for MPLS and IP routing. The operations of MPLS-FRR have already been standardized. Still, the standards leave some degrees of freedom for the resilient path layout and it is important to understand the tradeoffs between different options for the path layout to efficiently provision resilient FGNs. In contrast, the standardization for IP-FRR is an ongoing process. The applicability and possible combinations of different concepts still are open issues. IP-FRR also facilitates a comprehensive resilience framework for IP routing covering all steps of the failure recovery cycle. These points constitute another aspect of this work. Finally, communication networks are usually over-provisioned, i.e., they have much more capacity installed than actually required during normal operation. This is a precaution for various challenges such as network element failures. An alternative to this capacity overprovisioning (CO) approach is admission control (AC). AC blocks new flows in case of imminent overload due to unanticipated events to protect the QoS for already admitted flows. On the one hand, CO is generally viewed as a simple mechanism, AC as a more complex mechanism that complicates the network control plane and raises interoperability issues. On the other hand, AC appears more cost-efficient than CO. To obtain advanced provisioning methods for resilient FGNs, it is important to find suitable models for irregular events, such as failures and different sources of overload, and to incorporate them into capacity dimensioning methods. This allows for a fair comparison between CO and AC in various situations and yields a better understanding of the strengths and weaknesses of both concepts. Such an advanced capacity dimensioning method for resilient FGNs represents the third aspect of this work.
The plant surface is the substrate upon which herbivorous insects and natural enemies meet and thus represents the stage for interactions between the three trophic levels. Plant surfaces are covered by an epicuticular wax layer which is highly variable depending on species, cultivar or plant part. Differences in wax chemistry may modulate ecological interactions. We explored whether caterpillars of Spodoptera frugiperda, when walking over a plant surface, leave a chemical trail (kairomones) that can be detected by the parasitoid Cotesia marginiventris. Chemistry and micromorphology of cuticular waxes of two barley eceriferum wax mutants (cer-za.126, cer-yp.949) and wild type cv. Bonus (wt) were assessed. The plants were then used to investigate potential surface effects on the detectability of caterpillar kairomones. Here we provide evidence that C. marginiventris responds to chemical footprints of its host. Parasitoids were able to detect the kairomone on wild type plants and on both cer mutants but the response to cer-yp.949 (reduced wax, high aldehyde fraction) was less pronounced. Experiments with caterpillar-treated wt and mutant leaves offered simultaneously, confirmed this observation: no difference in wasp response was found when wt was tested against cer-za.126 (reduced wax, wt-like chemical composition) but wt was significantly more attractive than cer-yp.949. This demonstrates for the first time that the wax layer can modulate the detectability of host kairomones.
We have established the novel interaction between mCHL2, Tsg and BMP-2 for the first time. Tsg binds to VWC1 and VWC3 of mCHL2 in a cooperative waz and plazs a role in strengthening the binding affinity. Furthermore, Tsg/mCHL2/BMP-2 termary complex and Tsg/mCHL2 binary complex have been isolated by gel-filtration chromatography. Therefore mCHL2 can form a ternary complex with Tsg and BMP-2 and this complex makes mCHL2 a better BMP-2 antagnonist.
Myelinmutationen des zentralen und peripheren Nervensystems verursachen erheblich behindernde und bislang nicht heilbare Erkrankungen. In dieser Arbeit verwendeten wir transgene PLP überexprimierende Mäuse (PLPtg) als Modell für zentrale Myelinopathien und heterozygot P0 defiziente (P0+/-) Mäuse als Modell für hereditäre Neuropathien des peripheren Nervensystems. Beide Modelle zeigen eine niedriggradige Inflammation des Nervengewebes. Durch Verpaarung mit immundefizienten Mausstämmen konnten wir die Relevanz von Makrophagen und T- Lymphozyten in der Entstehung der Myelinpathologie zeigen. Nachdem wir beweisen konnten, dass CD8+ T- Lymphozyten maßgeblich zur Pathologie in PLPtg Mäusen beitragen untersuchten wir den Einfluss eines wichtigen zytotoxischen Moleküls, Granzym B, auf den neuralen Schaden. Durch Generierung von Granzym B defizienten PLPtg Knochenmarkschimären konnten wir eine deutliche Reduktion des glialen Schadens und der Oligodendrozytenapoptose nachweisen. Granzym B ist also zumindest teilweise verantwortlich für die Schädigung, die durch T- Lymphozyten hervorgerufen wird. Um die zusätzliche Informationen über die Rolle der Immunmodulation in unseren Modellen zu gewinnen, untersuchten wir das koinhibitorische Molekül PD-1, einen CD-28 verwandten Rezeptor, der auf B- und T- Lymphozyten exprimiert wird. Bei der Untersuchung von Myelinmutanten des ZNS und PNS (PLPtg und P0+/-), die zusätzlich PD-1 defizient waren, konnten wir einen signifikanten Anstieg von CD8+ T- Lymphozyten und eine deutliche Verschlechterung des glialen Schadens beobachten. In PLPtg Mäusen induzierte die Abwesenheit von PD-1 verstärkte Oligodendrozytenapoptose und klonale Expansion. Außerdem neigen ZNS- Lymphozyten aber nicht periphere CD8+ T- Zellen zur verstärkten Sekretion von proinflammatorischen Zytokinen. In P0+/- Mäusen führt Abwesenheit von PD-1 zu moderaten motorischen und sensorischen Störungen, was die wichtige Rolle von PD-1 in immunologischen Regulationsmechanismen unterstreicht. Zusammenfassend kann man festhalten, daß Granzym B ein wichtiges Effektormolekül zytotoxischer T- Zellen in PLPtg Mäusen ist. PD-1 spielt eine wichtige Rolle in der Regulation von Effektorzellen in unseren Modellen für zentrale und periphere Myelinopathien. Veränderungen dieser Regulation können deutliche Neuroinflammation mit starker Myelinpathologie hervorrufen. Diese Ergebnisse können dazu beitragen, die starke klinische Variabilität von polygenen und sogar monogenen neurologischen Erkrankungen zu erklären.
CHIKV is the prototype of Alphaviruses and it causes an acute febrile illness with rash, severely painful arthralgias, and sometimes arthritis. While CHIKV has first been identified in the 1950s in Africa, recent outbreaks of CHIKV in the islands of the Indian Ocean and particular in Italia have re-drawn attention to CHIKV. In the past CHIKV disease was considered self-limiting and non-fatal. However, a number of deaths on Reunion (Anonym, 2006) during the outbreak, which was affected directly or indirectly by CHIKV, have changed this view. To defeat CHIKV outbreaks diagnostic tools and anti CHIKV therapies are urgently needed. In this thesis, we generated tools to investigate CHIKV at the molecular level by serological tests. CHIKV was isolated from a German woman who was infected during her holidays on the Mauritius Island. To characterize this viral isolate the complete viral genome was amplified by PCR and molecular cloned. In order to analyse antibody responses of infected individuals some of the structural and non-structural genes were subcloned in bacterial expression vectors. The NSP2, proteinase, capsid, E1 and E2 were subsequently expressed in E.coli using purified successfully. In this thesis, the structural proteins were used to develop a screening test for anti-CHIKV antibodies in patient derived serum samples. These tests were evaluated with pre-characterized anti-CHIKV sera (30 samples) obtained from the BNI Hamburg and 100 serum samples from German blood donors used as negative controls. Immunoblotting analysis revealed that up to 77% of precharacterised positive sera could recognize the recombinant proteins and there were no detectable reactivity of CHIKV-negative German donor sera. The recombinant proteins were also recognized by 71.4% of positive sera in the newly established ELISA. In order to go further in analyses of the results, an in house IFA was performed. Positive sera (21 samples) were used. The results showed that all of them reacted positive, but this assay was less sensitive than the IFA from BNI. In comparison with the IFA result from BNI Hamburg, the results were not congruent in all test performed. This could be due to various drawbacks of the tests. A cross reaction in Alphaviruses and the different strains are mentioned as well as the denatured forms of the structural proteins. Besides the main structural proteins (E1, E2 and C), other proteins such as non-structural proteins, uncleaved precursor proteins could participate in the different outcomes of serological assays. In order to go further in the CHIKV diagnoses, the CHIKV recombinant proteins were applied to screen the anti-CHIKV antibodies in the Vietnamese population, who are considered to live in the high risk regions. In serological tests, 158 sera of Vietnamese donors were incubated with the recombinant proteins or the fixed CHIKV infected cells. The results showed that 24% of Vietnamese donor sera recognized the recombinant proteins in immunoblot assay, while 36% scored positive in the ELISA assay. In IFA, the sera considered positive were 11.4%. While some discrepancies in serological tests were found, these results showed that the ratio of CHIKV-positive sera seem to be equal to the other regions in the world, which are affected by CHIKV. It is suggested that CHIKV infection in Vietnam has been repeatedly misdiagnosed. This study cohort consisted only of samples originating from Hanoi area of Northern Vietnam, thus, future studies should expand to include samples from other Vietnam areas. To do this the various subtypes of the virus in the different regions should be isolated and the sequences of these viruses should be well characterized.
In radiation accidents biological methods are used in dosimetry, if the radiation dose could not be measured by physical methods. The knowledge of individual dose is a prerequisite for planning a medical treatment and for health risk evaluations. In the present work two biodosimetrical assays were calibrated in young patients who were treated with radioiodine for thyroid cancer. Patients were from Belarus. They suffered from radiation induced thyroid cancer as a consequence of the Chernobyl reactor accident. In radioiodine therapy (RIT) bone marrow and lymphatic organs are exposed to ionizing radiation at doses of 0.1 to 0.75 Sv within about 2 days. Since several RIT have to be applied with interval between each of them from 6 months up to approximately 1 year, total dose can be up to 2 Sv within 2 to 3 years. The dose for thyroid tissue is approximately 1000 times higher. The dose-response relationship was measured by the T-cell receptor test (TCR test) in T4 lymphocytes with and without in vitro incubation or by the micronucleus assay in transferrin receptor positive reticulocytes (MN-Tf-Ret test). In all these assays, the frequency of radiation-induced mutants of blood cells is measured using flow cytometry. The TCR test is a cumulative biodosimeter, which measures the total radiation dose within the last 5 to 10 years, whereas the result of the MN-Tf-Ret test reflects the radiation dose of approximately 24 hours interval. It takes 8 hours and 3 days to perform TCR and MN-Tf-Ret tests respectively. Calibration curves based on radioiodine treated patients can be used for dose estimation in humans, if the radiation conditions correspond to those in RIT. This limits their applicability to low dose-rate β- and γ-irradiation and to doses per session not higher than about 0.5 Sv. If higher doses or dose-rates as well as the other types of ionizing radiation are involved, calibration curves in animals are indispensable. In the case MN-Tf-Ret test mouse models are established and may be used. The TCR assay was performed in 72 thyroid cancer patients aged between 14 and 25. T-cell mutant frequency (Mf) reaches its maximum only after half a year following the RIT. Then it declines exponentially. This decline could be described by the 3 parameter single exponential decay function. Based on this equation, the radiation dose could be calculated when the Mf and the time interval since exposure are known. Furthermore, the experimentally measured Mf value, which significantly exceeds the corresponding calculated Mf value would indicate an individual with higher radiosensitivity. However, among our patients there were none. The reticulocytes micronuclei test (MN-Tf-Ret) was performed in 46 radioiodine treated patients. When measuring the MN frequency (f(MN-Tf-Ret)) the measured cell fraction should be limited only to the youngest cohort of reticulocytes, because all the micronucleated erythrocytes are quickly removed from the peripheral blood by spleen. Thus, the MN test was performed only in CD71 positive (having transferring receptor) reticulocytes. These reticulocytes just entered the peripheral blood flow from red marrow. The MN frequency was measured before the therapy and then every day after the irradiation until day 7. MN frequency curve has typical shape with latent period for days 0 to 3. Then there is a sharp increase in MN frequency which lasts for 24 hours and could start between days 3 and 4. In the following days the MN frequency is dropping to its base level that equals the one before the treatment. The decay of MN frequency is depending on the half-life of radioiodine in the patient organism. If the half-life is low, then the increased f(MN-Tf-Ret) lasts shorter and vice versa. It was shown that the MN frequency curve could be described by the model where all the micronuclei arise only through the last mitosis of erythroblasts in the red marrow and the MN frequency is proportional to the radiation dose in the last cell cycle. The shape of this curve depends on the cell kinetics of erythropoiesis on one side and the exponential decay of radioiodine activity on the other. To the best of our knowledge, the MN-Tf-Ret test was applied in the present study for the first time in biological dosimetry.
Past experience contributes to behavioural organization mainly via learning: Animals learn otherwise ordinary cues as predictors for biologically significant events. This thesis studies such predictive, associative learning, using the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster. I ask two main questions, which complement each other: One deals with the processing of those cues that are to be learned as predictors for an important event; the other one deals with the processing of the important event itself, which is to be predicted. Do fruit flies learn about combinations of olfactory and visual cues? I probe larval as well as adult fruit flies for the learning about combinations of olfactory and visual cues, using a so called ‘biconditional discrimination’ task: During training, one odour is paired with reinforcement only in light, but not in darkness; the other odour in turn is reinforced only in darkness, but not in light. Thus, neither the odours nor the visual conditions alone predict reinforcement, only combinations of both do. I find no evidence that either larval or adult fruit flies were to solve such task, speaking against a cross-talk between olfactory and visual modalities. Previous studies however suggest such cross-talk. To reconcile these results, I suggest classifying different kinds of interaction between sensory modalities, according to their site along the sensory-motor continuum: I consider an interaction ‘truly’ cross-modal, if it is between the specific features of the stimuli. I consider an interaction ’amodal’ if it instead engages the behavioural tendencies or ‘values’ elicited by each stimulus. Such reasoning brings me to conclude that different behavioural tasks require different kinds of interaction between sensory modalities; whether a given kind of interaction will be found depends on the neuronal infrastructure, which is a function of the species and the developmental stage. Predictive learning of pain-relief in fruit flies Fruit flies build two opposing kinds of memory, based on an experience with electric shock: Those odours that precede shock during training are learned as predictors for punishment and are subsequently avoided; those odours that follow shock during training on the other hand are learned as signals for relief and are subsequently approached. I focus on such relief learning. I start with a detailed parametric analysis of relief learning, testing for reproducibility as well as effects of gender, repetition of training, odour identity, odour concentration and shock intensity. I also characterize how relief memories, once formed, decay. In addition, concerning the psychological mechanisms of relief learning, first, I show that relief learning establishes genuinely associative conditioned approach behaviour and second, I report that it is most likely not mediated by context associations. These results enable the following neurobiological analysis of relief learning; further, they will form in the future the basis for a mathematical model; finally, they will guide the researchers aiming at uncovering relief learning in other experimental systems. Next, I embark upon neurogenetic analysis of relief learning. First, I report that fruit flies mutant for the so called white gene build overall more ‘negative’ memories about an experience with electric shock. That is, in the white mutants, learning about the painful onset of shock is enhanced, whereas learning about the relieving offset of shock is diminished. As they are coherently affected, these two kinds of learning should be in a balance. The molecular mechanism of the effect of white on this balance remains unresolved. Finally, as a first step towards a neuronal circuit analysis of relief learning, I compare it to reward learning and punishment learning. I find that relief learning is distinct from both in terms of the requirement for biogenic amine signaling: Reward and punishment are respectively signalled by octopamine and dopamine, for relief learning, either of these seem dispensible. Further, I find no evidence for roles for two other biogenic amines, tyramine and serotonin in relief learning. Based on these findings I give directions for further research.
This thesis is dedicated to a theoretical study of the 1-band Hubbard model in the strong coupling limit. The investigation is based on the Dynamical Cluster Approximation (DCA) which systematically restores non-local corrections to the Dynamical Mean Field approximation (DMFA). The DCA is formulated in momentum space and is characterised by a patching of the Brillouin zone where momentum conservation is only recovered between two patches. The approximation works well if k-space correlation functions show a weak momentum dependence. In order to study the temperature and doping dependence of the spin- and charge excitation spectra, we explicitly extend the Dynamical Cluster Approximation to two-particle response functions. The full irreducible two-particle vertex with three momenta and frequencies is approximated by an effective vertex dependent on the momentum and frequency of the spin and/or charge excitations. The effective vertex is calculated by using the Quantum Monte Carlo method on the finite cluster whereas the analytical continuation of dynamical quantities is performed by a stochastic version of the maximum entropy method. A comparison with high temperature auxiliary field quantum Monte Carlo data serves as a benchmark for our approach to two-particle correlation functions. Our method can reproduce basic characteristics of the spin- and charge excitation spectrum. Near and beyond optimal doping, our results provide a consistent overall picture of the interplay between charge, spin and single-particle excitations: a collective spin mode emerges at optimal doping and sufficiently low temperatures in the spin response spectrum and exhibits the energy scale of the magnetic exchange interaction J. Simultaneously, the low energy single-particle excitations are characterised by a coherent quasiparticle with bandwidth J. The origin of the quasiparticle can be quite well understood in a picture of a more or less antiferromagnetic ordered background in which holes are dressed by spin-excitations to allow for a coherent motion. By increasing doping, all features which are linked to the spin-polaron vanish in the single-particle as well as two-particle spin response spectrum. In the second part of the thesis an analysis of superconductivity in the Hubbard model is presented. The superconducting instability is implemented within the Dynamical Cluster Approximation by essentially allowing U(1) symmetry breaking baths in the QMC calculations for the cluster. The superconducting transition temperature T_c is derived from the d-wave order parameter which is directly estimated on the Monte Carlo cluster. The critical temperature T_c is in astonishing agreement with the temperature scale estimated by the divergence of the pair-field susceptibility in the paramagnetic phase. A detailed study of the pseudo and superconducting gap is continued by the investigation of the local and angle-resolved spectral function.
Cognitive views of the psychopathology of anxiety propose that attentional biases toward threatening information play a substantial role in the disorders’ etiology and maintenance. For healthy subjects, converging evidence show that threatening stimuli attract attention and lead to enhanced activation in visual processing areas. It is assumed that this preferential processing of threat occurs at a preattentive level and is followed by fast attentional engagement. High-anxious individuals show augmented tendencies to selectively attend toward fear-relevant cues (Mathews, 1990) and exhibit elevated neural processing of threatening cues compared to non-anxious individuals (Dilger et al., 2003). Regarding attentional biases in high-anxious subjects, it remains unanswered up to now whether initial engagement of attention toward threat or difficulties to disengage from threat is an underlying mechanism. Furthermore, little is known whether the preferential (attentive) processing of threatening cues does influence perceptional outcomes of anxious subjects. In order to directly study separate components of attentional bias the first study of this dissertation was a combined reaction time and eye-tracking experiment. Twenty one spider phobic patients and 21 control participants were instructed to search for a neutral target while ignoring task-irrelevant abrupt-onset distractor circles which contained either a small picture of a spider (phobic), a flower (non-phobic, but similar to spiders in shape), a mushroom (non-phobic, and not similar to spiders in shape), or small circles with no picture. As expected, patients’ reaction times to targets were longer on trials with spider distractors. However, analyses of eye movements revealed that this was not due to attentional capture by spider distractors; patients more often fixated on all distractors with pictures. Instead, reaction times were delayed by longer fixation durations on spider distractors. This result does not support automatic capture of attention by phobic cues but suggests that phobic patients fail to disengage attention from spiders. To assess whether preferential processing of phobic cues differentially affects visual perception in phobic patients compared to healthy controls, the second study of this dissertation used a binocular rivalry paradigm, where two incompatible pictures were presented to each eye. These pictures cannot be merged to a meaningful percept and temporarily, one picture predominates in conscious perception whereas the other is suppressed. 23 spider phobic patients and 20 non-anxious control participants were shown standardized pictures of spiders or flowers, each paired with a neutral pattern under conditions of binocular rivalry. Their task was to continuously indicate the predominant percept by key presses. Analyses show that spider phobic patients perceived the spider picture more often and longer as dominant compared to non-anxious control participants. Thus, predominance of phobic cues in binocular rivalry provides evidence that preferential processing of fear-relevant cues in the visual system actually leads to superior perception. In combination both studies support the notion that phobic patients process phobic cues preferentially within the visual system resulting in enhanced attention and perception. At early stages of visual processing, this is mainly reflected by delayed attentional disengagement and across time, preferential processing leads to improved perception of threat cues.
Supersymmetry is currently the best motivated extension of the Standard Model and will be subject to extensive studies in the upcoming generation of colliders. The e-e- mode would be a straight forward extension to the currently planed International Linear Collider, planned to operate in e+e- mode. The low background in this mode may prove advantageous in the study of CP- and Lepton Flavour Violtation. In this work a CP sensitive observable based on transverse beam polarisation is introduced and the impact of neutralino mixing on the total cross section in cas of non-vanishing CP-violtating phases is studied in representative scenarios including non-GUT scenarios. Additionally, the mixing of sleptons is studied in the context of LFV, an analytical approximation is developed, and possible background free measurements of these effects are investigated.
In neurons the Ras signaling pathway is activated by a large number of various stimuli, including trophic factors, neurotransmitters and modulatory peptides. Guanine nucleotide exchange factors (GEFs) mediate the activation of Ras GTPases, by catalyzing the exchange of GDP for GTP, and facilitate signaling networks crosstalk. In this work, very-KIND (VKIND), a new brain specific RasGEF was structurally and functionally characterized. VKIND belongs to the KIND protein family along with the non-receptor tyrosine phosphatases type 13 and Spir actin nucleation factors. The kinase non-catalytic C-lobe domain (KIND) is similar to the C-terminal protein kinase catalytic fold (C-lobe) of the p21-activated kinase (PAK). The open reading frame (ORF) of the VKIND gene of 5229 base pairs was cloned. The VKIND ORF translates into a protein of 1742 amino acids residues with a size of 191 kD. The VKIND protein structure is highly conserved among species and at present the protein is found only in Vertebratae and Echinodermatae. The arrangement of two KIND domains at its amino-terminal region, KIND1 and KIND2, is depicted in its name. The KIND module functions as a molecular interaction structure that is deprived of any enzymatic activity. While the precise occupation of the KIND1 domain remains elusive, the KIND2 domain binds to the microtubules-associated protein 2 (MAP2). The protein central portion features two clusters of high conservation of yet unknown function as well as a coiled-coil motif with a putative multiple protein-protein interaction activity. At the carboxy-terminal region VKIND features a guanine nucleotide exchange factor for Ras-like small GTPases (RasGEF) with a structural RasGEFN motif attached at its N-terminal site. The VKIND RasGEF motif is structurally related to the yeast catalytic domain CDC25. The closest relation of the VKIND RasGEF domain with an average sequence identity of 23% is assigned to the RasGEF domains of exchange factors specific for Rap GTPases with two unique insertions: the first one of 24 amino acids in the N-terminal end of the domain (between helixes αA and αB of the SOS1 RasGEF module) and the second one of 11 amino acids in the C-terminal part (between, helixes αJ and αK of the Sos1 RasGEF module). The RasGEFN domain plays a critical role in sustaining the structural and catalytical integrity of the guanidine exchange factor. VKIND is specifically and highly expressed in the murine nervous system during embryonic development and adulthood. During embryogenesis VKIND expression is present in the murine neural tube, telencephalon, retinal ganglion cells, and rhombencephalon. In the adult murine brain VKIND expression is most prominent in the cerebellum, however exclusively restricted to the granular and Purkinje cell layers. Subcellular distribution studies and time-lapse analysis revealed the gradual accumulation of VKIND into highly motile circular particles which featured estimated maximum velocity of 12 μm/min. By merging the nascent structures progressively grew to estimated 2 μm in size suggesting a role for VKIND in the vesicular transport process. Furthermore, the KIND1/KIND2 region of the VKIND protein was found to be phosphorylated by the p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), recently discovered to induce neurite outgrowth in response to hyperosmotic shock. In the light of VKIND negatively controlling neurite outgrowth, further elucidation of the complex Ras pathways may provide rewarding insights in the neuronal physiology.
We investigate iterative numerical algorithms with shifts as nonlinear discrete-time control systems. Our approach is based on the interpretation of reachable sets as orbits of the system semigroup. In the first part we develop tools for the systematic analysis of the structure of reachable sets of general invertible discrete-time control systems. Therefore we merge classical concepts, such as geometric control theory, semigroup actions and semialgebraic geometry. Moreover, we introduce new concepts such as right divisible systems and the repelling phenomenon. In the second part we apply the semigroup approach to the investigation of concrete numerical iteration schemes. We extend the known results about the reachable sets of classical inverse iteration. Moreover, we investigate the structure of reachable sets and systemgroup orbits of inverse iteration on flag manifolds and Hessenberg varieties, rational iteration schemes, Richardson's method and linear control schemes. In particular we obtain necessary and sufficient conditions for controllability and the appearance of repelling phenomena. Furthermore, a new algorithm for solving linear equations (LQRES) is derived.
The incidence matrices of many combinatorial structures satisfy the so called rectangular rule, i.e., the scalar product of any two lines of the matrix is at most 1. We study a class of matrices with rectangular rule, the regular block matrices. Some regular block matrices are submatrices of incidence matrices of finite projective planes. Necessary and sufficient conditions are given for regular block matrices, to be submatrices of projective planes. Moreover, regular block matrices are related to another combinatorial structure, the symmetric configurations. In particular, it turns out, that we may conclude the existence of several symmetric configurations from the existence of a projective plane, using this relationship.
Investigations of Measles virus regulation on activation and function of antigen presenting cells
(2008)
Interaction with dendritic cells (DCs) is considered as central to immunosuppression induced by viruses, including measles virus (MV). Commonly, viral infection of DCs abrogates their ability to promote T cell expansion, yet underlying mechanisms at a cellular level are undefined. It appears that MV-WTF infection modulate DCs morphology and dynamic adhesion on extra cellular matrix proteins such as FN or ICAM-1. By morphological criteria, WTF-DCs resembled LPS-DCs, associated with their mature phenotype also adhered less efficiently to the FN or ICAM-1 support. Reduced adhesion could not be explained by a lack of 1-integrin expression or activation. Similarly, MV-DCs strongly resembled LPS-DCs in that levels of focal adhesion kinase phosphorylated at Y397 were high and not further enhanced upon FN ligation. Fascin, a downstream effector of integrin signaling was highly upregulated in LPS-DCs and moderately in WTF-DCs, and differences in its subcellular distribution were not observed between both cell cultures. Apparently, however, fascin associated less efficiently with PKC in WTF-DCs then in LPS-DCs. In line with findings for murine DCs, high motility of mature human DCs was found to require expression of Rac-GTPases. Human LPS-DCs and more so, DC transfected to express constitutively active Rac1 were the most motile DC-species analysed, confirming that migration of human DC also involved Rac activity. The velocity of WTF-DCs on FN is below that of LPS-DCs, indicating that maturation induced by WTF may be insufficient to completely promote integrin signaling which leads to Rac activation. The organisation of MV-DC/T cell interfaces was consistent with that of functional immune synapses with regard to CD3 clustering, MHC class II surface recruitment and MTOC location. These analyses are based in the selection of stable conjugates. Subsequently, however, neither contacts nor calcium flux can be stabilised and sustained in the majority of MV-DC/T cell conjugates and only promoted abortive T cell activation. Formation of spatially organised IS in T cells requites, prolonged contact durations. Therefore, aberrant distribution patterns of CD3 in these structures, if occurring, are not likely to contribute to the type of contacts predominating for WTF-DC/T cell interactions. It is also likely that transient interactions of less than 2 minutes may if at all, not efficiently support viral transmission to T cells. Transient interactions are typically observed with immature DCs in the absence of antigen, but this is not likely to be relevant in our allogenic system, which includes SA-loaded WTF-DCs. Thus, MV-infected DCs retain activities required for initiating, but not sustaining T cell conjugation and activation. This is partially rescued if surface expression of the MV glycoproteins on DCs is abolished by infection with a recombinant MV encoding VSV G protein instead, indicating that these contribute directly to synapse destabilisation and thereby act as effectors of T cell inhibition.
In the course of this study, several endogenous compounds and model substances were used to mimic the conditions in patients suffering from hypertension. As endogenous compounds, angiotensin II and aldosterone were chosen. As model substances, 4-nitroquinoline-1-oxide (NQO), hydrogen peroxide and phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) were selected. Benfotiamine as well as α-tocopherol proved in the course of the experiments to be able to prevent angiotensin II-induced formation of oxidative DNA strand breaks and micronuclei. This could be due to a prior inhibition of the release of reactive oxygen species and is in contrast to results which were achieved using thiamine. Furthermore, experiments in which cells were pre-incubated with benfotiamine followed by incubation with NQO showed that benfotiamine was not able to prevent the induction of oxidative stress. The hypothesis that benfotiamine has, like α-tocopherol, direct antioxidative capacity was fortified by measurements in cell free systems. In brief, a new working mechanism for benfotiamine in addition to the ones already known could be provided. In the second part of the study, angiotensin II was shown to be dose-dependently genotoxic. This effect is mediated via the angiotensin II type 1 receptor (AT1R) which. Further experiments were extended from in vitro settings to the isolated perfused kidney. Here it could be shown that angiotensin II caused vasoconstriction and DNA strand breaks. Co-perfusion of kidneys with angiotensin II and candesartan prevented vasoconstriction and formation of strand breaks. DNA strand break formation due to mechanical stress or hypoxia could be ruled out after additional experiments with the thromboxane mimetic U 46619. Detailed investigation of the DNA damage in vitro revealed that angiotensin II induces single strand breaks, double strand breaks and 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine (8-oxodG)-adducts as well as abasic sites. Investigations of the effects of aldosterone-treatment in kidney cells showed an increase of oxidative stress, DNA strand breaks and micronuclei which could be prevented by the steroidal mineralocorticoid receptor antagonist eplerenone. Additional experiments with the non-steroidal mineralocorticoid receptor antagonist (S)-BR-4628 revealed that this substance was also able to prevent oxidative stress and genomic damage and proved to be more potent than eplerenone. In vivo, hyperaldosteronism was imitated in rats by aid of the deoxycorticosteroneacetate (DOCA) salt model. After this treatment, levels of DNA strand breaks and chromosomal aberrations in the kidney could be observed. Furthermore, an increase in the release of ROS could be measured. Treatment of these animals with spironolactone , BR-4628 and enalaprile revealed that all antagonists were effective BR-4628 was the most potent drug. Finally, rosuvastatin was investigated. In HL-60 cells phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate caused oxidative stress. Rosuvastatin was able to prevent the release of ROS and subsequent oxidative DNA damage when co-incubated with PMA. Furthermore, not only an inhibition of PMA-induced oxidative stress but also inhibition of the unspecific release of ROS induced by hydrogen peroxide was observable. Addition of farnesyl pyrophosphate (FPP), geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate (GGPP), and mevalonate, intermediates of the cholesterol pathway, caused only a marginal increase of oxidative stress in cells treated simultaneously with PMA and rosuvastatin, thus indicating the effect of rosuvastatin to be HMG-CoA-reductase-independent. Investigation of the gene expression of subunits of NAD(P)H oxidase revealed a down-regulation of p67phox following rosuvastatin-treatment. Furthermore, it could be shown that rosuvastatin treatment alone or in combination with PMA increased total glutathione levels probably due to an induction of the gene expression and enzyme activity of γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase (γ-GCS).
This PhD thesis introduced several concepts for the construction of new supramolecular assem-blies in polar solvents. Although the building blocks differ in their binding mode and association strength they follow the same principle: one main driving force for the self-assembly in polar solutions in combination with one texturing force. The main self-assembly process is based on the mutual interaction of hydrogen-bond enforced ion pairs which deliver the association energy needed for stable, supramolecular structures even in polar solvents. The texturing force itself is represented by the linkers between the zwitterionic building blocks or parts of them. The different length and functionalization of the linkers have a tremendous influence on the mode of self-assembly leading to cyclic dimers, vesicles, layers or solid spheres. Hence, this principle is suitable for the construction of programmable monomers. Since the derivatisation of the main binding motive is rather simple it offers a great number of new and undoubtedly fascinating structures with potential applications in material and biomimetic science.
This thesis is concerned with the description of macroscopic geometries through Loop Quantum Gravity, and there particularly with the description of cosmology within full Loop Quantum Gravity. For this purpose we depart from two distinct (classically virtually equivalent) ansätze: One is phase space reduction and the other is the restriction to particular states. It turns out that the quantum analogue of these two approaches are fundamentally different: The quantum analogue of phase space reduction needs the reformulation in terms of the observable Poisson algebra, so it can be applied to the noncommutative quantum phase space: It rests on the observation that the observable Poisson algebra of classical canonical cosmology is induced by the embedding of the reduced cosmological phase space into the phase space of full General Relativity. Using techniques related to Rieffel-induction, we develop a construction for a noncommutative embedding that has a classical limit that is described by a Poisson embedding. To be able to use this class of noncommutative embeddings for Loop Quantum Gravity, one needs a complete group of diffeomorphisms for the quantum theory, which is constructed. These two results are applied to construct a quantum embedding of a cosmological sector into full Loop Quantum Gravity. The embedded cosmological sector turns out to be discrete, like standard Loop Quantum Cosmology and can be interpreted as a super-selection sector thereof; however due to pathologies of the dynamics of full Loop Quantum Gravity, one can not induce a meaningful dynamics for this cosmological sector. The quantum analogue of restricting the space of states is achieved by explicitly constructing states for Loop Quantum Gravity with smooth geometry. These states do not exist within the Hilbert space of Loop Quantum Gravity, but as states on the observable algebra of Loop Quantum Gravity. This observable algebra is built from spin network functions, area operators and a restricted set of fluxes. For this algebra to be physically complete, we needed to construct a version of Loop Quantum Geometry based on a fundamental area operator. This version of Loop Quantum Geometry is constructed. Since the smooth geometry states are not in the Hilbert space of standard Loop Quantum Gravity, we needed to calculate the Hilbert space representation that contains them using the GNS construction. This representation of the observable algebra can be illustrated as a classical condensate of geometry with quantum fluctuations thereon. Using these representations we construct a quantum-minisuperspace, which allows for an interpretation of standard Loop Quantum Cosmology in terms of these states and led us to conjecture a new approach for the implementation of dynamics for Loop Quantum Gravity.
Blazars are among the most luminous sources in the universe. Their extreme short-time variability indicates emission processes powered by a supermassive black hole. With the current generation of Imaging Air Cherenkov Telescopes, these sources are explored at very high energies. Lowering the threshold below 100 GeV and improving the sensitivity of the telescopes, more and more blazars are discovered in this energy regime. For the MAGIC telescope, a low energy analysis has been developed allowing to reach energies of 50 GeV for the first time. The method is presented in this thesis at the example of PG 1553+113 measuring a spectrum between 50 GeV and 900 GeV. In the energy regime observed by MAGIC, strong attenuation of the gamma-rays is expected from pair production due to interactions of gamma-rays with low-energy photons from the extragalactic background light. For PG 1553+113, this provides the possibility to constrain the redshift of the source, which is still unknown. Well studied from radio to x-ray energies, PG 1553+113 was discovered in 2005 in the very high energy regime. In total, it was observed with the MAGIC telescope for 80~hours between April 2005 and April 2007. From more than three years of data taking, the MAGIC telescope provides huge amounts of data and a large number of files from various sources. To handle this data volume and to provide monitoring of the data quality, an automatic procedure is essential. Therefore, a concept for automatic data processing and management has been developed. Thanks to its flexibility, the concept is easily applicable to future projects. The implementation of an automatic analysis is running stable since three years in the data center in Würzburg and provides consistent results of all MAGIC data, i.e. equal processing ensures comparability. In addition, this database controlled system allows for easy tests of new analysis methods and re-processing of all data with a new software version at the push of a button. At any stage, not only the availability of the data and its processing status is known, but also a large set of quality parameters and results can be queried from the database, facilitating quality checks, data selection and continuous monitoring of the telescope performance. By using the automatic analysis, the whole data sample can be analyzed in a reasonable amount of time, and the analyzers can concentrate on interpreting the results instead. For PG 1553+113, the tools and results of the automatic analysis were used. Compared to the previously published results, the software includes improvements as absolute pointing correction, absolute light calibration and improved quality and background-suppression cuts. In addition, newly developed analysis methods taking into account timing information were used. Based on the automatically produced results, the presented analysis was enhanced using a special low energy analysis. Part of the data were affected by absorption due to the Saharan Air Layer, i.e. sanddust in the atmosphere. Therefore, a new method has been developed, correcting for the effect of this meteorological phenomenon. Applying the method, the affected data could be corrected for apparent flux variations and effects of absorption on the spectrum, allowing to use the result for further studies. This is especially interesting, as these data were taken during a multi-wavelength campaign. For the whole data sample of 54 hours after quality checks, a signal from the position of PG 1553+113 was found with a significance of 15 standard deviations. Fitting a power law to the combined spectrum between 75 GeV and 900 GeV, yields a spectral slope of 4.1 +/- 0.2. Due to the low energy analysis, the spectrum could be extended to below 50 GeV. Fitting down to 48 GeV, the flux remains the same, but the slope changes to 3.7 +/- 0.1. The determined daily light curve shows that the integral flux above 150 GeV is consistent with a constant flux. Also for the spectral shape no significant variability was found in three years of observations. In July 2006, a multi-wavelength campaign was performed. Simultaneous data from the x-ray satellite Suzaku, the optical telescope KVA and the two Cherenkov experiments MAGIC and H.E.S.S. are available. Suzaku measured for the first time a spectrum up to 30 keV. The source was found to be at an intermediate flux level compared to previous x-ray measurements, and no short time variability was found in the continuous data sample of 41.1 ksec. Also in the gamma regime, no variability was found during the campaign. Assuming a maximum slope of 1.5 for the intrinsic spectrum, an upper limit of z < 0.74 was determined by deabsorbing the measured spectrum for the attenuation of photons by the extragalactic background light. For further studies, a redshift of z = 0.3 was assumed. Collecting various data from radio, infrared, optical, ultraviolet, x-ray and gama-ray energies, a spectral energy distribution was determined, including the simultaneous data of the multi-wavelength campaign. Fitting the simultaneous data with different synchrotron-self-compton models shows that the observed spectral shape can be explained with synchrotron-self-compton processes. The best result was obtained with a model assuming a log-parabolic electron distribution.
Many optimization problems for a smooth cost function f on a manifold M can be solved by determining the zeros of a vector field F; such as e.g. the gradient F of the cost function f. If F does not depend on additional parameters, numerous zero-finding techniques are available for this purpose. It is a natural generalization however, to consider time-dependent optimization problems that require the computation of time-varying zeros of time-dependent vector fields F(x,t). Such parametric optimization problems arise in many fields of applied mathematics, in particular path-following problems in robotics, recursive eigenvalue and singular value estimation in signal processing, as well as numerical linear algebra and inverse eigenvalue problems in control theory. In the literature, there are already some tracking algorithms for these tasks, but these do not always adequately respect the manifold structure. Hence, available tracking results can often be improved by implementing methods working directly on the manifold. Thus, intrinsic methods are of interests that evolve during the entire computation on the manifold. It is the task of this thesis, to develop such intrinsic zero finding methods. The main results of this thesis are as follows: - A new class of continuous and discrete tracking algorithms is proposed for computing zeros of time-varying vector fields on Riemannian manifolds. This was achieved by studying the newly introduced time-varying Newton Flow and the time-varying Newton Algorithm on Riemannian manifolds. - Convergence analysis is performed on arbitrary Riemannian manifolds. - Concretization of these results on submanifolds, including for a new class of algorithms via local parameterizations. - More specific results in Euclidean space are obtained by considering inexact and underdetermined time-varying Newton Flows. - Illustration of these newly introduced algorithms by examining time-varying tracking tasks in three application areas: Subspace analysis, matrix decompositions (in particular EVD and SVD) and computer vision.
Parametric weighted finite automata (PWFA) are a multi-dimensional generalization of weighted finite automata. The expressiveness of PWFA contains the expressiveness of weighted finite automata as well as the expressiveness of affine iterated function system. The thesis discusses theory and applications of PWFA. The properties of PWFA definable sets are studied and it is shown that some fractal generator systems can be simulated using PWFA and that various real and complex functions can be represented by PWFA. Furthermore, the decoding of PWFA and the interpretation of PWFA definable sets is discussed.
At the beginning of regular observations with the MAGIC telescope in December 2004, all but one extragalactic sources detected at very high energy (VHE) gamma-rays belonged to the class of high frequency peaked BL Lac (HBL) objects. This motivated a systematic scan of candidate sources to increase the number of known sources and to study systematically their spectral properties. As candidate sources for VHE emission, X-ray bright HBLs were selected from a compilation of active galactic nuclei. The MAGIC observations took place from December 2004 to March 2006. The declination of the objects was restricted to values between -1.2° and +58.8° corresponding to a maximum zenith distance lower than 30° at culmination. Since gamma-rays are absorbed by photo-pair production in low energy background radiation fields, the redshift of the investigated objects was limitetd to z < 0.3. Under the assumption that HBLs generally emit the same energy flux at 1keV as at 200GeV, only the brightest X-ray sources were observed, leading to a cut in the X-ray flux of F(1keV) > 2µJy}. Of the fourteen sources observed, four have been detected: 1ES 1218+304 (for the first time at very high energies), 1ES 2344+514 (strong detection in a state of low activity), Mrk 421 and Mrk 501. A hint of a signal on a 3-sigma-level from the direction of 1ES 1011+496 has been observed. In the meantime the object has been confirmed as a source of VHE gamma-rays by a second MAGIC observation campaign triggered by an optical outburst. For ten sources, upper limits on their integral fluxes above 200GeV have been calculated on a 99% confidence level. To cross calibrate the different data samples, collected during 14 months, bright muon ring images have been used, recorded as background events by the MAGIC telescope. Based on the development by Meyer (2003), the method has been improved and implemented into the automatic data analysis as a continuous monitor of the calibration and the point spread function of the optical system. While the ring images are generated by muons with small impact parameters, it could be shown that the image parameter distributions for muons with large impact parameters and gamma showers completely overlap, revealing these muons as the dominant background for gamma-ray observations below energies of 150GeV. The sample of HBLs (including all HBLs detected at VHE so far) has been investigated for correlations between broad-band spectral indices as determined from simultaneous optical, archival X-ray and radio luminosities, finding that the VHE emitting HBLs do not differ from the non-detected ones. In general the absorption corrected HBL gamma-ray luminosities at 200GeV are not higher than their X-ray luminosities at 1keV. Based on a complete X-ray BL Lac sample, the Hamburg/ROSAT X-ray BL Lac sample, the number of expected VHE sources has been estimated for the performed scan, finding a consistent number under the assumption of a 37% completeness of the investigated sample and a 1keV-to-200GeV luminosity ratio of 1.4. An upper limit on the omnidirectional flux at 200GeV has been calculated by interpolating the sum over the observed fluxes and upper limits. Within the uncertainties, the result is in agreement with the expectations derived from the X-ray luminosity function of BL Lacs. For 1ES 1218+304 and 1ES 2344+514 the lightcurves have been derived, showing evidence for flux variability on a time scale of 17 days and 24h, respectively. In the case of 1ES 1218+304 variability has been reported for the first time at VHEs. For both sources the energy spectra have been reconstructed and discussed in the context of their broad band spectral energy distribution (SED), using a single zone synchrotron self Compton model. The SEDs are well fitted by the simulation even though the very high peak frequencies at gamma-rays push the model to its limits. The parameters derived from the simulation are in good agreement with the parameters found for similar HBLs.
CYR61 and WISP3 belong to the family of CCN-proteins. These proteins are characterised by 10% cysteine residues whose positions are strictly conserved. The proteins are extracellular signalling molecules that can be associated with the extracellular matrix. CCN-proteins function in a cell- and tissue specific overlapping yet distinct manner. CCN-proteins are expressed and function in several cells and tissues of the musculoskeletal system. In this study the impact of the angiogenic inducer cysteine-rich protein 61 (CYR61/CCN1) on endothelial progenitor cells (EPCs) and mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) as well as the wnt1 inducible signalling pathway protein 3 (WISP3/CCN6) on MSCs were elucidated. EPCs are promising cells to induce neovascularisation in ischemic regions as tissue engineered constructs. A major drawback is the small amount of cells that can be obtained from patients; therefore a stimulating factor to induce in vitro propagation of EPCs is urgently needed. In this study, mononuclear cells obtained from peripheral blood were treated with 0.5 µg/ml CYR61, resulting in an up to 7-fold increased cell number within one week compared to untreated control cells. To characterise if EPCs treated with CYR61 display altered or maintained EPC phenotype, the expression of the established markers CD34, CD133 and KDR as well as the uptake of acLDL and concurrent staining for ulex lectin was analysed. Both CYR61 treated and untreated control cells displayed EPCs characteristics, indicating that CYR61 treatment induces EPC number without altering their phenotype. Further studies revealed that the stimulating effect of CYR61 on EPCs is due to enhanced adhesion, rather than improved proliferation. Usage of mutated CYR61-proteins showed that the adhesive effect is mediated, at least partly, by the integrin α6β1, while the integrin αυβ3 has no influence. Endogenous expression of CYR61 was not detectable in EPCs, which indicated that control cells are not influenced by endogenous secretion of CYR61 and also could explain the dose-dependent effect of CYR61 that is measured at a low concentration of 0.05 µg/ml. MSCs were treated with 0.5 µg/ml CYR61, a combination of growth factors including VEGF, both together and compared to untreated control cells. Matrigel angiogenesis assay revealed an induction of angiogenesis, detected by induced sprouting of the cells, after CYR61 treatment of the MSC. Induced sprouting and vessel like structure formation after CYR61 treatment was similar to the results obtained after treatment with growth factors including the established angiogenesis inducer VEGF. This result clearly demonstrates the angiogenic potential of CYR61 on MSCs. Further studies revealed a migrative and proliferative effect of CYR61 on MSCs. Both properties are crucial for the induction of angiogenesis thus further strengthening the view of CYR61 as an angiogenic inducer. MSCs and EPCs are promising cells for tissue engineering applications in bone remodelling and reconstruction. MSCs due to their potential to differentiate into other lineages; EPCs induce neovascularisation within the construct. Both cell types respond to CYR61 treatment. Furthermore EPCs home to sides were CYR61 expression is detectable and both are induced by similar stimulators. Therefore CYR61 is a promising factor for tissue engineered bone reconstruction applications. WISP3 is expressed in cartilage in vivo and in chondrocytes in vitro. Loss of function mutations in the WISP3 gene are associated to the inherited human disease progressive pseudorheumatoid dysplasia (PPD), that is characterised by cartilage loss and bone and joint destruction. Since MSCs also express the protein, the aim of this study was to elucidate if recombinant protein targets MSCs. A migratory effect of WISP3 treatment on MSCs and osteogenic differentiated MSCs has been proven in this study. To elucidate if global gene expression patterns are influenced by WISP3, cells were treated with 0.5 µg/ml WISP3 and compared to untreated control MSCs. Gene expression study by using affymetrix technology revealed an induction of interferon inducible genes including CXCL chemokines and members of the TNFSF family. Reevaluation by RT-PCR on identical RNA and an additional time series confirmed the results. Although no established cartilage associated genes were detected as regulated genes within this 24h treatment, anti-angiogenic and immunosuppressive genes indicate a protective role of WISP3 for the cartilage, which is sensitive to inflammatory processes. Both CCN-proteins CYR61 and WISP3 are valuable for the musculoskeletal system. This and previous studies revealed the role of CYR61 for osteogenesis and angiogenesis of tissue engineered applications. WISP3 is responsible for development, protection and maintenance of cartilage. Therefore further studies with the proteins in the musculoskeletal system are of high relevance.
One of the major drawbacks in the implementation of intelligent tutoring systems is the limited capacity to process natural language and to automatically deal with unexpected or unknown vocabulary. Latent Semantic Analysis (LSA) is a statistical technique of automatic language processing, which can attenuate the “language barrier” between humans and tutoring systems. LSA-based intelligent tutoring systems address the goals of modelling human tutoring dialogues (AutoTutor), enhancing text comprehension and summarisation skills (State-The-Essence, Summary Street®, conText, Apex), training of comprehension strategies (iStart, a French system in development) and improving story and essay writing (Write To Learn, Select-a-Kibitzer, StoryStation). The systems are reviewed concerning their efficacy in modelling skilled human tutors and regarding their effects on the learner.
Insects living in temperate latitudes need to adjust their life-history to a seasonally variable environment. Reproduction, growth, and development have to be completed within the limited period where environmental conditions are favourable while climatically adverse conditions have to be spent in a state of diapause. Consequently, questions how individuals adapt their life-history to seasonality and which mechanisms underlie the responses to seasonal cues, like photoperiod, are important issues in the study of life-history strategies. This thesis focuses on the life-history adaptation to seasonality in the wing-dimorphic common pond skater Gerris lacustris L. (Heteroptera: Gerridae). Using a combination of field and laboratory studies as well as mathematical modelling, it is adressed how variation in the availability of thermal energy impacts on various aspects of larval development such as accumulated thermal energy (i.e. physiological development time), developmental pathway (direct reproduction vs. diapause) and wing dimorphism.
In this PhD thesis, the effect of strain on heteroepitaxial growth is investigated by means of Kinetic Monte Carlo simulations. In this context the lattice misfit, arising from the different lattice constants of the adsorbate and the substrate material, is of particular interest. As a consequence, this lattice misfit leads to long-range elastic strain effects having strong influence on the entire growing crystal and its resulting surface morphology. The main focus of this work is the investigation of different strain relaxation mechanisms and their controlling parameters, revealing interesting consequences on the subsequent growth. Since epitaxial growth is carried out under conditions far away from thermodynamic equilibrium, it is strongly determined by surface kinetics. At this point the relevant kinetic microscopic processes are described, followed by theoretical considerations of heteroepitaxial growth disclosing an overview over several independent methodological streams, used to model epitaxy in different time and length scales, as well as the characterization of misfit dislocations and the classification of epitaxial growth modes based on thermodynamic considerations. The epitaxial growth is performed by means of Kinetic Monte Carlo simulations which allows for the consideration of long range effects in systems with lateral extension of few hundred atoms. By using an off-lattice simulation model the particles are able to leave their predefined lattice sites, which is an indispensable condition for simulating strain relaxation mechanisms. The main idea of our used model is calculating the activation energy of all relevant thermally activated processes by using simple pair potentials and then realizing the dynamics by performing each event according to its probability by means of a rejection-free algorithm method. In addition, the crystal relaxation procedure, the grid-based particle access method, which accelerates the simulation enormously, and the efficient implementation of the algorithm are discussed. To study the influence of long range elastic strain effects, the main part of this work was realized on the two dimensional triangular lattice, which can be treated as a cross section of the real three dimensional case. Chapter 4 deals with the formation of misfit dislocations as a strain relaxation mechanism and the resulting consequences on the subsequent heteroepitaxial growth. We can distinguish between two principally different dislocation formation mechanisms, depending strongly on the sign as well as on the magnitude of the misfit, but also the surface kinetics need to be taken into account. Additionally, the dislocations affect the lattice spacings of the crystal whose observed progression is in qualitative good agreement with experimental results. Furthermore, the dislocations influence the subsequent growth of the adsorbate film, since the potential energy of an adatom is modulated by buried dislocations. A clear correlation between the lateral positions of buried dislocations and the positions of mounds grown on the surface can be observed. In chapter 5, an alternative strain relaxation mechanism is studied: the formation of three dimensional islands enables the particles to approach their preferred lattice spacing. We demonstrate that it is possible to adjust within our simulation model each of the three epitaxial growth modes: Volmer–Weber, Frank–van der Merve or layer-by-layer, and Stranski–Krastanov growth mode. Moreover, we can show that the emerging growth mode depends in principle on two parameters: on the one hand the interaction strength of adsorbate particles with each other, compared to the interaction of adsorbate with substrate particles, and on the other hand the lattice misfit between adsorbate and substrate particles. A sensible choice of these two parameters allows the realization of each growth mode within the simulations. In conclusion, the formation of nanostructures controlled by an underlying dislocation network can be applied in the concept of self-organized pattern formation as well as by the tendency to form ordered arrays of strain-induced three dimensional grown islands. In chapter 6, we extend our model to three dimensions and investigate the effect of strain on growth on bcc(100) surfaces. We introduce an anisotropic potential yielding a stable bcc lattice structure within the off-lattice representation. We can show that the strain built up in submonolayer islands is mainly released at the island edges and the lattice misfit has strong influence on the diffusion process on the plane surface as well as on the situation at island edges with eminent consequences on the appearance of submonolayer islands.
In this PhD thesis, we study the heteroepitaxial crystal growth by means of Monte Carlo simulations. Of particular interest in this work is the influence of the lattice mismatch of the adsorbates relative to the substrate on surface structures. In the framework of an off-lattice model, we consider one monolayer of adsorbate and investigate the emerging nanopatterns in equilibrium and their formation during growth. In chapter 1, a brief introduction is given, which describes the role of computer simulations in the field of the physics of condensed matter. Chapter 2 is devoted to some technical basics of experimental methods of molecular beam epitaxy and the theoretical description. Before a model for the simulation can be designed, it is necessary to make some considerations of the single processes which occur during epitaxial growth. For that purpose we look at an experimental setup and extract the main microscopic processes. Afterwards a brief overview of different theoretical concepts describing that physical procedures is given. In chapter 3, the model used in the simulations is presented. The aim is to investigate the growth of an fcc crystal in the [111] direction. In order to keep the simulation times within a feasible limit a simple pair potential, the Lennard-Jones potential, with continuous particle positions is used, which are necessary to describe effects resulting from the atomic mismatch in the crystal. Furthermore the detailed algorithm is introduced which is based on the idea to calculate the barrier of each diffusion event and to use the barriers in a rejection-free method. Chapter 4 is attended to the simulation of equilibrium. The influence of different parameters on the emerging structures in the first monolayer upon the surface, which is completely covered with two adsorbate materials, is studied. Especially the competition between binding energy and strain leads to very interesting pattern formations like islands or stripes. In chapter 5 the results of growth simulations are presented. At first, we introduce a model in order to realize off-lattice Kinetic Monte Carlo simulations. Since the costs in simulation time are enormous, some simplifications in the calculation of diffusion barriers are necessary and therefore the previous model is supplemented with some elements from the so-called ball and spring model. The next point is devoted to the calculation of energy barriers followed by the presentation of the growth simulations. Binary systems with only one sort of adsorbate are investigated as well as ternary systems with two different adsorbates. Finally, a comparison to the equilibrium simulations is drawn. Chapter 6 contains some concluding remarks and gives an outlook to possible further investigations.
Frustration has been investigated since the early beginnings of psychological research. Yet, it is still unclear how frustration influences the two main parameters of motivation, i.e., orientation (approach-avoidance) and intensity. Some theories propose that controllable frustration increases approach motivation, thereby maintaining motivational intensity. In contrast, other theories propose that the perception of obstacles immediately elicits an avoidance orientation because of the negative valence of the perceptual input. Yet, the latter theories can not explain how motivational intensity is maintained upon encountering obstacles. The aim of the present thesis is to integrate previous contradicting assumptions by describing the influence of frustration on motivational orientation and motivational intensity on the basis of a two-system model of behavior. The definition of frustration as an unexpected obstacle blocking the attainment of an anticipated gratification implies that the obstacle is immediately perceived, whereas the goal is only represented in working memory. According to two-system models, these two types of representations influence different levels of behavior regulation. Whereas spontaneous approach-avoidance tendencies are mainly determined by the valence of the perceptual input, decisions to engage effort to reach the goal are based on knowledge about goals and appraisals of controllability of obstacles. Supporting this theorizing, six experiments demonstrated that frustration immediately activates avoidance tendencies. This was true for frustration of approach goals as well as for frustration of avoidance goals. Furthermore, this effect did not depend on the type of frustration feedback, and was found when approach-avoidance tendencies were measured after completion of goal pursuit as well as while overcoming frustration. In addition, approaching obstacles impaired performance in a subsequent task, suggesting that approaching obstacles consumed cognitive resources. This further supports the assumption that obstacles immediately activate avoidance tendencies. Furthermore, dispositional action-state orientation, which has been previously shown to moderate automatic affective reactions, influenced approach-avoidance tendencies, indicating that affect mediates the impact of frustration on behavioral tendencies. Finally, manipulations of controllability of frustration did not influence spontaneous approach-avoidance tendencies, but measures of motivational intensity such as decisions to engage more effort as well as activation of goal-relevant behavioral schemata. In sum, these findings support the assumptions that immediately elicited motivational orientations are mainly a function of the valence of perceptual input, whereas behavior to reach the goal (i.e. motivational intensity) is regulated by working memory representations such as appraisals of goal expectancy. Motivational orientations may serve to prepare organisms for quick reactions to sudden, unexpected occurrences, whereas behavior regulation based on goal appraisals may provide stability and flexibility in long-term goal pursuit.
Assessment of emotional detachment in psychopathy via self-report and an emotion detection task
(2008)
The personality construct of psychopathy is subject of growing research, but data on psychopathy in female incarcerated and in non-institutionalized samples are rare. In this thesis emotional detachment as one factor of psychopathy is investigated in general population, in patients and in incarcerated samples. After verifying the validity of the Psychopathy Personality Inventory Revised (PPI-R) measuring emotional detachment, the sensitivity of the questionnaire concerning emotional detachment has been proven. Additionally it has been shown that symptoms of attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder can be distinguished from psychopathic traits by emotional detachment. In addition, these results confirm the core role of the feature emotional detachment for psychopathy. Furthermore, two emotion recognition tasks have been conducted in a criminal female inpatients sample. Compared to the low psychopathic patients, the high psychopathic patients showed deficits in categorization only in shortly presented sad facial expressions, but rated emotional facial expressions as less arousing. These results point to emotional detachment as a core characteristic of psychopathy, and is specific even in non-incarcerated and female incarcerated samples. It can be measured with the PPI-R as well as with emotion detection tasks.
In this thesis, synaptic transmission was studied electrophysiologically at an invertebrate model synapse, the neuromuscular junction of the Drosophila 3rd instar wandering larvae. In the first part, synaptic function is characterized at the neuromuscular junction in fly lines which are null mutants for the synaptic proteins “the synapse associated protein of 47 kDa” (Sap-47156), Synapsin (Syn97), the corresponding double mutant (Sap-47156, Syn97), a null mutant for an as yet uncharacterized Drosophila SR protein kinase, the Serine-Arginine protein kinase 3 (SRPK3), and the Löchrig (Loe) mutant which shows a strong neurodegenerative phenotype. Intracellular voltage recordings from larval body wall muscles 6 and 7 were performed to measure amplitude and frequency of spontaneous single vesicle fusion events (miniature excitatory junction potentials or mEJPs). Evoked excitatory junction potentials (eEJPs) at different frequencies and calcium concentrations were also measured to see if synaptic transmission was altered in mutants which lacked these synaptic proteins. In addition, structure and morphology of presynaptic boutons at the larval neuromuscular junction were examined immunohistochemically using monoclonal antibodies against different synaptic vesicle proteins (SAP-47, CSP, and Synapsin) as well as the active zone protein Bruchpilot. Synaptic physiology and morphology was found to be similar in all null mutant lines. However, Löchrig mutants displayed an elongated bouton morphology, a significant shift towards larger events in mEJP amplitude frequency histograms, and increased synaptic facilitation during a 10 Hz tetanus. These deficits suggest that Loe mutants may have a defect in some aspect of synaptic vesicle recycling. The second part of this thesis involved the electrophysiological characterization of heterologously expressed light activated proteins at the Drosophila neuromuscular junction. Channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2), a light gated ion channel, and a photoactivated adenylate cyclase (PAC) were expressed in larval motor neurons using the UAS-Gal4 system. Single EJPs could be recorded from muscles 15, 16, and 17 when larva expressing ChR2 were illuminated with short (100 ms) light pulses, whereas long light pulses (10 seconds) resulted in trains of EJPs with a frequency of around 25 Hz. Larva expressing PAC in preparations where motor neurons were cut from the ventral ganglion displayed a significant increase in mEJP frequency after a 1 minute exposure to blue light. Evoked responses in low (.2 mM) calcium were also significantly increased when PAC was stimulated with blue light. When motor nerves were left intact, PAC stimulation resulted in light evoked EJPs in muscles 6 and 7 in a manner consistent with RP3 motor neuron activity. ChR2 and PAC are therefore useful and reliable tools for manipulating neuronal activity in vivo.
A rising percentage of women with risk factors for cardiovascular disease (CVD) reach menopause and experience postmenopausal symptoms. In consequence they require assessment concerning the appropriate combination and safety of a hormone replacement therapy. Clinical trials using the combination of equine estrogens and medroxyprogesterone acetate (MPA) reported an increased risk of thromboembolic events and no cardiovascular protective effects in women receiving this type of hormone replacement therapy. However unopposed estradiol and different regimes estrogens/progestins in vitro and in animal studies have proved to be beneficial for the cardiovascular system. Thus it is possible that the negative outcomes of the clinical trials are an exclusive feature of the regime equine estrogens plus MPA. The present study was initiated to evaluate the cardiovascular effects and possible mechanism of damage of the regime MPA plus 17ß-estradiol in comparison to unopposed 17ß-estradiol during cardiac disease. The role of 17ß-estradiol and MPA during left ventricular dysfunction and chronic heart failure was studied in female Wistar rats that received myocardial infarction. After 8 weeks of treatment the combination of MPA plus estradiol aggravated left ventricular remodelling and dysfunction as judged by increased heart weight, elevated left ventricular end diastolic pressure and decreased left ventricular fractional shortening, effects that were accompanied by increase left ventricular oxidative stress and expression of rac 1 and p67phox regulatory subunits of the NADPH oxidase. In contrast ovariectomy as well as 17ß- estradiol supplementation conferred neutral effects on cardiac function and remodelling post myocardial infarction. Suggesting that the aggravating symptoms of the regime MPA plus 17ß –estradiol are inherent to this pharmacological regime and are not a class effect of the progesterone receptor ligands and are neither due to inhibition of estradiol beneficial effects. Considering that aldosterone plays an important role in the development and aggravation of cardiovascular disease the cardiovascular effects of MPA plus 17ß –estradiol was studied in a model of mineralocorticoid receptor activation and compared to the effects of regimes based in drospirenone, a new progestin with antimineralocorticoid properties. The complex pattern of cardiovascular injury in ovariectomized Wistar rats induced by 8 weeks of continuous chronic aldosterone infusion and high-salt diet was significantly attenuated in sham-ovariectomized rats and by coadministration of 17 ß-estradiol in ovariectomized animals. The beneficial role of 17 ß-estradiol on blood pressure, cardiac hypertrophy, vascular osteopontin expression and perivascular fibrosis was completely abrogated by coadministration of MPA. In contrast, drospirenone was either neutral or additive to 17 ß-estradiol in protecting against aldosterone salt-induced cardiovascular injury and inflammation. Taking into account that the kidney plays a major role for the development and aggravation of hypertension a further characterization of fluid balance, renal morphology and renal gene expression in the aldosterone salt treated rats was conducted. Aldo-salt treatment resulted in remnant kidney hypertrophy without structural damage, effects that were not modified by 17 ß-estradiol. However combination of MPA with 17 ß-estradiol enhanced kidney hypertrophy, fluid turnover, renal sodium retention and potassium excretion and was associated with increased renal ENaC expression, extensive renal lesions, tubular damage and enhanced p67phox expression and protein tyrosin nitrosylation. Different to the protective effects of drospirenone that included a complete blockade of kidney hypertrophy and sodium retention and enhanced renal expression of angiotensin II type-2 receptors. Therefore the loss of 17 ß-estradiol cardiovascular beneficial effects and the renal harmful effects in the aldosterone salt treated rats receiving MPA can not be extrapolated to other progestins. Indeed drospirenone conferred protective effects due to its antimineralocorticoid properties. In conclusion, the choice of specific synthetic progestins has profound implications on the development of cardiovascular and renal injury; MPA aggravated cardiac disease, which contributes to explain the adverse outcomes of clinical trials on the prevention of cardiovascular disease by combined estrogen and MPA treatment.
This work was aimed at experimentally studying whether climatic variables act as environmental cues for workers’ building behaviour in leaf-cutting ants of the genus Acromyrmex, and to what extent building responses account for the maintenance of nest climate in a proper range for the inhabiting colony. Specifically, this work presents independent analysis in different Acromyrmex species with disparate ecology and nesting habits, aimed at understanding to what extent: i) temperature and humidity act as cues for workers’ building behaviour, ii) inter- and intraspecific differences in the nesting habits observed in South American Acromyrmex are based on distinct building behaviours and on the variation in regional climate across continent, iii) differences in nest architecture account for the maintenance of nest climate in a proper range for colony members and, iv) climatic variables trigger building responses aimed at controlling short-term changes in nest climate. It is first experimentally shown that soil temperature acts as a cue for workers’ digging behaviour. Acromyrmex lundi workers were observed to respond to both soil temperature as well as its changes, and to decide accordingly where to start or whether to stop digging. The soil temperature range preferred by workers to dig, between 20°C and maximally 30.6°C, matches the range at which colony growth is expected to be maximized. Temperature-sensitive digging might therefore lead to the establishment of the fungus chambers in soil layers with a proper range of temperatures for colony growth. Based on that, it was hypothesized that nest depth in Acromyrmex largely depends on the depth at which this temperature range is located across the soil profile, i.e., the higher the temperature in the superficial soil layers, the deeper the nest location, since soil temperature decreases with increasing depth. A bibliographic survey on nesting habits of 21 South American Acromyrmex species confirmed that the warmer the soil temperature at 50 cm depth throughout the South American continent, the higher the number of species presenting subterranean nests, compared with those inhabiting superficial nests. Temperature-sensitive digging in Acromyrmex would therefore explain the geographical distribution of nesting habits observed for this genus in the South American continent, i.e., subterranean in the northern tropical regions, and superficial in the southern temperate ones. In addition, results showed that Acromyrmex colonies from temperate regions indeed achieve thermoregulatory benefits through the determination of nest depth based on thermoregulatory needs. In sympatrically-occurring colonies of the grass-cutting ant A. heyeri, temperature inside superficial thatched nests was higher, and more suitable for colony growth, than that inside subterranean nests. This temperature surplus was even higher in spring, at the time of production of sexual brood, than in winter or summer. It was demonstrated that such temperature surplus was brought about by the low thermal diffusivity of the nest thatch, which prevents diurnal nest overheating by the incoming solar radiation, and avoids losses of the accumulated daily heat into the cold air during night, thus leading to high average nest temperatures. Although highly advantageous for colonies in terms of nest temperature, the determination of nest depth based on thermoregulatory needs may differentially affect nest ventilation and humidity depending on how nest exposition influences the exchange of nest air with the outside air. For instance, colonies with a superficial nesting habit might benefit from improved nest ventilation, but be at risk of desiccation due to their exposition and the consequent humidity losses into the dry outside air. Results demonstrated that in two Acromyrmex species, short-term regulatory building responses triggered and spatially organized by climatic variables occur, and may counteract undesired changes in internal nest humidity. Workers of the thatching grass-cutting ant A. heyeri, for instance, closed a number of nest-thatch openings as a response to desiccation of the outside air, even at a nest temperature that otherwise triggered the response of opening them so as to reduce nest temperature. In the leaf-cutting ant A. ambiguus, the direction of the airflow inside nest tunnels was shown to act as a cue for spatially guiding the building behaviour of plugging nest entrances. However, workers only responded if the humidity content of the circulating air was low, trading therefore nest ventilation for humidity maintenance.
Background: The frequency of the most observed cancer, Non Hodgkin Lymphoma (NHL), is further rising. Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) is the most common of the NHLs. There are two subgroups of DLBCL with different gene expression patterns: ABC (“Activated B-like DLBCL”) and GCB (“Germinal Center B-like DLBCL”). Without therapy the patients often die within a few months, the ABC type exhibits the more aggressive behaviour. A further B-cell lymphoma is the Mantle cell lymphoma (MCL). It is rare and shows very poor prognosis. There is no cure yet. Methods: In this project these B-cell lymphomas were examined with methods from bioinformatics, to find new characteristics or undiscovered events on the molecular level. This would improve understanding and therapy of lymphomas. For this purpose we used survival, gene expression and comparative genomic hybridization (CGH) data. In some clinical studies, you get large data sets, from which one can reveal yet unknown trends. Results (MCL): The published proliferation signature correlates directly with survival. Exploratory analyses of gene expression and CGH data of MCL samples (n=71) revealed a valid grouping according to the median of the proliferation signature values. The second axis of correspondence analysis distinguishes between good and bad prognosis. Statistical testing (moderate t-test, Wilcoxon rank-sum test) showed differences in the cell cycle and delivered a network of kinases, which are responsible for the difference between good and bad prognosis. A set of seven genes (CENPE, CDC20, HPRT1, CDC2, BIRC5, ASPM, IGF2BP3) predicted, similarly well, survival patterns as proliferation signature with 20 genes. Furthermore, some bands could be associated with prognosis in the explorative analysis (chromosome 9: 9p24, 9p23, 9p22, 9p21, 9q33 and 9q34). Results (DLBCL): New normalization of gene expression data of DLBCL patients revealed better separation of risk groups by the 2002 published signature based predictor. We could achieve, similarly well, a separation with six genes. Exploratory analysis of gene expression data could confirm the subgroups ABC and GCB. We recognized a clear difference in early and late cell cycle stages of cell cycle genes, which can separate ABC and GCB. Classical lymphoma and best separating genes form a network, which can classify and explain the ABC and GCB groups. Together with gene sets which identify ABC and GCB we get a network, which can classify and explain the ABC and GCB groups (ASB13, BCL2, BCL6, BCL7A, CCND2, COL3A1, CTGF, FN1, FOXP1, IGHM, IRF4, LMO2, LRMP, MAPK10, MME, MYBL1, NEIL1 and SH3BP5; Altogether these findings are useful for diagnosis, prognosis and therapy (cytostatic drugs).
The work deals with the synthesis and characterization of cerulenin analogues as inhibitors of efflux pump mediated resistance of Candida albicans isolates and as inhibitors of the fatty acid synthesis enzyme KasA of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Cerulenin was chosen as the lead structure, being a substrate of the efflux pumps in Candida albicans on one hand and therefore variations on the structure could lead to a blocking of the efflux pumps as in the case of tetracycline and inhibitor 13-CPTC of the TetB efflux pump. On the other hand, cerulenin is a known inhibitor of the FAS system but inhibition is unselective in type I and II FAS. Therefore, analogues could result in increased selectivity towards the type II FAS system in M. tuberculosis. The first cerulenin derivatives were prepared by coupling 2,3-dihydrofuran to the before synthesized 1-octaniodide, followed by ring opening and oxidation in one step by chromic acid and transfer of the resulting 4-keto acid to amides to give analogues 4a-d, 4e was prepared in analogy. To include the epoxide function especially with regard to the mechanism of action of cerulenin in the FAS system (considering known crystal structures of cerulenin and the KasA analogue of E. coli) tetrahydro- and dihydrocerulenin analogues were synthesized. Starting from the corresponding aldehyde, lactone 5 (tetrahydrocerulenin analogues) was obtained via two different routes A and B. Route A included the coupling of the aldehyde 1-nonanal to propiolic acid via a Grignard reaction with subsequent hydrogenation with the Lindlar catalyst under hydrogen pressure to give 5. Via Route B 1-nonanal was coupled to methyl propiolate by n-BuLi with subsequent hydrogenation under reflux with the catalytic system Lindlar cat./NH4HCO2 to yield 5. These hydrogenations were also executed in a microwave oven resulting in better yields and/or reaction times. The lactone 5 was then epoxidized, the ring opened by amidation and the remaining alcohol was oxidized via Collins oxidation to result in tetrahydrocerulenin analogues 8a-e. The same procedure was used for dihydrocerulenin analogues 10a-c except that to obtain the corresponding lactone 9a only route A was used and a further step had to be executed for ring closure. To obtain analogues with all structural features of cerulenin including two double bonds and the epoxide function, a third pathway was chosen. To obtain the future side chain, aldehyde 12 was synthesized by coupling protected 4-pentyn-1-ol to either crotyl bromide or crotyl chloride, which then was deprotected, hydrogenated with Lindlar catalyst under hydrogen pressure and oxidized via a Swern oxidation. The following synthesis sequence starting from 12 was executed similar to that of dihydrocerulenins via the corresponding lactone (51) with the major exception of the oxidation procedure in the last step via TPAP/NMO to result in (4Z,7E)-cerulenin analogues 15a-b. A fourth class of cerulenin analogues was synthesized with the aromatic analogues 17a-e. This synthesis pathway started with the formation of the benzoyl acrylamides 16a-e from benzoylacrylic acid via a mixed anhydride which was prepared with isobutylchloroformate followed by the addition of the corresponding amine. Subsequent epoxidation with H2O2 in basic EtOH gave the aromatic cerulenin analogues 17a-e. Pharmacological testings for the synthesized substances were executed on efflux pump-resistant and -sensitive Candida albicans isolates, on the fatty acid synthesis enzyme KasA of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and on other organisms such as Leishmania major, Trypanosoma brucei brucei, Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa within the Sonderforschungsbereich 630.
Human caretaker genes play a central role in the DNA damage response. Their defects cause a number of rare diseases which show genetic instability and increased propensity to malignant cell growth. The first of these diseases to be described in this thesis is Fanconi anemia (FA), a rare chromosome instability disorder with recessive inheritance characterized by progressive bone marrow failure, variable congenital malformations, and cancer predisposition. There are at least 13 FA complementation groups (FA-A, B, C, D1, D2, E, F, G, I, J, L, M and N), each representing mutations in a distinct gene. To date, except FANCI all the corresponding genes have been identified, denoted as FANC-A, B, C, D1/BRCA2, D2, E, F, G, J/BRIP1/BACH1, L/PHF9, M/Hef and N/PALB2.Further information is provided in chapters 1 and 2. FA cells are characterized by high sensitivity to DNA crosslinking agents and to elevated oxygen tension, but it is controversial whether they are also radiosensitive. Systematic testing (chapter 3) of primary skin fibroblast cultures from all currently known FA complementation groups revealed no increased sensitivity towards ionizing radiation (IR) and ultra-violet light (UV) when growing cells at physiological (5% v/v) oxygen levels. Despite considerable interstrain variations FA cells showed no systematic differences to cell cultures derived from healthy controls, whereas positive controls (Ataxia telangiectasia and Cockayne syndrome) proved highly sensitive to IR or UV. Lack of radiosensitivity was also shown for the FANCD2 gene, a central gene in the FA/BRCA pathway whose mutational inactivation was studied in a large patient cohort. FA patients excluded previously from complementation groups FA-A, -C, E, F, G or L were screened for mutations in FANCD2. Even though mutation analysis of FANCD2 is complicated by the presence of pseudogene regions, biallelic FANCD2 mutations were identified in a series of 32 patients (chapter 4). The predominant types of mutations result in aberrant splicing causing exon skipping, exonisation of intronic sequence, activation of cryptic and creation of new 3´ splice sites. Many alleles were recurrent and could be associated with ethnicity. Interestingly, residual FANCD2 protein was observed in all available patient cell lines, and functionality was indicated by the presence of the monoubiquitinated FANCD2 isoform. This suggests that viability of FA-D2 patients depends on the presence of hypomorphic or leaky mutations. In chapter 5 the worldwide second FA patient belonging to complementation group FA-L is reported. Genetic analysis of patient derived fibroblasts revealed heterozygosity for a 5-bp deletion (exon 7) and a missense substitution (exon 11). In contrast to the tested fibroblasts two independent lymphoid cell lines proved resistant to the DNA crosslinking agent mitomycin C and showed proficient FANCD2 monoubiquitination. The functional reversion due to a compensating mutation in the splice acceptor site results in aberrant splicing and the restoration of the open reading frame. However, the revertant mosaicsm was restricted to the lymphatic cell lines such that there was no clinical improvement involving the other hematopoietic cell lineages, and bone marrow transplantation was required to treat the patients bone marrow failure. A direct link of Fanconi anemia to other DNA repair processes was provided by the identification of the BRCA1 interacting protein 1, BRIP1/BACH1, as a genuine FA gene (chapter 6). Genetic mapping of consanguineous Inuit families resulted in the identification of truncating mutations in BRIP1. In contrast to most of the other FA patients FANCD2 monoubiquitination was intact, linking these patients to complementation group FA-J. Biallelic mutations in BRIP1 were found in eight additional patients, one of whom was assigned previously to FA-J by somatic cell fusion. Therefore it could be shown that the postulated FANCJ gene is identical with BRIP1. This finding emphasizes the close connection between the BRCA- and the FA-family of genes, both involved in the DNA damage response. Biallelic mutations in BRCA2/FANCD1 cause a severe form of Fanconi anemia with childhood malignancies. Recently, a BRCA2 interacting protein was identified as a “partner and localizer of BRCA2” (PALB2) which confers cellular MMC resistance. A candidate gene approach revealed biallelic mutations in seven FA patients that developed solid tumors in early childhood (chapter 7). Patient cells show no or little PALB2 protein, lack of MMC induced RAD51 foci formation, and high chromosomal instability. Transduction of PALB2 cDNA complemented the MMC sensitive phenotype. Therefore, biallelic mutations in PALB2 cause a new subtype of FA, denoted as FA-N, which is connected with a high and early cancer risk. With respect to one of the most prominent but least understood caretaker gene syndromes, Fanconi anemia, this thesis has expanded our knowledge as follows: 1. refutation of major cellular radiosensitivity of FA cell lines regardless of complementation group, 2. detection of hypomorphic mutations and residual protein levels as a prerequisite for viability of the FANCD2 gene, 3. description of the worldwide second patient belonging to complementation group FA-L whose lymphocytes exhibit a novel type of somatic reversion, 4. participation in the discovery and functional characterization of two novel FA genes (FANCJ and FANCN). The last chapter of the thesis deals with a DNA repair pathway that is activated following exposure to ionizing radation. One of the central proteins responding to radiation-induced DNA damage is the product of the ATM gene which signals to a myriad of other proteins in response to DNA double strand breaks, including the NMR complex. This complex formed by the NBS1/MRE11/RAD50 proteins is thought to act as a specifi c sensor of DNA double-strand breaks. Mutations of MRE11 and NBS1 are associated with the radiation sensitivity syndromes Ataxia-telangiectasia-like disorder (AT-LD) and Nijmegen breakage syndrome (NBS), respectively. Chapter 8 presents the first ever identified patient with RAD50 deficiency due to biallelic germline mutations in the RAD50 gene. An 18-year-old German girl who has a variant form of NBS without immunodeficiency was found to be compound heterozygous for a nonsense mutation and the loss of the natural termination signal in the RAD50 gene. RAD50 protein expression was reduced to less than one tenth of normal in her fibroblasts and lymphoblastoid cells. At the nuclear level, RAD50 deficiency was associated with a high frequency of spontaneous chromatid exchanges and with the failure to form MRE11 and NBS1 nuclear foci in response to irradiation. ATM autophosphorylation, phosphorylation of p53 at serine 15 and the transcriptional induction of p21/WAF1 mRNA were reduced, and there was no evidence for Ser343 phosphorylation of NBS1 in RAD50 defi cient cells following irradiation. These defects could be complemented by expression of wildtype RAD50 cDNA. Our data shows that RAD50 modulates, like NBS1 and MRE11, the ATM-mediated DNA damage response and the G1/S cell cycle checkpoint. In addition, RAD50 appears to be required for nuclear localization of MRE11, and for NBS1 focus formation, underlining its importance for the proper function of the NMR complex. Owing to the studies performed within the framework of this thesis, RAD50 deficiency can now be added to the growing list of human caretaker gene syndromes with pronounced radiosensitivity that is distinctive at both the cellular and the clinical level from deficiencies involving the other members of the NMR complex.
Calculations of multi-particle processes at the one-loop level: precise predictions for the LHC
(2007)
The Standard Model (SM) of elementary particle physics provides a uniform framework for the description of three fundamental forces, the electromagnetic and weak forces, describing interactions between quarks and leptons, and the strong force, describing a much stronger interaction between the coloured quarks. Numerous experimental tests have been performed in the last thirty years, showing a spectacular agreement with the theoretical predictions of the Standard Model, even at the per mille level, therefore validating the model at the quantum level. An important cornerstone of the Standard Model is the Higgs mechanism, which provides a possible explanation of electroweak symmetry breaking, responsible for the masses of elementary fermions and the W and Z bosons, the carriers of the weak force. This mechanism predicts a scalar boson, the Higgs boson, which has escaped its discovery so far. If the Higgs mechanism is indeed realised in nature, the upcoming Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN will be able to find the associated Higgs boson. The discovery of a Higgs boson by itself is not sufficient to establish the Higgs mechanism, the basic ingredient being the Higgs potential which predicts trilinear and quartic couplings. These have to be confirmed experimentally by the study of multi-Higgs production. We therefore present a calculation of the loop-induced processes gg to HH and gg to HHH, and investigate the observability of multi-Higgs boson production at the LHC in the Standard Model and beyond. While the SM cross sections are too small to allow observation at the LHC, we demonstrate that physics beyond the SM can lead to amplified, observable cross sections. Furthermore, the applicability of the heavy top quark approximation in two- and three-Higgs boson production is investigated. We conclude that multi-Higgs boson production at the SuperLHC is an interesting probe of Higgs sectors beyond the SM and warrants further study. Despite the great success of the SM, it is widely believed that this model cannot be valid for arbitrarily high energies. The LHC will probe the TeV scale and theoretical arguments indicate the appearance of physics beyond the SM at this scale. The search for new physics requires a precise understanding of the SM. Precise theoretical predictions are needed which match the accuracy of the experiments. For the LHC, most analyses require next-to-leading order (NLO) precision. Only then will we be able to reliably verify or falsify different models. At the LHC, many interesting signatures involve more than two particles in the final state. Precise theoretical predictions for such multi-leg processes are a highly nontrivial task and new efficient methods have to be applied. The calculation of the process PP to VV+jet at NLO is an important background process to Higgs production in association with a jet at the LHC. We compute the virtual corrections to this process which form the "bottleneck" for obtaining a complete NLO prediction. The resulting analytic expressions are generated with highly automated computer routines and translated into a flexible Fortran code, which can be employed in the computation of differential cross sections of phenomenological interest. The obtained results for the virtual corrections indicate that the QCD corrections are sizable and should be taken into account in experimental studies for the LHC.
Interleukin-5 (IL-5) is a member of the hematopoietic class I cytokines and is specifically involved in eosinophil activation. IL-5 plays an important role in disease conditions such as allergic asthma and other hypereosinophilias, which are characterized by highly increased levels of eosinophils in peripheral blood and tissues. The IL-5 receptor is a heterodimer consisting of a binding alpha subunit (IL- 5Rα) and a common beta subunit (IL-5Rβ). This IL-5Rβ is shared with the IL-3 and GM-CSF receptors. The IL-5Rα is required for ligand-specific binding, whereas the association of the IL-5Rβ subunit triggers intracellular signal transduction. Previous studies have described the crystallographic structure of human IL-5 (hIL-5), as well as that of the common IL-5Rβ chain (IL-5Rβc) However, no experimental structural data are yet available for the interaction of the high-affinity IL-5 receptor IL-5Rα with its ligand IL-5. Therefore, this thesis had the principle objective to gain new insights into the basis of this important agonist-receptor interaction. In particular, data on the recombinant expression, purification and preparation of the binary complex of hIL-5 bound to the receptor ectodomain of hIL-5Rα are shown, as well as the subsequent crystal structure analysis of the binary ligand-receptor (hIL-5Rα/hIL-5) complex. Both proteins were expressed in an Escherichia coli expression system, purified to homogeneity, and crystallized. However, since the initial analysis of these crystals did not show any X-ray diffraction, each step of the preparation and crystallization procedure had to be stepwise optimized. Several improvements proved to be crucial for obtaining crystals suitable for structure analysis. A free cysteine residue in the N-terminal domain of the hIL-5Rα ectodomain protein was mutated to alanine to remove protein heterogeneity. In addition, hIL-5 affinity chromatography of the receptor protein proved to be absolutely crucial for crystal quality. Additive screening using the initial crystallization condition finally yielded crystals of the binary complex, which diffracted to 2.5Å resolution and were suitable for structure analysis. The preliminary structure data demonstrate a new receptor architecture for the IL-5Rα ligand-binding domain, which has no similarities to other cytokine class I receptor structures known so far. The complex structure demonstrates that the ligand-binding region of human IL-5Rα is dispersed over all three extracellular domains, and adopts a binding topology in which the cytokine recognition motif (CRM) needs the first Fn-III domain of the human IL-5Rα to bind the ligand. In a second project, a prokaryotic expression system for murine IL-5 (mIL-5) was established to allow the production of mIL-5 and mIL-5 antagonist that should facilitate functional studies in mice. Since the expression of mIL-5 in E. coli had never been successful so far, a fusion protein system was generated expressing high yields of mIL-5. Chemical cleavage with cyanogen bromide (CNBr) was used to release mIL-5 monomers, which were subsequently purified and refolded. This technique yielded an active murine IL-5 dimer as confirmed by TF-1 cell proliferation assays. The protein was crystallized and the structure of mIL-5 could be determined at 2.5Å resolution. The molecular structure revealed a symmetrical left-handed four helices bundle dimer similar to human IL-5. Analysis of the structure-/function relationship allowed us to design specific mIL-5 antagonist molecules, which are still under examination. Taken together, these findings provide further insights in the IL-5 and IL-5R interaction which may help to further understand and depict this and other cytokine-receptor interactions of similar architecture, e.g. the IL-13 ligand-receptor system. Ultimately, this may represent another piece of puzzle in the attempts to rationally design and engineer novel IL-5-related pharmacological therapeutics.
Within the scope of this thesis, spin related transport phenomena have been investigated in HgTe/HgCdTe quantum well structures. This material exhibits peculiar band structure properties, which result in a strong spin-orbit interaction of the Rashba type. An inverted band structure, i.e., a reversed ordering of the energy states in comparison to common semiconductors, is obtained for quantum well layers above a critical thickness. Furthermore, the band structure properties can be controlled in the experiments by moderate gate voltages. Most prominently, the type of carriers in HgTe quantum wells can be changed from n to p due to the narrow energy gap. Along with the inverted band structure, this unique transition is the basis for the demonstration of the Quantum Spin Hall state, which is characterized by the existence of two one-dimensional spin-polarized edge states propagating in opposite directions, while the Fermi level in the bulk is in the energy gap. Since elastic scattering is suppressed by time reversal symmetry, a quantized conductance for charge and spin transport is predicted. Our experiments provide the first experimental demonstration of the QSH state. For samples with characteristic dimensions below the inelastic mean free path, charge conductance close to the expected value of 2e^2/h has been observed. Strong indication for the edge state transport was found in the experiments as well. For large samples, potential fluctuations lead to the appearance of local n-conducting regions which are considered to be the dominant source of backscattering. When time reversal symmetry is broken in a magnetic field, elastic scattering becomes possible and conductance is significantly suppressed. The suppression relies on a dominant orbital effect in a perpendicular field and a smaller Zeeman-like effect present for any field direction. For large perpendicular fields, a re-entrant quantum Hall state appears. This unique property is directly related to the non-trivial QSH insulator state. While clear evidence for the properties of charge transport was provided, the spin properties could not be addressed. This might be the goal of future experiments. In another set of experiments, the intrinsic spin Hall effect was studied. Its investigation was motivated by the possibility to create and to detect pure spin currents and spin accumulation. A non-local charging attributed to the SHE has been observed in a p-type H-shaped structure with large SO interaction, providing the first purely electrical demonstration of the SHE in a semiconductor system. A possibly more direct way to study the spin Hall effects opens up when the spin properties of the QSH edge states are taken into account. Then, the QSH edge states can be used either as an injector or a detector of spin polarization, depending on the actual configuration of the device. The experimental results indicate the existence of both intrinsic SHE and the inverse SHE independently of each other. If a spin-polarized current is injected from the QSH states into a region with Rashba SO interaction, the precession of the spin can been observed via the SHE. Both the spin injection and precession might be used for the realization of a spin-FET similar to the one proposed by Datta and Das. Another approach for the realization of a spin-based FET relies on a spin-interference device, in which the transmission is controlled via the Aharonov-Casher phase and the Berry phase, both due to the SO interaction. In the presented experiments, ring structures with tuneable SO coupling were studied. A complex interference pattern is observed as a function of external magnetic field and gate voltage. The dependence on the Rashba splitting is attributed to the Aharonov-Casher phase, whereas effects due to the Berry phase remain unresolved. This interpretation is confirmed by theoretical calculations, where multi-channel transport through the device has been assumed in agreement with the experimental results. Thus, our experiments provide the first direct observation of the AC effect in semiconductor structures. In conclusion, HgTe quantum well structures have proven to be an excellent template for studying spin-related transport phenomena: The QSHE relies on the peculiar band structure of the material and the existence of both the SHE and the AC effect is a consequence of the substantial spin-orbit interaction. While convincing results have been obtained for the various effects, several questions can not be fully answered yet. Some of them may be addressed by more extensive studies on devices already available. Other issues, however, ask, e.g., for further advances in sample fabrication or new approaches by different measurements techniques. Thus, future experiments may provide new, compelling insights for both the effects discussed in this thesis and, more generally, other spin-orbit related transport properties.
The control of quantum mechanical processes, especially the selective manipulation of photochemical reactions by shaped fs laser pulses was successfully demonstrated in many experiments in the fields of physics, chemistry and biology. In this work, attention is directed to the control of two systems that mark a bridge to real synthetic chemistry. In a liquid phase environment the outcome of the photo-induced Wolff rearrangement of an industrially relevant diazonaphthoquinone compound, normally used in photoresists (e.g. Novolak) was optimized using shaped fs laser pulses. In the second series of experiments chemical reactions on a catalyst metal surface which comprise laser induced molecular bond formation channels were selectively manipulated for the first time. The control of liquid phase reactions necessitates adequate spectroscopic signals that are characteristic for the formed product species. Therefore, a pump-probe setup for transient absorption spectroscopy in the mid-infrared for the purpose of investigating ultrafast structural changes of molecules during photoreactions was constructed. This versatile setup enables to monitor structural changes of molecules in the liquid phase and to find appropriate feedback signals for the control of these processes. Prior to quantum control experiments, the photoinduced Wolff-rearrangement reaction of 2-diazo-1-naphthoquinone (DNQ) dissolved in water and methanol was thoroughly investigated. Steady state absorption measurements in the mid-infrared in combination with quantum chemical density functional theory (DFT) calculations revealed the characteristic vibrational bands of DNQ and of possible products. A mid-infrared transient absorption study was performed, to illuminate the structural dynamics of the ultrafast rearrangement reaction of DNQ. The experimental observations indicate, that the Wolff rearrangement reaction of DNQ proceeds within 300 fs. A model for the relaxation dynamics of the ketene photoproduct and DNQ after photoexcitation can be deduced that fits the measured data very well. The object of the quantum control experiments on DNQ was the improvement of the ketene yield. It was shown that the ketene formation after Wolff rearrangement of DNQ is very sensitive to the shape of the applied excitation laser pulses. The variation of single parameters, like the linear chirp as well as the pulse separation of colored double pulses lead to the conclusion that the well known intrapulse dumping mechanism is responsible for the impact of the frequency ordering within the excitation pulse on the photoproduct yield. Adaptive optimizations using a closed learning loop basically lead to the same result. Adaptive fs quantum control was also applied to surface reactions on a catalyst metal surface for the first time. Therefore, the laser-induced catalytic reactions of carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen (H2) on a Pd(100) single crystal surface were studied. This photochemical reaction initiated with fs laser pulses has not been observed before. Several product molecules could be synthesized, among them also species (e.g. CH^3+) for whose formation three particles are involved. The systematic variation of different parameters showed that the reactions are sensitive to the catalyst surface, the composition of the adsorbate and to the laser properties. A pump-probe study revealed that they occur on an ultrafast time scale. These catalytic surface reactions were then investigated and improved with phaseshaped fs laser pulses. By applying a feedback optimal control scheme, the reaction outcome could be successfully manipulated and the ratio of different reaction channels could be selectively controlled. Evidence has been found that the underlying control mechanism is nontrivial and sensitive to the specific conditions on the surface. The experiments shown here represent the first successful experiment on adaptive fs quantum control of a chemical reaction between adsorbate molecules on a surface. In contrast to previous quantum control experiments, reaction channels comprising the formation of new molecular bonds rather than the cleavage of already existing bonds are controlled. This work successfully showed that quantum control can be extended to systems closer to situations encountered in synthetic chemistry as was demonstrated in the two examples of the optimization of a complicated rearrangement reaction and the selective formation of chemical bonds with shaped fs laser pulses.
Plants attacked by herbivorous insects emit a blend of volatile compounds that serve as important host location cues for parasitoid wasps. Variability in the released blend may exist on the whole-plant and within-plant level and can affect the foraging efficiency of parasitoids. We comprehensively assessed the kinetics of herbivore-induced volatiles in soybean in the context of growth stage, plant organ, leaf age, and direction of signal transport. The observed patterns were used to test the predictions of the optimal defence hypothesis (OD). We found that plants in the vegetative stage emitted 10-fold more volatiles per biomass than reproductive plants and young leaves emitted >2.6 times more volatiles than old leaves. Systemic induction in single leaves was stronger and faster by one day in acropetal than in basipetal direction while no systemic induction was found in pods. Herbivore-damaged leaves had a 200-fold higher release rate than pods. To some extent these findings support the OD: i) indirect defence levels were increased in response to herbivory and ii) young leaves, which are more valuable, emitted more volatiles. However, the fact that reproductive structures emitted no constitutive or very few inducible volatiles is in seeming contrast to the OD predictions. We argue that in case of volatile emission the OD can only partially explain the patterns of defence allocation due to the peculiarity that volatiles act as signals not as toxins or repellents.
This thesis is devoted to the study of computational complexity theory, a branch of theoretical computer science. Computational complexity theory investigates the inherent difficulty in designing efficient algorithms for computational problems. By doing so, it analyses the scalability of computational problems and algorithms and places practical limits on what computers can actually accomplish. Computational problems are categorised into complexity classes. Among the most important complexity classes are the class NP and the subclass of NP-complete problems, which comprises many important optimisation problems in the field of operations research. Moreover, with the P-NP-problem, the class NP represents the most important unsolved question in computer science. The first part of this thesis is devoted to the study of NP-complete-, and more generally, NP-hard problems. It aims at improving our understanding of this important complexity class by systematically studying how altering NP-hard sets affects their NP-hardness. This research is related to longstanding open questions concerning the complexity of unions of disjoint NP-complete sets, and the existence of sparse NP-hard sets. The second part of the thesis is also dedicated to complexity classes but takes a different perspective: In a sense, after investigating the interior of complexity classes in the first part, the focus shifts to the description of complexity classes and thereby to the exterior in the second part. It deals with the description of complexity classes through leaf languages, a uniform framework which allows us to characterise a great variety of important complexity classes. The known concepts are complemented by a new leaf-language model. To a certain extent, this new approach combines the advantages of the known models. The presented results give evidence that the connection between the theory of formal languages and computational complexity theory might be closer than formerly known.
Besides image contrast, imaging speed is probably the most important consideration in clinical magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). MR scanners currently operate at the limits of potential imaging speed, due to technical and physiological problems associated with rapidly switched gradient systems. Parallel imaging (parallel MRI or pMRI) is a method which allows one to significantly shorten the acquisition time of MR images without changing the contrast behavior of the underlying MR sequence. The accelerated image acquisition in pMRI is accomplished without relying on more powerful technical equipment or exceeding physiological boundaries. Because of these properties, pMRI is currently employed in many clinical routines, and the number of applications where pMRI can be used to accelerate imaging is increasing. However, there is also growing criticism of parallel imaging in certain applications. The primary reason for this is the intrinsic loss in the SNR due to the accelerated acquisition. In addition, other effects can also lead to a reduced image quality. Due to unavoidable inaccuracies in the pMRI reconstruction process, local and global errors may appear in the final reconstructed image. The local errors are visible as noise enhancement, while the global errors result in the so-called fold-over artifacts. The appearance and strength of these negative effects, and thus the image quality, depend upon different factors, such as the parallel imaging method chosen, specific parameters in the method, the sequence chosen, as well as specific sequence parameters. In general, it is not possible to optimize all of these parameters simultaneously for all applications. The application of parallel imaging in can lead to very pronounced image artifacts, i.e. parallel imaging can amplify errors. On the other hand, there are applications such as abdominal MR or MR angiography, in which parallel imaging does not reconstruct images robustly. Thus, the application of parallel imaging leads to errors. In general, the original euphoria surrounding parallel imaging in the clinic has been dampened by these problems. The reliability of the pMRI methods currently implemented is the main criticism. Furthermore, it has not been possible to significantly increase the maximum achievable acceleration with parallel imaging despite major technical advances. An acceleration factor of two is still standard in clinical routine, although the number of independent receiver channels available on most MR systems (which are a basic requirement for the application of pMRI) has increased by a factor of 3-6 in recent years. In this work, a novel and elegant method to address this problem has been demonstrated. The idea behind the work is to combine two methods in a synergistic way, namely non-Cartesian acquisition schemes and parallel imaging. The so-called non-Cartesian acquisition schemes have several advantages over standard Cartesian acquisitions, in that they are often faster and less sensitive to physiological noise. In addition, such acquisition schemes are very robust against fold-over artifacts even in the case of vast undersampling of k-space. Despite the advantages described above, non-Cartesian acquisition schemes are not commonly employed in clinical routines. A reason for that is the complicated reconstruction techniques which are required to convert the non-Cartesian data to a Cartesian grid before the fast Fourier transformation can be employed to arrive at the final MR image. Another reason is that Cartesian acquisitions are routinely accelerated with parallel imaging, which is not applicable for non-Cartesian MR acquisitions due to the long reconstruction times. This negates the speed advantage of non-Cartesian acquisition methods. Through the development of the methods presented in this thesis, reconstruction times for accelerated non-Cartesian acquisitions using parallel imaging now approach those of Cartesian images. In this work, the reliability of such methods has been demonstrated. In addition, it has been shown that higher acceleration factors can be achieved with such techniques than possible with Cartesian imaging. These properties of the techniques presented here lead the way for an implementation of such methods on MR scanners, and thus also offer the possibility for their use in clinical routine. This will lead to shorter examination times for patients as well as more reliable diagnoses.
In the present study a knockout mouse model of the Popeye domain containing gene 2 (Popdc2) was generated and functionally characterized. The Popdc2 null mutants were viable with an apparent normal life span. ß-galactosidase staining to visualize the expression of the Popdc2-LacZ transgene revealed the presence of the Popdc2 in heart, bladder, smooth and skeletal muscles. In the heart LacZ was found to be present in cardiac myocytes with elevated levels in the myocytes of the cardiac conduction system. Holter ECGs records of the heart function of the 8 months (but not in 3 and 6 months) old mutant and WT littermates revealed a pronounced sinus bradycardia in the mutant mice in response to three different stress regimens: isoproterenol infusion, mental stress and a physical exercise. Histological examination of the Popdc2 null mutants SAN revealed structural alterations as was detected by HCN4 staining. Moreover, volume measurements using 3-D reconstructions of serial sections stained with HCN4 antibody revealed a volume reduction of about 30% in the mutant SAN. Taken together data presented in this study suggest that the Popdc2 KO mouse line may serve as an animal model of human sick sinus syndrome. In the second part of this thesis the Popdc2 gene promoter was analyzed. Three transcription factors binding sites were predicted in the promoter region and characterized.
The prototyical tumor suppressor p53 is able to arrest cells after DNA damage or as a response to oncogene expression. The transactivation-competent (TA) isoforms of the more recently discovered p53 family member p73 also prevent tumors, but the underlying mechanisms are less well understood. The work presented here addressed this issue by using a cell culture model of tumorigenesis in which normal human diploid fibroblasts are stepwise transduced with oncogenes. Cells in pretransformed stages were shown to harbour high levels of TAp73 mRNA and protein. This positive regulation was probably a result of pRB inactivation and derepression of E2F1, a key activator of TAp73. Consequences for such cells included an increased sensitivity to the cytostatic drug adriamycin, slower proliferation and reduced survival at high cell density, as demonstrated by rescue experiments using siRNA-mediated knockdown of TAp73. In order to identify potential effector pathways, the gene expression profile of siRNA treated, matched fibroblast cell lines with high and low TAp73 levels were compared in DNA microarrays. These findings support the notion of TAp73 up-regulation as an anti-proliferative defense mechanism, blocking the progress towards full transformation. This barrier could be overcome by the introduction of a constitutively active form of Ras which caused a switch from TAp73 to oncogenic DeltaNp73 expression, presumably through the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) pathway. In summary, the results presented emphasize the tumor-suppressive function of TAp73 and indicate that its downregulation is a decisive event during the transformation of human cells by oncogenic Ras mutants.
The Ras/RAF/MEK/ERK cascade is a central cellular signal transduction pathway involved in cell proliferation, differentiation, and survival where RAF kinases are pivotal kinases implicated in cancer. The development of specific irreversible kinase inhibitors is a rewarding but difficult aim. CI-1033 was developed to irreversibly inhibit erbB receptor tyrosine kinases by reacting to the Cys113 residue (p38alpha MAP kinase numbering) of the kinase domain. In this study we tried a similar approach to target the RAF oncoproteins which posses a similar cysteine at position 108 in the hinge region between the small n-lobe and the large c-lobe of the kinase domain. A novel synthetic approach including a lyophilization step allowed us the synthesis of a diphenyl urea compound with an epoxide moiety (compound 1). Compound 1 possessed inhibitory activity in vitro. However our time kinetics experiments and mass spectroscopic studies clearly indicate that compound 1 does not react covalently with the cysteine residue in the hinge region. Moreover, in cell culture experiments, a strong activation of the RAF signaling pathway was observed, an effect which is known from several other RAF kinase inhibitors and is here reported for the first time for a diphenyl urea compound, to which the clinically used unspecific kinase inhibitor BAY 43-9006 (Sorafinib, Nexavar) belongs. Although activation was apparently independent on B- and C-RAF hetero-oligomerization in vitro, in vivo experiments support such a mechanism as the activation did not occur in starved knockout cells lacking either B-RAF or C-RAF. Furthermore, we developed a mathematical model of the Ras/RAF/MEK/ERK cascade demonstrating how stimuli induce different signal patterns and thereby different cellular responses, depending on cell type and the ratio between B-RAF and C-RAF. Based on biochemical data for activation and dephosphorylation, we set up differential equations for a dynamical model of the Ras/RAF/MEK/ERK cascade. We find a different signaling pattern and response result for B-RAF (strong activation, sustained signal) and C-RAF (steep activation, transient signal). We further support the significance of such differential modulatory signaling by showing different RAF isoform expression in various cell lines and experimental testing of the predicted kinase activities in B-RAF, C-RAF as well as mutated versions. Additionally the effect of the tumor suppressor DiRas3 (also known as Noey2 or ARHI) on RAF signaling was studied. I could show that DiRas3 down-regulates the mitogenic pathway by inhibition of MEK, a basis for a refined model of the Ras/RAF/MEK/ERK cascade.
Artificial light-harvesting (LH) systems have been obtained by self-assembly of naphthalene diimide-functionalized zinc chlorin dyads and triad in nonpolar, aprotic solvents. UV-vis, CD, and steady-state emission spectroscopy as well as atomic force microscopy showed that rod-like structures are formed by excitonic interactions of zinc chlorin units, while the appended naphthalene diimide dyes do not aggregate at the periphery of the cylinders. In all cases, photoexcitation of the enveloping naphthalene diimides at 540 and 620 nm, respectively, was followed by highly efficient energy-transfer processes to the inner zinc chlorin backbone, as revealed by time-resolved fluorescence spectroscopy on the picosecond time-scale. As a consequence, the LH efficiencies of zinc chlorin rod aggregates were increased by up to 63%. The effective utilization of solar energy recommends these biomimetic systems for an application in electronic materials on the nanoscale.
NFAT transcription factors play critical roles in gene transcription during immune responses. Besides regulation of lymphokine promoters in T lymphocytes, NFAT factors are also expressed in other cell types and regulate the activity of numerous genes that control the generation of cardiac septa and valves in embryonic heart, the formation of blood vessels, the outgrowth of neuronal axons and the differentiation of osteoclasts during bone formation [10, 24]. Here we show that the induction of NFATc/αA in effector T cells is controlled by a strong inducible promoter, P1. It results in splicing of exon 1 to exon 3 transcripts and, in concert with the activity of a poly A site downstream of exon 9, leads to the massive synthesis of NFATc/αA in effector Th1 cells. A second, weak promoter, P2, lies in front of exon 2 and directs the synthesis of longer NFAT β isoforms. Both P1 and P2 direct the synthesis of three different RNAs: αA, αB, αC and βA, βB, βC correspondingly. The B and C isoforms arise from alternative splicing and poly A addition at the distal site pA2. P1 but not P2 activity is autoregulated by NFAT factors which bind to two tandemly arranged NFAT sites within P1 and enhance its induction. In resting T cells, the NFATc1/β RNAs are the most prominent nfatc1 transcripts and their synthesis is reduced upon T-cell activation. However, following activation in primary effector T cells or in T-cell lines of human or murine origin, a 15–20-fold induction of NFATc1/αA RNA was detected, whereas only a 2–5-fold increase was observed for the NFATc1/αB or NFATc1/αC RNAs. Optimal induction of P1 promoter require involving of a persistent increase in free cytosolic Ca2+ induced by ionomycin, which stimulates the nuclear translocation and transcriptional activation of all NFATc factors and phorbol esters, which activate protein kinase C and other protein kinase pathways in T cells. This suggests that both TCR and co-receptor signals contribute to give full P1 nfatc1 induction. Because NFATc1/αA induction is unaffected in NFATc2+c3 double-deficient T cells, NFATc1 autoregulates its own synthesis by controlling P1 activity and NFATc1/αA induction. P1 promoter contains tandemly arranged NFAT core binding motif TGGAAA to witch bind monomeric NFATc1 proteins and numerous conservative binding sites of other transcriptional factors like CREB, Fos, ATF-2, Sp1, NF-kB and GATA suggesting complex multi-factor regulation of NFATc1 gene. We also highlight that initial phase of nfatc1 transcription in naive CD4+ T cells is controlled by the promoter P2 which is constitutively active in resting T cells. The activation of resting T cells results in a decrease of P2 and the induction of P1 activity and, under optimal conditions, in the predominant synthesis of NFATc1/αA in effector T cells. In addition to the high concentrations of poly A factors required for optimal pA1 function, the levels of transcription factors, in particular NFATs, must also increase for P1 induction. That could be explained by achievement of certain threshold levels for transcriptional activation. Finally, the altered transactivation potential of NFATc1/αA suggests a specific role for this NFATc1 protein in gene control, such as in Th1 effector cells where NFATc1/αA is synthesized at high concentrations.
A comprehensive approach for currency crises theories stressing the role of the anchor country
(2008)
The approach is based on the finding that new generations of currency crises theories always had developed ex post after popular currency crises. Discussing the main theories of currency crises shows their disparity: The First Generation of currency crises models argues based on the assumption of a chronic budget deficit that is being monetized by the domestic central bank. The result is a trade-off between an expansionary monetary policy that is focused on the internal economic balance and a fixed exchange rate which is depending on the rules of interest parity and purchasing power parity. This imbalance inevitably results in a currency crisis. Altogether, this theory argues with a disrupted external balance on the foreign exchange market. Second Generation currency crises models on the other side focus on the internal macroeconomic balance. The stability of a fixed exchange rate is depending on the economic benefit of the exchange rate system in relation to the social costs of maintaining it. As soon as social costs are increasing and showing up in deteriorating fundamentals, this leads to a speculative attack on the fixed exchange rate system. The term Third Generation of currency crises finally summarizes a variety of currency crises theories. These are also arguing psychologically to explain phenomena as contagion and spill-over effects to rationalize crises detached from the fundamental situation. Apart from the apparent inconsistency of the main theories of currency crises, a further observation is that these explanations focus on the crisis country only while international monetary transmission effects are left out of consideration. These however are a central parameter for the stability of fixed exchange rate systems, in exchange rate theory as well as in empirical observations. Altogether, these findings provide the motivation for developing a theoretical approach which integrates the main elements of the different generations of currency crises theories and which integrates international monetary transmission. Therefore a macroeconomic approach is chosen applying the concept of the Monetary Conditions Index (MCI), a linear combination of the real interest rate and the real exchange rate. This index firstly is extended for international monetary influences and called MCIfix. MCIfix illustrates the monetary conditions required for the stability of a fixed exchange rate system. The central assumption of this concept is that the uncovered interest parity is maintained. The main conclusion is that the MCIfix only depends on exogenous parameters. In a second step, the analysis integrates the monetary policy requirements for achieving an internal macroeconomic stability. By minimizing a loss function of social welfare, a MCI is derived which pictures the economically optimal monetary policy MCIopt. Instability in a fixed exchange rate system occurs as soon as the monetary conditions for an internal and external balance are deviating. For discussing macroeconomic imbalances, the central parameters determining the MCIfix (and therefore the relation of MCIfix to MCIopt) are discussed: the real interest rate of the anchor country, the real effective exchange rate and a risk premium. Applying this theory framework, four constellations are discussed where MCIfix and MCIopt fall apart in order to show the central bank’s possibilities for reacting and the consequences of that behaviour. The discussion shows that the integrative approach manages to incorporate the central elements of traditional currency crises theories and that it includes international monetary transmission instead of reducing the discussion on an inconsistent domestic monetary policy. The theory framework for fixed exchange rates is finally applied in four case studies: the currency crises in Argentina, the crisis in the Czech Republic, the Asian currency crisis and the crisis of the European Monetary System. The case studies show that the developed monetary framework achieves integration of different generations of crises theories and that the monetary policy of the anchor country plays a decisive role in destabilising fixed exchange rate systems.
Many arthropods and vertebrates can cling to surfaces using adhesive pads on their legs. These pads are either smooth and characterised by a specialised, soft cuticle or they are hairy, i.e. densely covered with flexible adhesive setae. Animals climbing with adhesive organs are able to control attachment and detachment dynamically while running. The detailed mechanisms of how tarsal pads generate adhesive and frictional forces and how forces are controlled during locomotion are still largely unclear. The aim of this study was to clarify the attachment mechanism of smooth adhesive pads as present in many insects and tree frogs. To understand the function of these fluid-based adhesive systems, I characterized their performance under standardized conditions. To this end, experiments were conducted by simultaneously measuring adhesion, friction, and contact area in single adhesive pads. The first result of this study showed that friction in stick insect attachment pads is anisotropic: Attachment pads regularly detached when slid away from the body. Further analyses of "immobilized" arolia revealed that this anisotropy is not caused by an increased shear stress in the proximal direction, but by the instability of the tarsus when pushed distally. In the second part of this study, I analysed the role of the pad secretion present in insects and tree frogs. In stick insects, shear stress was largely independent of normal force and increased with velocity, seemingly consistent with the viscosity effect of a continuous fluid film. However, measurements of the remaining force two minutes after a sliding movement showed that adhesive pads could sustain considerable static friction in insects and tree frogs. Repeated sliding movements and multiple consecutive pull-offs of stick insect single legs to deplete adhesive secretion showed that on a smooth surface, friction and adhesion strongly increased with decreasing amount of fluid in insects. In contrast, stick insect pull-off forces significantly decreased on a rough substrate. Thus, the secretion does not generally increase attachment but does so only on rough substrates, where it helps to maximize contact area. When slides with stick insect arolia were repeated at one position so that secretion could accumulate, sliding shear stress decreased but static friction remained clearly present. This suggests that static friction in stick insects, which is biologically important to prevent sliding, is based on non-Newtonian properties of the adhesive emulsion rather than on a direct contact between the cuticle and the substrate. % Analogous measurements in toe pads of tree frogs showed that they are also able to generate static friction, even though their pads are wetted by mucus. In contrast to the mechanism proposed for insects, static friction in tree frogs apparently results from the very close contact of toe pads to the substrate and boundary lubrication. In the last section of this study, I investigated adhesive forces and the mode of detachment by performing pull-off measurements at different velocities and preloads. These experiments showed that preload has only an increasing effect on adhesion for faster pull-offs. This can be explained by the viscoelastic material properties of the stick insect arolium, which introduce a strong rate-dependence of detachment. During fast pull-offs, forces can spread over the complete area of contact, leading to forces scaling with area. In contrast, the pad material has sufficient time to withdraw elastically and peel during slow detachments. Under these conditions the adhesive force will concentrate on the circumference of the contact area, therefore scaling with a length, supporting models such as the peeling theory. The scaling of single-pad forces supported these conclusions, but large variation between pads of different stick insects did not allow statistically significant conclusions. In contrast, when detachment forces were quantified for whole insects using a centrifuge, forces scaled with pad contact area and not with length.
In the present study numerical methods are employed within the framework of multiscale modeling. Quantum mechanics and finite element method simulations have been used in order to calculate thermoelastic properties of ceramics. At the atomic scale, elastic constants of ten different ceramics (Al2O3, alpha- and beta-SiC, TiO2-rutile and anatase, AlN, BN, CaF2, TiB2, ZrO2) were calculated from the first principles (ab-initio) using the density functional theory with the general gradient approximation. The simulated elastic moduli were compared with measured values. These results have shown that the ab-initio computations can be used independently from experiment to predict elastic behavior and can provide a basis for the modeling of structural and elastic properties of more complex composite ceramics. In order to simulate macroscopic material properties of composite ceramics from the material properties of the constituting phases, 3D finite element models were used. The influence of microstructural features such as pores and grain boundaries on the effective thermoelastic properties is studied through a diversity of geometries like truncated spheres in cubic and random arrangement, modified Voronoi polyhedra, etc. A 3D model is used for modeling the microstructure of the ceramic samples. The measured parameters, like volume fractions of the two phases, grain size ratios and grain boundary areas are calculated for each structure. The theoretical model is then varied to fit the geometrical data derived from experimental samples. The model considerations are illustrated on two types of bi-continuous materials, a porous ceramic, alumina (Al2O3) and a dense ceramic, zirconia-alumina composite (ZA). For the present study, alumina samples partially sintered at temperatures between 800 and 1320 C, with fractional densities between 58.4% and 97% have been used. For ZA ceramic the zirconia powder was partially stabilized and the ratio between alumina and zirconia was varied. For these two examples of ceramics, Young’s modulus and thermal conductivity were calculated and compared to experimental data of samples of the respective microstructure. Comparing the experimental and simulated values of Young’s modulus for Al2O3 ceramic a good agreement was obtained. For the thermal conductivity the consideration of thermal boundary resistance (TBR) was necessary. It was shown that for different values of TBR the experimental data lie within the simulated thermal conductivities. In the case of ZA ceramic also a good agreement between simulated and experimental values was observed. For smaller ZrO2 fractions, a larger Young’s modulus and thermal conductivity was observed in the experimental samples. The discrepancies have been discussed by taking into account the effect of pressure. Considering the dependence of the thermoelastic properties on the pressure, it has been shown that the thermal stresses resulting from the cooling process were insufficient to explain the discrepancies between experimental and simulated thermoelastic properties.
In this study, murine ES cells and DT40 B cells were used in parallel to disrupt the Nfatc1 gene and to study the function of individual 6 Nfatc1 isoforms, especially the function of highly inducible NFATc1/aA.We found that the short isoform NFATc1/aA protects DT40 B cells against apoptosis while the long isoform NFATc1/aC appears to enforce apoptosis. DNA microarray studies have shown that in NFATc1" DT40 B cells expressing ectopically human NFATc1/aA, the pkc-theta gene is several fold stronger expressed as in wild type cells. Our results of EMSA (Electrophoretic Mobility Shift Assays) and ChIP (chromatin immuno-precipitation) experiments demonstrated the binding of NFATc1/aA to the pkc-theta promoter in vitro and in vivo. NF-kappa B was also found to bind to the NFATc1 P1-promoter in vitro and in vivo. These data suggest and further prove that NF-kappa B contributes to the induction of the NFATc1 P1 promoter upon activation of T cells. So, NFATc1/aA and NF-kappa B were found to cross-talk in the transcriptional upregulation of their target genes, such as the IL-2 gene and the Nfatc1 gene itself, at multiple steps upon induction of apoptosis. While the pro-apoptotic mechanism of NFATc1s long isoform(s) remains unclear, its corresponding “death partners” are worth further studies. The elucidation of functional roles of NFATc1s short or long isoforms in the control of apoptosis of lymphocytes helps to understand apoptosis regulation, and thereby, the fate of lymphocytes.
This thesis presents an experimental study of the thermoelectrical properties of semiconductor quantum dots (QD). The measurements give information about the interplay between first order tunneling and macroscopic quantum tunneling transport effects in the presence of thermal gradients by the direct comparison of the thermoelectric response and the energy spectrum of the QD. The aim of the thesis is to contribute to the understanding of the charge and spin transport in few-electron quantum dots with respect to potential applications in future quantum computing devices. It also gives new insight into the field of low temperature thermoelectricity. The investigated QDs were defined electrostatically in a two dimensional electron gas (2DEG) formed with a GaAs/(Al,Ga)As heterostructure by means of metallic gate electrodes on top of the heterostructure. Negative voltages with respect to the potential of the 2DEG applied to the gate electrodes were used to deplete the electron gas below them and to form an isolated island of electron gas in the 2DEG which contains a few ten electrons. This QD was electrically connected to the 2DEG via two tunneling barriers. A special electron heating technique was used to create a temperature difference between the two connecting reservoirs across the QD. The resulting thermoelectric voltage was used to study the charge and spin transport processes with respect to the discrete energy spectrum and the magnetic properties of the QD. Such a two dimensional island usually exhibits a discrete energy spectrum, which is comparable to that of atoms. At temperatures below a few degrees Kelvin, the electrostatic charging energy of the QDs exceeds the thermal activation energy of the electrons in the leads, and the transport of electrons through the QD is dominated by electron-electron interaction effects. The measurements clarify the overall line shape of thermopower oscillations and the observed fine structure as well as additional spin effects in the thermoelectrical transport. The observations demonstrate that it is possible to control and optimize the strength and direction of the electronic heat flow on the scale of a single impurity and create spin-correlated thermoelectric transport in nanostructures, where the experimenter has a close control of the exact transport conditions. The results support the assumption that the performance of thermoelectric devices can be enhanced by the adjustment of the QD energy levels and by exploiting the properties of the spin-correlated charge transport via localized, spin-degenerate impurity states. Within this context, spin entropy has been identified as a driving force for the thermoelectric transport in the spin-correlated transport regime in addition to the kinetic contributions. Fundamental considerations, which are based on simple model assumptions, suggest that spin entropy plays an important role in the presence of charge valence fluctuations in the QD. The presented model gives an adequate starting point for future quantitative analysis of the thermoelectricity in the spin-correlated transport regime. These future studies might cover the physics in the limit of single electron QDs or the physics of more complex structures such as QD molecules as well as QD chains. In particular, it should be noted that the experimental investigations of the thermopower of few-electron QDs address questions concerning the entropy transport and entropy production with respect to single-bit information processing operations. These questions are of fundamental physical interest due to their close connection to the problem of minimal energy requirements in communication, and thus ultimately to the so called "Maxwell's demon" with respect to the second law of thermodynamics.
Protein interactions as mediated by catalytic or non-catalytic protein domains contribute to cellular signal transduction processes by covalent protein modification of or non-covalent binding to interaction partners. Ena/VASP homology 1 (EVH1) domains are found in different signal transduction proteins as N-terminal non-catalytic adaptor modules of ~ 115 amino acids sharing a common fold. By targeting their host proteins to subcellular sites of action they are involved in several signalling cascades which include protein phosphorylation and cytoskeletal reorganisation. In this study, protein interactions of the two EVH1 domain containing proteins VASP and Spred2 were studied according to their involvement in different and non-overlapping signal transduction pathways of the cell. EVH1 domains were first described in the Ena/VASP protein family with the Vasodilator-stimulated phosphoprotein VASP being its founding member. As a cytoskeleton-associated protein VASP not only interacts with different proteins of the actin network but it is also a substrate for cAMP- and cGMP-dependent protein kinases. However the full complement of protein kinases targeting VASP as their substrate is still unknown. Here we used mouse cardiac fibroblast (MCFB) cells in order to study the phosphorylation status of VASP and identify new candidate protein kinases involved after serum stimulation of these cells. Using phosphosite-specific antibodies we found that serum stimulation induces a phosphorylation of VASP at Ser-157 in a time-dependent manner reaching its maximum after 90 min of stimulation. We developed an interaction graph model of possible candidate protein kinases involved. Using a pharmacological perturbation analysis with different combinations of specific protein kinase inhibitors and activators we excluded any contribution of cGMP-dependent protein kinase and Rho kinases to this process and identified a combined action of classical isoforms of PKCs and PKA in serum-stimulated VASP phosphorylation at Ser-157 positioning PKC upstream of PKA in this signalling pathway. We hypothesise that PKC receives an external stimulatory signal upon serum stimulation of MCFB cells which is passed either directly or indirectly to PKA which finally phosphorylates VASP at Ser-157. A new EVH1 domain has been described recently in the Spred proteins (Sprouty related proteins containing an EVH1 domain) which are inhibitors of the Ras/Raf/MAP kinase pathway. Our laboratory has been involved in the elucidation of the atomic structure of the human Spred2 EVH1 domain by protein NMR spectroscopy (PDB 2JP2; 2007). A positively charged binding interface of this EVH1 domain suggests an interaction with negatively charged ligands; however no interaction partners of this domain have been described so far. In the second part of this study, we used different genetic and biochemical screening methods to search for ligands of the Spred2 EVH1 domain. A bacterial two-hybrid system was established using a physically well characterized interaction of the VASP EVH1 domain with a panel of its ActA binding peptides as positive controls to screen a human brain cDNA expression library at different stringencies for candidate Spred2 EVH1 interaction partners. However none of the clones isolated could be genetically and physically validated to support Spred2 EVH1 specific interactions. An in-vitro screening of a 9-mer phage display peptide library using purified GST-Spred2 EVH1 fusion protein was performed together with a Fyn-SH3 fusion protein as a positive control. In contrast to the Fyn-SH3 domain the majority of phages isolated with the Spred2 EVH1 domain either carried no inserts or inserts with stop codons suggesting a highly non-specific interaction of the phage coat protein with the latter domain but neither the Fyn-SH3 domain nor the GST moiety. Isolation of a 13-mer proline-rich sequence was particularly surprising in this context. In order to address possible interactions of the Spred2 EVH1 domain with non-peptidergic ligands protein-lipid interaction assays were performed. Quantitative binding studies to purified Spred2 EVH1 using a liposome sedimentation assay however excluded any interaction of candidate phospholipids of the phosphatidyl inositol phosphate class with the Spred2 EVH1 domain. A natively folded and thus binding-competent conformation of the purified proteins used was assessed independently by 1H protein NMR spectroscopy. In summary the cumulative evidence of our genetic and biochemical screening experiments suggests that the still elusive Spred2 EVH1 ligand(s) may be formed of hydrophobic peptide epitopes larger than nine amino acids in size and carrying negative charge(s). A phosphorylation of Spred2 EVH1 binding epitopes by a post-translational modification should be seriously considered in future experiments.
In a first part the bilayer Heisenberg Model and the 2D Kondo necklace model are studied. Both models exhibit a quantum phase transition between an ordered and disordered phase. The question is addressed to the coupling of a single doped hole to the critical fluctuations. A self-consistent Born approximation predicts that the doped hole couples to the magnons such that the quasiparticle residue vanishes at the quantum critical point. In this work the delicate question about the fate of the quasiparticle residue across the quantum phase transition is also tackled by means of large scale quantum Monte Carlo simulations. Furthermore the dynamics of a single hole doped in the magnetic background is investigated. In the second part an analysis of the spiral staircase Heisenberg ladder is presented. The ladder consists of two ferromagnetic coupled spin-1/2 chains, where the coupling within the second chain can be tuned by twisting the ladder. Within this model the crossover between an ungapped spin-1/2 system and a gapped spin-1 system can be studied. In this work the emphasis is on the opening of the spin gap with respect to the ferromagnetic rung coupling. It is shown that there are essential differences in the scaling behavior of the spin gap depending on the twist of the model. Moreover, by means of the string order parameter it is shown, that the system remains in the Haldane phase within the whole parameter range although the spin gap scales differently. The tools which are used for the analyses are mainly large scale quantum Monte Carlo methods, but also exact diagonalization techniques as well as mean field approaches.
- 77/83 allerdings inaktiv in Kulturen und Embryonen von Medaka. Dieser Unterschied wird durch Daten aus humanen ES-Zellkulturen unterstützt. Letztere sind ebenfalls komplett STAT3 unabhängig. Die BMP-Smad Kaskade wiederum ist in Medaka-Stammzellen aktiv, Antidifferenzierungsgene wie id2, die durch BMP direkt kontrolliert werden, sind dementsprechend exprimiert. Diese Daten stimmen wiederum mit dem Maussystem überein, während humane ES-Zellen diesbezüglich bislang nicht untersucht wurden. Die Interaktion zwischen verschiedenen Signalwegen ist ein bisher noch nicht gut verstandenes Gebiet. Die Integration verschiedener Signale ist aber speziell für Stammzellen, die ihr Differenzierungsschicksal von winzigen Abweichungen in der Signalmixtur abhängig machen, von entscheidender Bedeutung. Im zweiten Teil der hier vorgelegten Arbeit konnte eine Interaktion zwischen dem BMP-Rezeptor 1a und STAT3 nachgewiesen werden. Diese Interaktion ist offenbar Teil eines variablen Komplexes. Zum ersten Mal war es auch möglich, funktionale Konsequenzen für STAT3 nach Stimulierung des BMP-Rezeptors 1a zu dokumentieren. Nach Belegung des BMP-Rezeptors 1a mit dem mutierten BMP2-A34D wird STAT3 trotz Aktivierung durch Phosphorylierung an Tyrosin 705 im Zytoplasma von Maus Stammzellen festgehalten. Zusammengenommen konnte hier gezeigt werden, dass eine Interaktion zwischen den bislang als isoliert betrachteten Signalwegen BMP-Smad und STAT3 besteht. Des Weiteren wurde das Medaka-Stammzellkultursystem benutzt, um zu zeigen, dass STAT3 für die Pluripotenz von Stammzellen nur im Maussystem eine Rolle spielt, wohingegen BMPZielgene wie id2 in bislang allen getesteten ES-Zellkultursystemen aktiv sind.
Henri J.M. Nouwen (1932-1996), a renowned pastoral theologian, has written more than 40 books among which several are about pastoral care and the spirituality of pastoral care. It was interesting for me to notice the parallel between his life and the contents of his books. He has undergone a tremendous personal development and spiritual maturity. His books invite all the christians and pastors to grow in the spiritual life. The spirituality is the underlying principle of creative ministry. Nouwen moves away from the traditional approach and concepts and develops his own concept of spiritual growth and pastoral care. Rooted in tradition and trained as a pastoral psychologist Nouwen is very appealing to the modern generation. This dissertation takes the reader through the life and writings of Nouwen to come to his original and new understanding of the spirituality of the pastoral care.
In order to test the effects of environmental factors on different characteristics of plant leaf waxes, barley plants (Hordeum vulgare) were abiotically stress treated (exposure to darkness, heavy metal, high salt concentrations and drought), and biotically stressed by the infection with powdery mildew (Blumeria graminis f.sp. hordei; Bgh). Different wax parameters like amount, chemical composition, and micromorphology of epicuticular wax crystals, were investigated. Etiolated leaves of barley showed distinctly reduced wax amounts and modifications in their relative composition. The alterations of these wax parameters might be a result of a developmental delay, which could have been caused by a decreased availability of energy for cellular processes, due to lack of light. Cadmium exposure led to a 1.5-fold increase of wax amount, while chemical composition was unaffected. In drought- and salt-stressed plants, all investigated leaf wax parameters remained unaltered. In each of the abiotic treatments, the microstructure of epicuticular wax crystals, formed as typical platelets, was not modified. Even after 6d infection with powdery mildew (Bgh), neither locally nor systemically enforced modifications of wax features were revealed.
The analyzed leave surfaces, resulting from these four abiotic and the biotic treatment (phenotypic approach), were compared to altered leaf surfaces’ characteristics of 18 analyzed eceriferum (cer-) wax mutants (genotypic approach). Within the screening, 5 mutants were selected which distinctly differed from the wild-type in wax amount, portions of epi- and intracuticular wax fraction, relative chemical composition, crystal morphology, and surface wettability (hydrophobicity).
Apart from quantitative and qualitative effects on the leaf waxes, environmentally enforced modifications in cuticular waxes might be reflected in molecular processes of wax biogenesis. Therefore, a barley wax-microarray was established. 254 genes were selected, which are putatively involved in processes of de novo fatty acid biosynthesis, fatty acid elongation, and modification, and which are supposed to take part in lipid-trafficking between cell compartments, and transport of wax components to the outer cell surface. The regulations within the expression pattern evoked by the respective treatments were correlated with the corresponding analytical wax data, and the observed molecular effects of a 3d powdery mildew infection were compared with succeeding fungal morphogenesis. Etiolation and cadmium exposition pointed to transcriptional modifications in the de novo fatty acid synthesis, and in the screened, transport-related mechanisms, which correlate with respective alterations in surface wax characteristics. Moderate changes in the gene expression pattern, evoked by drought- and salinity-stress, might give hints for evolved adaptations in barley to such common habitat stresses. Theinvasion of powdery mildew into the epidermal host cells was reflected in the regulation of several genes. Beside other functions, these genes take part in pathogen defense, and intracellular component transport, or they encode transcription factors. The different modifications within the molecular responses evoked by the investigated abiotic treatments, and the effects of powdery mildew infection representing a biotic stressor, were compared between the different treatments.
In order to test the potential impact of different wax parameters on Bgh, conidia germination and differentiation was comparably investigated on leaf surfaces of abiotically stressed wild-type and cer-mutants, isolated cuticles, and further artificial surfaces. The rates of conidial development were similar on each of the leaf surfaces resulting from the abiotic treatments, while a significant reduction of the germination and differentiation success was revealed for the wax mutant cer-yp.949. Compared to the wild-type, developmental rates on isolated cuticles and extracted leaf waxes of the mutant cer-yp.949 indicated a modified embedding of cuticular waxes, and a possibly changed three-dimensional structure of the cer-yp.949 cuticle, which might explain the reduced conidial developmental rates on leaf surfaces of this particular mutant.
Experiments with Bgh conidia on mechanically de-waxed leaf surfaces (selective mechanical removal of the epicuticular leaf waxes with glue-like gum arabic, followed by an extraction of the intracuticular wax portion with chloroform) demonstrated the importance of the wax coverage for the germination and differentiation of the fungal conidia. On all dewaxed leaf surfaces, except those of cer-yp.949, the differentiation success of the germlings was significantly reduced, by about 20% (“wax-effect”). This result was verified through an artificial system with increased conidia developmental rates on glass slides covered with extracted leaf waxes. Further comparative tests with the major components of barley leaf wax, hexacosanol and hexacosanal, showed that the germination and differentiation of powdery mildew conidia not only depends on the different chemistry, but is also influenced by the respective surface hydrophobicity. Compared to hexacosanol, on hexacosanal coated glass surfaces, higher germination and differentiation rates were achieved, which correlated with increased levels of surface hydrophobicity. Developmental rates of conidia on hydrophobic foils demonstrated that hydrophobicity, as a sole surface factor, may stimulate the conidial germination and differentiation processes. Moreover, the survival of conidia on artificial surfaces is determined by additional surface derived factors, e.g. the availability of water, and a pervadable matrix.
Overlay networks establish logical connections between users on top of the physical network. While randomly connected overlay networks provide only a best effort service, a new generation of structured overlay systems based on Distributed Hash Tables (DHTs) was proposed by the research community. However, there is still a lack of understanding the performance of such DHTs. Additionally, those architectures are highly distributed and therefore appear as a black box to the operator. Yet an operator does not want to lose control over his system and needs to be able to continuously observe and examine its current state at runtime. This work addresses both problems and shows how the solutions can be combined into a more self-organizing overlay concept. At first, we evaluate the performance of structured overlay networks under different aspects and thereby illuminate in how far such architectures are able to support carrier-grade applications. Secondly, to enable operators to monitor and understand their deployed system in more detail, we introduce both active as well as passive methods to gather information about the current state of the overlay network.
Cutaneous leishmaniasis is an infectious disease that is endemic especially in tropical and desert regions with an incidence of 1.5 million cases per year and a prevalence of 12 million people infected worldwide. The infection can be caused by the intracellular parasite Leishmania major. The disease has been studied extensively in the murine model. It has become apparent that the induction of a class of interferon (IFN)--producing CD4+ T helper cells (TH1 cells) that activate macrophages to kill the parasites they harbor is desicive for the establishment of immunity. The redirection of the host’s immune response towards a protective TH1 phenotype will also be the key to an effective vaccine. Dendritic cells (DC) loaded with leishmanial antigens ex vivo were lately described as vaccines against L. major infections. One single recombinant Leishmania antigen, LeIF (Leishmania homologue of eukaryotic ribosomal initiation factor 4a), which was identified as a protein that stimulates DC to secrete interleukin (IL)-12 and discussed as a pattern-associated molecular pattern (PAMP), was found to mediate a protective TH1-dependent effect when used for pulsing of DC. The application of recombinant proteins is tied to many disadvantages, which is why other methods of antigen administration have been developed. RNA electroporation of DC has recently emerged from tumor research as a safe and versatile method of antigen delivery, by which a large number of RNA molecules encoding a specific antigen gains access to the cytosol of DC by an electrical impulse. The present study describes, for the first time, transfection of DC with RNA encoding a molecularly defined parasite antigen. Initially, a standardized protocol for RNA transfection was established, using the enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) as reporter antigen. EGFP-RNA was well translatable in an in vitro translation system, and both a DC cell line (fetal skin-derived DC; FSDC) and murine primary bone marrow-derived DC (BMDC) could be transfected efficiently, with a yield of up to 90% and 75%, respectively. In both cell types, maximal transfection efficiency was attained with 20 µg RNA and could not be further increased with larger amounts of RNA. The level of antigen expression, measured as the mean fluorescence intensity (MFI) by flow cytometry, was directly proportional to the amount of RNA used for transfection. In FSDC, transfection efficiency and MFI were generally higher than in BMDC when the same amounts of RNA were used. Furthermore, the kinetics was shown to be sensitive to treatment with lipopolysaccharide (LPS): the expression peak was higher and was reached sooner, followed by a more rapid decline. In transfection experiments with LeIF, two variants of LeIF-RNA were used: LeIF(fl)-RNA, encoding the complete LeIF sequence, and LeIF(226)-RNA, encoding only the aminoterminal half of the LeIF sequence (226 amino acids), the immunogenic part of LeIF. Only LeIF(fl) was detectable by Western Blot in whole cell lysates of BMDC after LeIF(fl)-RNA transfection, whereas LeIF(226) could never be detected in LeIF(226)-transfected BMDC. However, as both constructs were well translatable in a cell-free system, the failure to detect LeIF(226) in BMDC lysates did not represent a failure in RNA translation, but rather a rapid antigen degradation. It was therefore expected that LeIF(226)-transfected BMDC should nevertheless be able to present LeIF(226)-derived antigenic peptides to T cells from BALB/c mice primed with recombinant LeIF (rLeIF). This hypothesis was confirmed by measuring IFN- production in BMDC-T cell co-incubation assays, showing that rLeIF-pulsed, LeIF(226)- and LeIF(fl)-transfected day 7 BMDC did indeed activate T cells from LeIF-immunized mice in an antigen-specific manner. In contrast, IL-4 was not produced, which was consistent with the fact that T cells found in lymph nodes from LeIF-primed mice are primarily of the TH1 type. In the supernatants of LeIF-transfected BMDC cultures, in contrast to rLeIF-pulsed BMDC, the proinflammatory cytokines IL-1β, IL-6, IL-10 and IL-12 were not detected. This effect was not due to the electroporation procedure, as cytokine production by BMDC electroporated with rLeIF was only partially impaired. Also, the expression levels of CD86 were lower upon LeIF transfection than after pulsing with rLeIF. Thus, LeIF transfection did not induce maturation of DC. In conclusion, LeIF-transfected BMDC may have acted as semi-mature antigen-specific tolerance inducers, with regulatory T cells as responders. The effect of LeIF transfection on the immunostimulatory capacity of BMDC was not significantly increased when day 8 or 9 BMDC were used. However, day 8, and even more day 9 BMDC pulsed with rLeIF mounted a vigorous T cell response. Day 9 BMDC were able to activate naïve T cells. In conclusion, before a strong T cell response against LeIF can be induced, DC need to – besides presenting antigen and expressing co-stimulatory molecules – exhibit a susceptibility to the innate signaling molecule LeIF which is linked to their maturation age. This third signal is provided by extracellular rLeIF, but it is not conveyed – or is suppressed – by intracellular LeIF after LeIF-RNA transfection. Furthermore, electroporation of rLeIF abrogated IL-12 production by BMDC completely, the production of IL-1 was reduced with higher antigen doses, and the production of IL-10 was partially increased. The IL-6 production was unaffected. This altered cytokine profile suggests that LeIF as a PAMP might have a bipartite nature: besides exhibiting the capacity to stimulate IL-12 production upon extracellular presence, thereby enhancing host resistance against L. major, LeIF could also contribute to parasitic host evasion mechanisms from intracellular compartments of DC, possibly by interfering with mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase signaling pathways. Thus, the adjuvant properties of LeIF depend both on its mode of delivery (transfection with RNA vs. pulsing with the recombinant protein) and the targeted compartment (extra- vs. intracellular). From this work, it can be summarized that BMDC are well transfectable with a parasite antigen. The antigen is processed and presented, but it is not recognized as a PAMP by DC. Hence, transfection with antigen-encoding mRNA by itself does not convey all necessary signals for the elicitation of a potent immune response.
Encoding Redundancy for Task-dependent Optimal Control : A Neural Network Model of Human Reaching
(2008)
The human motor system is adaptive in two senses. It adapts to the properties of the body to enable effective control. It also adapts to different situational requirements and constraints. This thesis proposes a new neural network model of both kinds of adaptivity for the motor cortical control of human reaching movements, called SURE_REACH (sensorimotor unsupervised learning redundancy resolving control architecture). In this neural network approach, the kinematic and sensorimotor redundancy of a three-joint planar arm is encoded in task-independent internal models by an unsupervised learning scheme. Before a movement is executed, the neural networks prepare a movement plan from the task-independent internal models, which flexibly incorporates external, task-specific constraints. The movement plan is then implemented by proprioceptive or visual closed-loop control. This structure enables SURE_REACH to reach hand targets while incorporating task-specific contraints, for example adhering to kinematic constraints, anticipating the demands of subsequent movements, avoiding obstacles, or reducing the motion of impaired joints. Besides this functionality, the model accounts for temporal aspects of human reaching movements or for data from priming experiments. Additionally, the neural network structure reflects properties of motor cortical networks like interdependent population encoded body space representations, recurrent connectivity, or associative learning schemes. This thesis introduces and describes the new model, relates it to current computational models, evaluates its functionality, relates it to human behavior and neurophysiology, and finally discusses potential extensions as well as the validity of the model. In conclusion, the proposed model grounds highly flexible task-dependent behavior in a neural network framework and unsupervised sensorimotor learning.
Vertebrate and invertebrate visual systems exhibit similarities in early stages of visual processing. For instance, in the human brain, the modalities of color, form and motion are separately processed in parallel neuronal pathways. This basic property is also found in the fly Drosophila melanogaster which has a similar division in color- sensitive and (color blind) motion-sensitive pathways that are determined by two distinct subsets of photoreceptors (the R1-6 and the R7/8 system, respectively). Flies have a highly organized visual system that is characterized by its repetitive, retinotopic organization of four neuropils: the lamina, the medulla, the lobula and the lobula plate. Each of these consists of columns which contain the same set of neurons. In the lamina, axon bundles of six photoreceptors R1-6 that are directed towards the same point in space form columnar structures called cartridges. These are the visual sampling units and are associated with four types of first-order interneuron that receive common input from R1-6: L1, L2, L3 and the amacrine cells (amc, together with their postsynaptic partner T1). They constitute parallel pathways that have been studied in detail at the anatomical level. Little is known, however, about their functional role in processing behaviorally relevant information, e.g. for gaze stabilization, visual course control or the fixation of objects. The availability of a variety of neurogenetic tools for structure-function analysis in Drosophila allowed first steps into the genetic dissection of the neuronal circuitry mediating motion and position detection. In this respect, the choice of the effector turned out to be crucial. Surprisingly, it was found that the clostridial tetanus neurotoxin failed to block mature Drosophila photoreceptor synapses, but caused irreversible damage when expressed during their development. Therefore, the dominant-negative shibire allele shits1 which turned out to be better suited was used for blocking lamina interneurons and thereby analyzing the necessity of the respective pathways. To determine whether the latter were also sufficient for the same behavioral task, the inverse strategy was developed, based on the fact that lamina interneurons express histamine receptors encoded by the ort gene. The specific rescue of ort function in defined channels in an otherwise mutant background allowed studying their sufficiency in a given task. Combining these neurogenetic methods with the optomotor response and object induced orientation behavior as behavioral measures, the aim of the present thesis was to answer the following questions: (a) Which pathways feed into elementary motion detectors and which ones are necessary and/or sufficient for the detection of directional motion? (b) Do pathways exist which specifically mediate responses to unidirectional motion? (c) Which pathways are necessary and/or sufficient for object induced orientation behavior? Some basic properties of the visual circuitry were revealed: The two central cartridge pathways, represented by the large monopolar cells L1 and L2, are key players in motion detection. Under a broad range of stimulatory conditions, the two subsystems are redundant and are able to process motion independently of each other. To detect an impairment when only one of the pathways is intact, one has to drive the system to its operational limits. At low signal to noise ratios, i.e. at low pattern contrast or low background illumination, the L2 pathway has a higher sensitivity. At intermediate pattern contrast, both pathways are specialized in mediating responses to unidirectional motion of opposite stimulus direction. In contrast, neither the L3, nor the amc/T1 pathway is necessary or sufficient for motion detection. While the former may provide position information for orientation, the latter has a modulatory role at intermediate pattern contrast. Orientation behavior turned out to be even more robust than motion vision and may utilize a less sophisticated mechanism, as it does not require a nonlinear comparison of signals from neighboring visual sampling units. The position of objects is processed in several redundant pathways, involving both receptor subsystems. The fixation of objects does not generally require motion vision. However, motion detection improves the fixation of landmarks, especially when these are narrow or have a reduced contrast.
Transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs) or prion diseases are a group of infectious neurodegenerative diseases that are associated with misfolding of the cellular form of the cellular prion protein (PrPC) into a disease associated conformer (PrPSc). No therapy for prion diseases is available at present. So far, anti-PrPC vaccination is hampered by immunological tolerance of the mammalian immune system to endogenous PrPC. The aim of this thesis was to set up a new vaccination strategy based on virus-like particles (VLP) to induce anti-PrPC antibody responses in PrPC-competent mice. In a first step it was assessed whether VLP have the capacity to induce antibody responses that are protective against conventional pathogens. For this purpose, VLP displaying the vesicular stomatitis virus-gylcoprotein (VLP-VSV) were generated and tested for their immunogenicity. Similarly to live vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV), replication deficient VLP-VSV induced T help-independent VSV neutralizing IgM responses that switched to the IgG subclass in a T help-dependent manner. Furthermore, type I IFN receptor (IFNAR) triggering only marginally affected VLP-VSV induced neutralizing IgM responses, whereas it was critically required to promote the IgG switch. The analysis of conditional knockout mice with a lymphocyte-specific IFNAR deletion revealed that IFNAR triggering of lymphocytes did not play a crucial role, neither upon VLP-VSV nor VSV immunization. Collectively, these data verified the high immunogenicity of VLP. Therefore, in a next step VLP were generated displaying the C-terminal half of PrP (residues 121-231aa) fused to the platelet derived growth factor receptor (PDGFR) transmembrane region (VLP-PrPD111) for anti-PrPC immunization. On the surface of such retroparticles, PrPC was expressed at high levels as determined by electron microscopy. VLP-PrPD111 immunization of Prnp-deficient (Prnp0/0) mice resulted in antibody response specifically binding the cellular form of PrPC. Upon intravenous injection of wild-type mice, high PrPC-specific IgM responses were induced, whereas the T cell-dependent switch from the IgM to the IgG subclass was less pronounced. As a consequence, anti-PrPC titers were rather short-lived. The impaired subclass switch was probably related with host T cell tolerance to endogenous PrPC. Attempts to increase anti-PrPC IgG responses in wild-type mice via administration of VLP-PrPD111 emulsified in various different adjuvants failed. Nevertheless, in single individuals low IgG antibodies were induced after immunization of VLP-PrPD111 emulsified in CFA. To circumvent T cell tolerance in wild-type mice, a multitude of different immunization strategies was tested, including priming and boosting protocols with different types of VLP or VLP expressing PrPC together with foreign T helper epitopes. Overall, those efforts did not improve anti-PrPC IgG responses in wild-type mice. Interestingly, anti-PrPC antibodies induced in Prnp0/0 mice reduced PrPSc levels in prion infected cell cultures, whereas serum of vaccinated wild-type mice did not. To assess the protective capacity of VLP-PrPD111 induced immune responses, vaccinated wild-type mice were infected with scrapie (RML 5.0). Unfortunately, vaccinated mice did not show a significant delay in the onset of scrapie. In a last part of the thesis it was studied whether in the absence of T cell help activated “memory” B cells were able to produce anti-PrPC specific antibodies. To address this question, PrPC-specific memory B cells were sorted from vaccinated Prnp0/0 mice and adoptively transferred into wild-type recipient mice. Upon VLP-PrPD111 challenge, no PrPC-specific IgG titers were induced in the recipients. Nevertheless, several VLP-PrPD111 challenged recipient mice were protected against scrapie infection. In conclusion, VLP were characterized as highly immunogenic vaccines that were used to elucidate various questions concerning adaptive immune response and basic mechanisms of PrPC-specific tolerance vs. immunity. Remarkably, VLP-PrPD111 was able to induce native PrPC-specific antibodies in wild-type mice but major difficulties associated with PrPC-specific tolerance made efficacious scrapie vaccination impossible. New vaccination approaches are being tested to overcome these limitations.
Processes of the Earth’s surface occur at different scales of time and intensity. Climate in particular determines the activity and seasonal development of vegetation. These dynamics are predominantly driven by temperature in the humid mid-latitudes and by the availability of water in semi-arid regions. Human activities are a modifying parameter for many ecosystems and can become the prime force in well-developed regions with an intensively managed environment. Accounting for these dynamics, i.e. seasonal dynamics of ecosystems and short- to long-term changes in land-cover composition, requires multiple measurements in time. With respect to the characterization of the Earth surface and its transformation due to global warming and human-induced global change, there is a need for appropriate data and methods to determine the activity of vegetation and the change of land cover. Space-borne remote sensing is capable of monitoring the activity and development of vegetation as well as changes of the land surface. In many instances, satellite images are the only means to comprehensively assess the surface characteristics of large areas. A high temporal frequency of image acquisition, forming a time series of satellite data, can be employed for mapping the development of vegetation in space and time. Time series allow for detecting and assessing changes and multi-year transformation processes of high and low intensity, or even abrupt events such as fire and flooding. The operational processing of satellite data and automated information-extraction techniques are the basis for consistent and continuous long-term product generation. This provides the potential for directly using remote-sensing data and products for analyzing the land surface in relation to global warming and global change, including deforestation and land transformation. This study aims at the development of an advanced approach to time-series generation using data-quality indicators. A second goal focuses on the application of time series for automated land-cover classification and update, using fractional cover estimates to accommodate for the comparatively coarse spatial resolution. Requirements of this study are the robustness and high accuracy of the approaches as well as the full transferability to other regions and datasets. In this respect, the developments of this study form a methodological framework, which can be filled with appropriate modules for a specific sensor and application. In order to attain the first goal, time-series compilation, a stand-alone software application called TiSeG (Time Series Generator) has been developed. TiSeG evaluates the pixel-level quality indicators provided with each MODIS land product. It computes two important data-availability indicators, the number of invalid pixels and the maximum gap length. Both indices are visualized in time and space, indicating the feasibility of temporal interpolation. The level of desired data quality can be modified spatially and temporally to account for distinct environments in a larger study area and for seasonal differences. Pixels regarded as invalid are either masked or interpolated with spatial or temporal techniques.
Aggression is a strikingly multi-faceted phenomenon occurring in vertebrates as well as in invertebrates. Despite its omnipresence, the neuronal basis of aggressive behaviours is yet barely understood. Many studies however, imply a role for biogenic amines in aggression. This PhD project aimed at contributing to the understanding of the neuronal correlates of aggression, with a main focus on the biogenic amine octopamine, using Drosophila melanogaster as the model system. In Drosophila, agonistic encounters of males and females are composed of a variety of both offensive and defensive components, some of which are displayed more often in one sex than in the other. To simplify analysis and to standardize evaluation, I chose to focus on a single indicator of aggression: the lunge, a striking feature unique to Drosophila male aggression. By evaluating the lunge I developed in cooperation with Andreas Eckart for the first time an automated, video-based analysis of Drosophila male aggression. The present software program gives the number of lunges for each fly in a certain time interval. In addition, it provides information such as the distance the fly walked and his size among others. In combination with a second software program that we developed, aggressive interactions between two male Drosophila melanogaster of a genotype of choice can now be registered either completely automatically or if preferred semi-automatically. Using these softwares, I demonstrate that (1) body size differences of 8% and higher influence the outcome of a fight in favour of the larger male; (2) walking activity alters lunge frequency with more lunges performed by more active pairs of males; (3) flies mutant for the white gene, one member of the ABC transporter family in Drosophila, are profoundly impaired in aggression, an effect that is partially due to reduced visual performance. (4) Either knocking-down white in various brain regions or chemically ablating the mushroom body located in the central brain by deleting its neuroblast precursors diminishes aggression, indicating that integrity of various neural circuits/brain regions is required for wild-type aggression to occur. Furthermore, I show that (5) flies lacking octopamine signalling but having altered tyramine signalling display hardly any lunge. A quantitative high-speed analysis revealed that lunge execution is almost indistinguishable from wild-type males. The results from the experiments in which octopamine levels and/or tyramine levels were restored suggest that an elaborate pattern of octopamine levels in time and space is required to enable flies to express wild-type aggressive behaviour.
The Transforming Growth Factor (TGF) superfamily of cytokines and their serine/threonine kinase receptors play an important role in the regulation of cell division, differentiation, adhesion, migration, organization, and death. Smad proteins are the major intracellular signal transducers for the TGF receptor superfamily that mediate the signal from the membrane into the nucleus. Bone Morphogenetic Protein-4 (BMP-4) is a representative of the TGF superfamily, which regulates the formation of teeth, limbs and bone, and also plays a role in fracture repair. Binding of BMP-4 to its receptor stimulates phosphorylation of Smad1, which subsequently recruits Smad4. A hetero-oligomeric complex consisting of Smad1 and Smad4 then translocates into the nucleus and regulates transcription of target genes by interacting with transcription factors. Although the individual steps of the signaling cascade from the receptor to the nucleus have been identified, the exact kinetics and the rate limiting step(s) have remained elusive. Standard biochemical techniques are not suitable for resolving these issues, as they do not offer sufficiently high sensitivity and temporal resolution. In this study, advanced optical techniques were used for direct visualization of Smad signaling in live mammalian cells. Novel fluorescent biosensors were developed by fusing cyan and yellow fluorescent proteins to the signaling molecules Smad1 and Smad4. By measuring Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET) between the two fluorescent proteins, the kinetics of BMP/Smad signaling was unraveled. A rate-limiting delay of 2 - 5 minutes occurred between BMP receptor stimulation and Smad1 activation. A similar delay was observed in the complex formation between Smad1 and Smad4. Further experimentation indicated that the delay is dependent on the Mad homology 1 (MH1) domain of Smad1. These results give new insights into the dynamics of the BMP receptor – Smad1/4 signaling process and provide a new tool for studying Smads and for testing inhibitory drugs.
The covalent linkage of the aryloxy-substituents through macrocyclisation was applied for the synthesis of perylene bisimide atropo-enantiomers. The synthesis of macrocyclic perylene bisimides was achieved by using a tetra(3-hydroxyphenoxy)-functionalized perylene bisimide with achiral 2,6-diisopropylphenyl as imide substituent through Williamson´s etherfication which could be realized for four different oligoethylene glycol bridging units. Two regioisomeric macrocycles, namely the diagonally bridged (1,7- and 6,12- linkage) and the laterally bridged (1,12- and 6,7-linkage) isomers, were obtained for each bridging unit. The structural assignment of the isolated regioisomeric macrocycles was unambiguously accomplished by X-ray analysis of two macrocycles and by 1H NMR spectroscopy for all isomers. The conformational influence of the aryloxy-substituents on the functional properties of this class of chromophores could be derived by comparison of the optical and electrochemical properties of all isolated macrocylces with those of an open-chained reference compound. It was shown that the aryloxy-substituents prefer a lateral conformation in solution. Furthermore, solvent dependent fluorescence studies indicated that a photoinduced electron transfer process is of importance for the fluorescence quenching of electron-rich aryloxy-substituted perylene bisimides. The resolution of the atropo-diastereomers of diagonally bridged macrocyclic perylene bisimides with chiral 2-(R)-octylamine as imide substituent and diethylene glycol bridging units could be accomplished by semi-preparative HPLC on a chiral column. The chiroptical properties of the isolated epimerically pure macrocycles were determined by CD spectroscopy. Based on the experimental CD spectra, the stereochemical assignment of the isolated epimers was accomplished by application of the excition chirality method and confirmed by quantum chemical calculation of the CD spectra. The synthetical concept was extended successfully to 1,7-diaryloxy-substituted perylene bisimides. The structure of the diagonally bridged macrocycle was unambiguously confirmed by X-ray analysis and NMR spectroscopy. The atropo-enantiomers of this macrocycle could be resolved by semi-preparative HPLC on a chiral column and the assignment of the absolute configuration was achieved by comparison of the CD spectra of the resolved enantiomers with those of epimerically pure bis(macrocycles) reported before. By comparison of the X-ray structures obtained for the racemic mixture as well as one enantiomer important information could be extracted for the formation of p-dimers of perylene bisimides. The dependence of the interconversion barrier on the bulkiness of the bay-substituents was investigated for four halogen-substituted perylene bisimides. The dynamic properties were investigated by temperature-dependent NMR spectroscopy and kinectic measurements using CD spectroscopy. By applying the concept of the “apparent overlap” a convincing linear relationship between the size of the substituents and the free enthalpy of activation could be derived. Furthermore, the resolution of the atropo-diastereomers or enantiomers of the tetrachloro and tetrabromo-substituted derivates was accomplished, whereupon especially the 1,6,7,12-tetrabromosubstituted perylene bisimide provided at room temperature stable enantiomers. Additionally, the derived structure-property relationship allows the design of conformationally stable perylene bisimide enantiomers by proper choice of the bay substituents. In order to utilize the reversibility of self-assembly for the quantitative formation of macrocyclic perylene bisimides, a tetrazinc porphyrin-functionalized perylene bisimide was synthesized. The self-assembly of the zinc porphyrin perylene bisimide bichromophoric building block and diazabicyclo-[2.2.2]-undecane into the desired 1:2 sandwich complex was investigated by UV/Vis and 1H NMR spectroscopy and the macrocyclic structure was unequivocally proven by diffusion-ordered NMR spectroscopy (DOSY NMR). Furthermore, the controlled deposition of these well-defined macrocycles on highly ordered pyrolitic graphite (HOPG) was demonstrated by atomic force microscopy (AFM) investigations. The alignment of a linear amino functionalised p-conjugated polymers upon addition of the bichromphoric tetrazinc porphyrin-perylene bisimide was investigated by UV/Vis spectroscopy and AFM measurement. The surface analysis by AFM investigations revealed that the bichromophoric system composed of perylene bisimide and zinc porphyrin is able to cross-link the linear p-conjugated polymer over a wide range of the graphite surface which provided a defined arrangement of three different functional p-systems.
The RS1 protein, a 67 kDa protein, encoded by an intronless single copy gene that was only detected in mammals, mediates transcriptional and post-transcriptional down-regulation of the sodium-D-glucose co-transporter SGLT1. The short-term post-transcriptional down-regulation of SGTL1 by RS1 has been shown to occur at the trans-Golgi network (TGN). In the present study, two tripeptides from the human RS1 protein (hRS1), GlnCysPro and GlnSerPro, that induce the post-transcriptional down-regulation of SGLT1 at the TGN, were identified. The application of the tripeptides led to 40-50% reduction of the amount of the SGLT1 protein in the plasma membrane, which correlated to the degree of decrease in SGLT1-mediated glucose transport. For the short-term down-regulation of SGLT1 by the tripeptides, the effective intracellular concentrations IC50 values of 2.0 nM (GlnCysPro, QCP) and 0.16 nM (GlnSerPro, QSP) were estimated. The observed down-regulation of SGLT1 by the tripeptides QCP and QSP, similar to hRS1 protein, was attenuated by different intracellular monosaccharides including nonmetabolized methyl-α-D-glucopyranoside and 2-deoxyglucose. On the contrary, the short-term inhibition of the hOCT2 by QCP could only be observed after rising of intracellular concentration of AMG. QCP and QSP are transported by H+-peptide cotransporter PEPT1 that is co-located with SGLT1 in the small intestinal enterocytes and thereafter effectively down-regulate hSGLT1-mediated transport of AMG. The data indicates that orally applied tripeptides QCP or QSP can be used to down-regulate D-glucose absorption in small intestine and used for treatment of obesity and diabetes mellitus.
Although known about and investigated since the late 1970’s, the picture of the basic principles governing inhibitor strengths and the structure-activity relationships of the cysteine protease inhibition mechanism is still very incomplete. Computational approaches can be a very useful tool for investigating such questions, as they allow the inspection of single, specific effects in isolation from all others, in a manner very difficult to achieve experimentally. The ab initio treatments of such large systems like proteins are still not feasible. However, there is a vast number of computational approaches capable of dealing with protein structures with reasonable accuracy. This work presents a summary of theoretical investigations into cysteine protease cathepsin B using a range of methods. We have concentrated on the investigation of cysteine protease inhibition by epoxide- and aziridine-based inhibitors in order to obtain better insight into these important topics. Various model systems are simulated by means of pure quantum mechanical methods and by hybrid (QM/MM) methods. Both approaches provide a static picture. Dynamical effects are then accounted for by additional molecular dynamics (MD) simulations, using both classical and QM/MM MD approaches. The quantum mechanical approach was used to study very small model systems consisting only of the electrophilic warhead of the inhibitor (both substitituted and not) and molecular moieties simulating a very simplified protein active site (methylthiolate instead of Cys29 and methylimidazolium instead of His199 residue) and solvent surroundings (two waters or two ammonium ions, in combination with a continuum solvent model). Although simple, such a system provides a good description of the most important interactions involved in the inhibition reaction. It also allows investigation of the influence of the properties of the electrophilic warhead on the reaction rate. Beside the properties of the electrophilic warhead, the protein and solvent environment is also an important factor in the irreversible deactivation of the enzyme active site by the inhibitor. The non-covalent interactions of the inhibitor with the oxyanion hole and other subsites of the enzyme, as well as its interaction with the solvent molecules, need to be explicitly taken into account in the calculations, because of their possible impact on the reaction profile. As molecular modeling methods allow the treatment of such large systems, but lack the possibility of describing covalent interactions, our method of choice was the combined quantum mechanics/molecular modeling approach. By splitting the system into a smaller part that undergoes the bond cleavage/formation process and must be treated quantum mechanically, and a larger part, comprised of the rest of the protein, which could be treated using force fields, we managed to simulate the system at the desired precision. Our investigations concentrated on the role of His199 in the inhibition mechanism as well as on the structure-reactivity relationships between cysteine protease and various inhibitors, yielding new insight into the kinetics, regio- and stereospecificity of the inhibition. In particular, our calculations provide the following insights: i.) an explanation for the regioselectivity of the reaction, and original insight into which interactions affect the stereoselectivity; ii.) a clear model which explains the known structure-activity relationships and connects these effects with the pH-dependency of the inhibition; iii.) our computations question the generally accepted two-step model by showing that substituent effects accelerate the irreversible step to such an extent that the achievement of an equilibrium in the first step is doubtful; iv.) by way of theoretical characterizations of aziridine models, the reasons for similarities and differences in the mode of action of epoxide- and aziridine-based inhibitors are elucidated; and finally, v.) combining our results with experimental knowledge will allow rational design of new inhibitors. To account for dynamical effects as well, molecular dynamics (MD) computations were also performed. In these calculations the potential energy was computed at the force field level. The results not only supported and clarified the QM/MM results, but comparison with previous X-ray structures helped correct existing errors in the available geometrical models and resolved inconsistencies in the weighting of various factors governing the inhibition. In the work the first QM/MM MD calculations on the active site of the cysteine proteases are presented. In contrast to the MD simulations, these calculations used potential energies computed at the QM/MM-level. With the help of these computations we sought to address strongly disputed questions about the reasons for the existence of the active site ion pair and its role in the high activity of the enzyme.
Neural crest cells and sensory neurons are two prominent cell populations which are induced at the border between neural and non-neural ectoderm during early vertebrate development. The neural crest cells are multipotent and highly migratory precursors that give rise to face cartilage, peripheral neurons, glia cells, pigment cells and many other cell types unique to vertebrates. Sensory neurons are located dorsally in the neural tube and are essential for sensing and converting environmental stimuli into electrical motor reflexes. In my PhD thesis, I obtained novel insights into the complex processes of cell induction at the neural plate border by investigating the regulation and function of mdkb in zebrafish. First, it was possible to demonstrate that mdkb expression is spatiotemporally correlated with the induction of neural crest cells and primary sensory neurons at the neural plate border. Second, it became evident that the expression of mdkb is activated by known neural crest cell inducing signals, like Wnts, FGFs and RA, but that it is independent of Delta-Notch signals essential for lateral inhibition. Knockdown experiments showed that mdkb function is necessary for induction of neural crest cells and sensory neurons at the neural plate border, probably through determination of a common pool of progenitor cells during gastrulation. The present study also used the advantages of the zebrafish model system to investigate the in vivo function of all midkine gene family members during early brain development. In contrast to the situation in mouse, all three zebrafish genes show distinct expression patterns throughout CNS development. mdka, mdkb and ptn expression is detected in mostly non-overlapping patterns during embryonic brain development in the telencephalon, the mid-hindbrain boundary and the rhombencephalon. The possibility of simultaneously knocking down two or even three mRNAs by injection of morpholino mixtures allowed the investigation of functional redundancy of midkine factors during brain formation. Knockdown of Midkine proteins revealed characteristic defects in brain patterning indicating their association with the establishment of prominent signaling centers such as the mid-hindbrain boundary and rhombomere 4. Interestingly, combined knockdown of mdka, mdkb and ptn or single knockdown of ptn alone prevented correct formation of somites, either by interfering with the shifting of the somite maturation front or interferance with cell adhesion in the PSM. Thus, Ptn was identified as a novel secreted regulator of segmentation in zebrafish.
During the last few years an increasing number of physiological processes in plants have been shown to be regulated by NO. NO plays important roles in growth and development, plant disease resistance, abiotic stress, and in above and underground plant organs. In recent years several enzymatic pathways and few non-enzymatic pathways were proposed for nitric oxide production in plants. The major goal of this work was to quantify NO production by plants and especially by roots, and to identify the enzymes responsible for NO production. As a major method, NO production by roots was followed through on-line measurement of NO emission into the gas phase by chemiluminescence (= direct chemiluminescence), and also by indirect chemiluminescence where trace amounts of oxidized products like NO2- and NO3- can be easily measured. Plants used were tobacco wild-type (N. tabacum cv Xanthi or cv Gatersleben), NR-free mutants grown on ammonium in order to prevent NR induction, plants grown on tungstate to inhibit synthesis of functional MoCo-enzymes, and a NO-overproducing nitrite reductase (NiR)-deficient transformant as well as barley, rice and pea. Induction of a hypersensitive response (HR) in tobacco leaves was achieved by using avirulent Pseudomonas syringae pv phaseolicola. At oxygen concentrations of <1%, even completely nitrate reductase (NR)-free root tissues reduced added nitrite to NO, indicating that in roots, NR was not the only source for nitrite-dependent NO formation. By contrast, NR-free leaf slices were not able to reduce nitrite to NO. Root NO formation was blocked by inhibitors of mitochondrial electron transport (Myxothiazol and SHAM), whereas NO formation by NR containing leaf slices was insensitive to the inhibitors. Consistent with that, mitochondria purified from roots, but not those from leaves, reduced nitrite to NO at the expense of NADH. The inhibitor studies suggest that, in root mitochondria, both terminal oxidases participate in NO formation, and they also suggest that even in NR-containing roots, a large part of the reduction of nitrite to NO was catalysed by mitochondria, and less by NR. The differential capacity of root and leaf mitochondria to reduce nitrite to NO appears to be common among higher plants, since it was observed with Arabidopsis, barley, pea, and tobacco. Nitrite and NADH consumption by mitochondria were also measured. Anaerobic, nitrite-dependent NO emission was exclusively associated with the membrane fraction, without participation of matrix components. It was also examined whether root mitochondria and mitochondrial membranes produce nitric oxide (NO) exclusively by reduction of nitrite or also via a nitric oxide synthase (NOS),- and to what extent direct NO measurements could be falsified by NO oxidation. In addition to chemiluminescence, Diaminofluoresceins (DAF) were used as an NO indicators for comparison. In air, mitochondria apparently produced no nitrite-dependent NO, and no NOS activity was detected by direct or indirect chemiluminescence. In contrast, with DAF-2 and DAR-4M an L-arginine-dependent fluorescence increase took place. However, the response of this apparent NOS activity to inhibitors, substrates and cofactors was untypical when compared with commercial iNOS and is considered an artefact. With iNOS, about 2/3 of the NO were oxidized to (nitrite + nitrate). Mitochondria also appear to consume NO without increasing oxidation to (nitrite+ nitrate). We therefore assume formation of NO to a volatile intermediate (eventually N2O3). It was recently shown that the hypersensitive response (HR) of tobacco triggered by the fungal elicitor cryptogein occurred independent of the presence or absence of nitrate reductase (NR). One conclusion was that NR-dependent NO formation played no role in the HR. Here we present evidence that the described scenario may be specific for cryptogein. Pseudomonas syringae pv. phaseolicola was infiltrated into tobacco leaves from WT plant and from the NiR-deficient NO-overproducing clone 271, grown either on nitrate or ammonium. Lesion development as well as bacterial growth and sugar concentrations in leaves and in the leaf apoplast was monitored. Lesion development was positively and bacterial growth was negatively correlated with nitrate nutrition and eventually with NO formation. Bacterial growth was positively correlated with ammonium nutrition and apoplastic sugar concentrations. Total (free and conjugated) SA content were always drastically increased by bacterial infection, but there was no clear correlation with NO production. In the presence of cryptogein, Pseudomonas growth was drastically reduced. This shows that the assumed interdependence of bacterial growth, NO production and the HR is complex and not unifactorial.
Adaptive Polarization Pulse Shaping and Modeling of Light-Matter Interactions with Neural Networks
(2007)
The technique of ultrafast polarization shaping is applied to a model quantum system, the potassium dimer. The polarization dependence of the multiphoton ionization dynamics in this molecule is first investigated in pump–probe experiments, and it is then more generally addressed and exploited in an adaptive quantum control experiment utilizing near–IR polarization–shaped laser pulses. The extension of these polarization shaping techniques to the UV spectral range is presented, and methods for the generation and characterization of polarization–shaped laser pulses in the UV are introduced. Systematic scans of double–pulse sequences are introduced for the investigation and interpretation of control mechanisms. This concept is first introduced and illustrated for an optical demonstration experiment, and it is then applied for the analysis of the intrapulse dumping mechanism that is observed in the excitation of a large dye molecule in solution with ultrashort laser pulses. Shaped laser pulses are employed as a means for obtaining copious amounts of data on light–matter interactions. Neural networks are introduced as a novel tool for generating computer–based models for these interactions from the accumulated data. The viability of this approach is first tested for second harmonic generation (SHG) and molecular fluorescence processes. Neural networks are then utilized for modeling the far more complex coherent strong–field dynamics of potassium atoms.
RS1, a gene product of RSC1A1, is critically involved in cell density-dependent transcriptional down-regulation of SGLT1 in LLC-PK1 cells and in the post-transcriptional down-regulation of SGLT1 in small intestine. RS1 inhibits the release of SGLT1 containing vesicles from the trans-Golgi network and migrates into the nucleus where it inhibits transcription of SGLT1. In the present work we identified a novel 21 amino acids-long nonconventional nuclear localization sequence (RS1 NLS) in porcine RS1 (pRS1) that is necessary and sufficient for nuclear targeting of pRS1. RS1 NLS is framed by two consensus sequences for phosphorylation which are responsible for confluence-dependent regulation of RS1 NLS: a casein kinase 2 (CK2) site in position 348 and a protein kinase C (PKC) site in position 370. Confluence-dependent nuclear targeting was observed with amino acids 342-374 (R-NLS-Reg). Mutation analysis suggested that nuclear targeting is blocked by phosphorylation of serine 370 (PKC) and that phosphorylation of serine 348 (CK2) prevents phosphorylation of serine 370. Because CK2 is down-regulated and PKC is up-regulated during confluence of LLC-PK1 cells, our data suggest that nuclear localization coordinates cell density-dependent changes in transcriptional and post-transcriptional inhibition of SGLT1 expression.
Brassicaceae and a few related plant families are characterized by possession of the glucosinolate-myrosinase system. Glucosinolates are amino-acid derived allelochemicals which are hydrolysed upon tissue damage by myrosinase enzymes to produce various degradation products which can be toxic for generalist insects. The larvae of the crucifer-specialist Athalia rosae, the turnip sawfly, sequester glucosinolates into their haemolymph. The role of the glucosinolate-myrosinase system for the interaction of the turnip sawfly with Brassicaceae was examined in this study from two different perspectives: variation within individual plants and between plant species. The plant responses to the feeding by herbivores and the short-term effects this induction had on insect behaviour were investigated in white mustard. Furthermore, plants can use multiple defences. Hence correlations of glucosinolates and myrosinase activities with other defences and nutritional quality and their long-term effects on the development of the insects were investigated in seven different plant species.
In the first part of this work a new approach to measure transient absorption spectra of fluorescent compounds by means of laser flash photolysis technique was presented. Generally, the recorded transient absorption signal consists of transient absorption, fluorescence and ground state bleaching. Thus, for fluorescent chromophores a fluorescence correction is indispensable in order to obtain undisturbed absorption decay curves as well as accurate transient absorption spectra. Due to time response characteristics of the PMT detector the fluorescence contribution cannot be corrected by recording the fluorescence separately. Measuring two transient absorption signals with probe light differing in intensity, compounds with quantum yields up to ~ 35 % can be investigated. This is a major improvement because transient absorption spectroscopy is a powerful method to gain insight into the kinetics and the energy of excited states and information in the time domain of fluorescence are no longer lost. In the second part the synthesis and the photophysical characterisation of redox cascades were reported. These cascades consist of an acridine acceptor and up to three triarylamine donor subunits. The redox potentials of the triarylamines were tuned by adequate substituents in the para-position of the phenyl ring to ensure a directed redox gradient. Upon photoexcitation a locally excited state or a CT state is populated which then injects a hole onto the adjacent donor and consequently results in a CS state. Fluorescence and transient absorption measurements revealed that HT depends strongly on donor strength and solvent polarity. Formation of a CS state was only observed in case of strong terminal donors or polar solvents. A low lying localised triplet state acts as an energy trap and quenches all CS states even in case of the cascade with the strongest terminal donor in very polar solvents. Furthermore, population of a CS state catalyses the formation of this triplet states which results in a shorter lifetime of the CS state compared to the lifetime of the CT state of the corresponding reference compound. Compared to redox cascades already reported in literature, the electronic coupling between the redox centres was decreased by sterical as well as electronic effects. To prolong the lifetime of the CS state saturated spacers on the one hand and a perpendicular orientation of the acceptor and the adjacent donor on the other hand were selected. The twisting of the subunits forming the CT state results in a higher degree of charge separation but its contribution to increase the lifetimes of the CS states is of minor importance. The longer lifetime of the CS states can be ascribed to the saturated spacers. Experimental data in combination with calculated values indicate that charge recombination takes place in the Marcus normal region by a superexchange mechanisms. Although charge recombination of the known cascades is located in the Marcus inverted region, these CS states decay faster than the CS states of the compounds investigated in this work.
A small percentage (1-5%) of the blood lymphocytes expresses alternative T-cell antigen receptor that uses g and d TCR rearranging genes. A subset of them expresses the Vg9Vd2 TCR. Those cells respond to self-nonpeptide and foreign antigens presented by unknown antigen-presenting molecules. Vg9Vd2 T cells also express Toll-like receptors and natural killer receptors that allow them to respond to other nonpeptide microbial components or to alterations in the expression of stress cell surface ligands such as NKG2D ligands. Vg9Vd2 T cells frequently are regulated by the expression of activating and/or inhibitory NKRs (iNKRs) that can fine-tune their activation threshold and the activating NKG2D receptor is one of the most studied until now. NKG2D, a C-type lectin receptor directed against MICA/MICB and UL16-binding protein (ULBP) molecules, have been reported a powerful co-stimulus for Ag-mediated activation of CD8 and Vg9Vd2 T cells. Indeed, NKG2D is recruited within the Vg9Vd2 TCR immunological synapse and enhances recognition by Vg9Vd2 T cells of Mycobacteria-infected DCs and various MICA/MICB or ULBP hemopoietic and non-hemopoietic tumors. The level of NKG2D is upregulated by inflammatory cytokines (e.g. IL-15), and NKG2D ligands are induced after a physical or genotoxic stress and/or along infection by intracellular pathogens. Therefore, NKG2D is a key stress sensor that strongly enhances recognition of altered or infected self by human gd T cells. Recent progress in the field supports the idea that gd T cells fulfill a role in the innate and adaptative immune response in different way of the conventional ab T cells. We demonstrated direct activation of Vg9Vd2 T cells by NKG2D ligation through the association with DAP10 adapter molecules and independently of TCR-Ag recognition, similar to the NKG2D-mediated activation of NK cells. Culture of peripherical blood mononuclear cells with immobilized NKG2D mAb or NKG2D ligand MICA induces up-regulation of CD69 and CD25 in NK and Vg9Vd2 T cells but not in CD8 T cells. Additionally, the ligation of NKG2D induces in Vg9Vd2 T cells the up-regulation of molecules typical for antigenpresenting cells, such as co-stimulator molecules (CD86) antigen presenting molecules (CD1a, HLA-DR), adhesion molecules (CD54), and activation molecules (CD69). Furthermore, NKG2D ligation in Vg9Vd2 T cells induces the production of cytokines such as TNF-a and chemokines such as, MIP-1a, but cannot induce the production of cytokines such as IL-6 or IFN-g and chemokines such as RANTES, MCP-1 and GM-CSF. In addition, NKG2D triggers the activation of the cytolytic machinery as efficient as CD3 stimulation as shown by measurement of the release of granules with esterase activity (BLT assay), perforin and the up-regulation of CD107a on the surface of Vg9Vd2 T cells. This NKG2D dependent cytolysis has been confirmed using purified Vg9Vd2 T cells, which kill MICA-transduced RMA cells but not the control cells. The TCR independence and NKG2D dependence of this killing is supported by mAb inhibition experiment. Finally, DAP 10, which mediates NKG2D signaling of human NK cells, is found in resting and activated Vg9Vd2 T cells. Moreover, data of intracellular signaling studies suggest an important role of Scr kinases in the NKG2D mediated killing and involvement of DAP-10-PI3K and PLCg 1 pathways as mayor proteins implicated in target cell lysis, and shows remarkable difference with the TCR signaling. The identification of these similarities in NKG2D function between NK and Vg9Vd2 T cells may be of interest for development of new strategies for Vg9Vd2 T cell-based immunotherapy in certain types of cancer and help to understand Vg9Vd2 T cell function in general.
B cells play diverse roles in the immunopathogensis of autoimmune diseases several approaches targeting B cell directly or indirectly are in clinical practice in the treatment of autoimmunity. In this regard, temporal B cell depletion by rituximab (anti CD20 antibody) is being appreciated and gaining more importance in recent years. To date, little is known about the regeneration profile of B cells following B cell depletion. We wanted to investigate the early replenishing B cells and examine the dynamic changes in the repertoire. we studied the immunoglobulin receptor (IgR) modulation of Ig-VH4 genes as representative of the heavy chain family. Five patients were included in the study and therapy induced alterations were assessed. Three time points namely before therapy, early regeneration phase (ERP- the early time point during regeneration where just above 1% B cells were found in the peripheral lymphocyte pool) and later regeneration phase (LRP- which commenced 2-3 months following ERP) were chosen. In three patients (A-C), Ig-VH4 genes were amplified from total genomic DNA during the above-mentioned all time points and in another two patients (D and E), Ig genes during ERP were studied by single cell amplification technique. Firstly, B cell regeneration followed the characteristic regeneration pattern as reported by several groups, with a predominant circulation of CD38hi expressing plasma cells and immature B cells in the ERP. During LRP, the proportion of these cells reduced relatively and the levels of naïve B cells rose gradually. On a molecular level, Ig-VH4 variable gene usage prior and post B cell depletion was determined and it was noticed that a diverse set of Ig-VH4 genes were employed in the repertoire before and after therapy. Mini gene segments such as VH4-34 and VH-4-39, which were reported to be connected with autoimmunity, were over expressed in the B cell repertoire before therapy. Profound changes were noticed in the early reemerging repertoire with a relatively increased population of intensely mutated B cells. These B cells acquired >=9 mutations in the Ig genes. Immunophenotyping with specific surface markers revealed that these highly mutated B cells evolve from the isotype-switched memory compartment especially the plasma cells. To support the hypothesis that the highly mutated B cells observed during ERP were plasma cells we carried out single cell amplification of individual plasma cells in another two patients during ERP and compared the mutational load, which remained similar. Actually plasma cells do not express CD20 on their surface and are not eliminated by rituximab therapy. However they were not observed in the peripheral blood following B cell depletion. The earliest time point when plasma cells are found again in peripheral circulation is the early recovery period (ERP). Therefore, it was intriguing to ascertain if the plasma cells were also modulated by rituximab therapy although they were not directly targeted by the therapy. We investigated if there is a therapy mediated mutational modulation of the plasma cells though these are not directly targeted by the therapy. We examined the confinement of mutations to the pre-defined RGYW/WRCY hotspot motifs (R=purine, Y=pyrimidine, W=A/T) in the plasma cells, which provides information on the involvement of T cells in B cell somatic hypermutation (SHM). Plasma cells before rituximab manifested the characteristics of active disease, which was revealed by restricted mutational targeting to the RGYW/WRCY motifs. The reemerging plasma cells during ERP had an increased targeting of the RGYW/WRCY motifs which indicated for a more pronounced T cell mediated B cell mutations which is the scenario observed in the healthy subjects. To further support the hypothesis of rituximab-mediated plasma cell modulation, we delineated the replacement to silent mutations ratio (R/S) in the hypervariable regions (CDRs) of the plasma cell Ig sequences. Within our study, the mean R/S ratio in the plasma cell CDRs of the patient group was relatively low (1.87) before rituximab treatment and interestingly this ratio increased significantly in the recirculating plasma cells to values of 2.67 and 3.60 in ERP and LRP status respectively. The increase in R/S ratios in reemerging plasma cells can be interpreted as a shaping of the Ig-repertoire by positive antigen selection as seen in healthy individuals. To conclude, our study demonstrates temporal B cell depletion by rituximab therapy seems to modulate also the plasma cell compartment, which is not directly targeted by the therapy. Modulation of plasma cells in RA could be also used as a potential biomarker in studying the effective response in RA treatment. This needs to be further explored to gain deeper insights into the underlying processes, which may be influenced by future therapies.
The process of sex-determination can be better understood through examinations of developing organs and cells, which are involved in the formation of undifferentiated gonad. This mechanisms show in fish a broad variety, ranging from hermaphroditism to gonochorism and environmental to genetic sex determination. Hormones and abiotic factors such as temperature and pH can influence teleost development and reproductive traits. These factors are vulnerable to pollutants and climate changes. Therefore, it is important to examine gonad development and sex-determination/differentiation in teleost fish. Teleost fish are the largest known group of vertebrates with approximately 25,000 species and are used for such kind of examinations as model organisms. Recently, in Oryzias latipes (medaka), dmrt1bY (or dmy), a member of the Dmrt gene family, has been described as testis-determining gene. However, this gene is not the universal master sex-determining gene in teleost fish. Although dmrt1bY is present in the most closely related species of the genus, namely Oryzias curvinotous, it is absent from other Oryzias species, like Oryzias celebensis, and other fish. During my thesis, I studied gonad development in medaka and in the closely related species Oryzias celebensis. Germ cell specification in medaka seems to be dependent on maternally provided cytoplasmatic determinants, so called germ plasm. Nanos and vasa are such germ cell specific genes. In zebrafish they are asymmetrically localized in the early embryo. I have shown that nanos mRNA is evenly distributed in the early embryo of medaka. A similar pattern has been already described for the medaka vasa homolog, olvas. This suggests differences in PGC specification in zebrafish and medaka. Further, the vasa homolog was isolated and the expression pattern examined in O. celebensis. The results show that it can be used as a germ cell specific marker. Additionally, the primordial germ cell migration in O. celebensis was followed, which is similar to medaka PGC migration. Primordial germ cell migration in vertebrates is dependent on the chemokine stromal cell-derived factor 1 (Sdf-1). Medaka has two different sdf-1 genes, sdf-1a and sdf-1b. Both genes are expressed in the lateral plate mesoderm (LPM). During late embryonic development, I could show that sdf-1a is expressed in newly formed somites and not longer in the LPM. Sdf-1b expression persisted in the posterior part of the lateral plate mesoderm in the developing gonad. In terms of early and late functions, this suggests subfunctionalization of sdf-1a and sdf-1b. In “higher” vertebrates, genes that are involved in the process of gonad development have been studied in detail, e.g. Wt1, Sox9, and Amh. I have analyzed the expression pattern of wt1 and sox9 co-orthologs and amh. In both, the medaka and O. celebensis, wt1a transcripts were localized in the LPM and its expression was similar to sdf-1a gene expression in medaka. Wt1b expression was restricted to the developing pronephric region. During later embryonic development, wt1a is specifically expressed in the somatic cells of the gonad primordium in both sexes. This is the first time that in fish wt1 gene expression in developing gonads has been described. Therefore, this result suggests that wt1a is involved in the formation of the bipotential gonad. Furthermore, I have analyzed the gonad specific function of the wt1 co-orthologs in medaka. I could show that a conditional co-regulation mechanism between Wt1a and Wt1b ensures PGC maintenance and/or survival. The expression of sox9 genes in medaka and sox9b in O. celebensis were detected in the somatic cells of the gonad primordium of both sexes. Additionally, I have shown that amh and amhrII in medaka are expressed in somatic cells of the gonad primordium of both sexes. This suggests that sox9b, amh and amhrII are involved in gonad development and have specific functions in the adult gonad. In O. celebensis I could detect an expression of dmrt1 already six days after fertilization in half of the embryos, which is similar to the dmrt1bY expression in medaka. Whether the expression of dmrt1 is male specific in O. celebensis is currently under investigation. Altogether, the obtained results provide new insights into gene expression patterns during the processes of gonad development. Furthermore, no differences in the expression pattern of wt1a and sox9b during gonad development between the medaka and O. celebensis could be detected. This might indicate that the genetic mechanisms during gonad development are similar in both species.
Spinal muscular atrophy with respiratory distress type 1 (SMARD1) is an autosomal recessive neuronal disorder in infants. The disease is marked by early onset of respiratory distress and predominantly distal muscle weakness, as consequences of diaphragmatic paralysis and progressive degeneration of  motor neurons in the spinal cord, respectively. Genetically, SMARD1 is caused by mutations in the single gene encoding Immunoglobulin µ-Binding Protein 2 (IGHMBP2). Despite the tissue specific degeneration observed in SMARD1 patients, the disease gene product IGHMBP2 is ubiquitously expressed in human and mouse tissues. Therefore, SMARD1 appears to be a motor neuron disease caused by the malfunction of a “housekeeping” protein, rather than a neuron specific factor. IGHMBP2 harbors an N-terminal DEXDc-type helicase/ATPase domain and has been classified as a member of the Superfamily 1 (SF1) of helicases. This protein has been assigned to various cellular activities such as DNA replication, pre-mRNA splicing and transcription. However its precise function in either process has remained elusive. The study presented here aimed at the enzymatic characterization of IGHMBP2, the identification of a specific cellular process to which IGHMBP2 is connected and the role of this factor in the pathophysiology of SMARD1. As a first step toward this end, a two-step purification strategy was established, which enabled the large-scale purification of properly folded and enzymatically active IGHMBP2. In vitro enzymatic studies using this recombinant protein defined IGHMBP2 as an ATP-dependent helicase that catalyzes unwinding of duplices composed of either DNA or RNA in a 5’→3’ direction. In contrast to previous reports, indirect immunofluorescence studies revealed a predominantly cytoplasmic localization of IGHMBP2. Size-fractionation studies and affinity-purification experiments further showed that IGHMBP2 is part of an RNase-sensitive macromolecular complex, which was identified as the ribosome. Interestingly, IGHMBP2 was abundantly detected in both subunits as well as to 80S ribosomes but only in small amounts in actively translating polysomes. These data strongly point to a role of IGHMBP2 in ribosomes-associated gene regulation control, such as in mRNA stabilization or mRNA translation. However, its precise function in those pathways remains to be identified. The biochemical and enzymatic characterization of IGHMBP2 allowed for the first time insights into the pathomechanism of SMARD1. SMARD1-causing pathogenic IGHMBP2 variants were investigated for their enzymatic activities and interaction with ribosomal subunits. Interestingly, among all missense mutations that have been tested thus far, none obstructs association with ribosomal subunits. However, these mutants exhibit specific defects in either the ATPase or RNA helicase activity or both. The data suggest that defects in the enzymatic activity of IGHMBP2 directly correlate with the pathogenesis of SMARD1. Furthermore, these data also raise the possibility that the disease SMARD1 is caused by alterations in the cellular translation machinery.
Infrared photodissociation spectroscopy of ionic hydrocarbons : microsolvation and protonation sites
(2007)
This work has presented a spectroscopic analysis of three types of hydrocarbon cations: two ionized aromatic hydrocarbons, two protonated aromatic hydrocarbons and the cation of a fundamental radical hydrocarbon. The experiments were centered on the proton stretch vibrations of mass-selected complexes of these systems and polar (H2O) and non polar (Ar, N2, CO2) ligands. The experiments have been done in a tandem mass spectrometer coupled with an electron impact ionization ion source; an OPO laser system was used as tunable IR light source. All the proposed dimer structures have been also modeled using quantum chemical calculations (QCC). These calculations have consistently been matched with the experimental results and have enabled clear identification of the spectral features observed. This has enabled the evaluation of thermochemical properties which could not be extracted directly from experiment. The experiments done on complexes of 1-Np+ and Im+ have allowed for the acidity of their various groups to be probed: the shifts in the frequency as well as the enhancement in the intensity of the OH and NH stretch vibrations resulting from the complexation have yielded dependences on both the species (L) and the number (n) of the ligands. OH bound 1-Np+···Ar has been detected for the first time, showing that the REMPI-IRPD method is severely limited with respect to the production of the most stable isomer of a given cationic complex. The detection of c-1-Np+···(N2)n corresponds to the first observation of c-1-Np+ complexes and enables thus direct comparison of both 1-Np+ rotamers. The shift of the NH vibration of Im+···N2(H) yielded the first experimental estimate for the PA of the imidazyl radical. It was also found that the most stable 1-Np+···Ar and Im+···Ar structures differ qualitatively from that of the corresponding neutral dimers (H-bound vs pi-bound), emphasizing the large impact of ionization on the interaction potential and the preferred recognition motif between acidic aromatic molecules (A) and nonpolar ligands. The IRPD spectra of 1-Np+···Ln and Im+···Ln yielded spectroscopic information about the CH, NH and OH stretch vibrations of bare 1-Np+ and Im+. The dependence of the shifts in the frequency of the OH and NH stretch vibrations allows for creating microsolvation models. The spectroscopic results obtained on size-selected 1-NpH+···Ln show that, in the output of the presently used ion source, three classes of 1-NpH+ isomers can be identified: oxonium ions (1-Np protonated at the O atom); carbenium ions obtained by protonation in the para and ortho positions with respect to the OH functional group; carbenium ions obtained by the addition of a proton to well-defined sites on the second naphthalene ring. The spectral identification of these three classes of protonation sites is supported by their different photofragmentation patterns. It was demonstrated that the spectroscopic monitoring of the microsolvation of ImH+ in Ar and N2 together with the QCCs paint a very detailed picture of the microsolvation process, evidencing clear differences between the microsolvation models as function of the PA of the ligands. Important differences have also been identified between the various binding sites, enabling the creation of a clear scale of priorities for occupation of the binding sites during microsolvation. The application of IRPD to the study of microhydrated ImH+ provided for the first time direct spectroscopic information on the properties of the N-H bonds of this biomolecular building block under controlled microhydration. It was demonstrated that, as protonation enhances the acidity of the NH groups, the ability for proton conductivity of ImH+ increases. A very important result is derived from the IRPD spectroscopy of C2H5+···L (L = Ar, N2, CO2, CH4) dimers. The equilibrium geometry of the C2H5+ has long been debated. Now, IRPD spectra were recorded over the range of the CH stretch fundamentals (covering possible sp3 and sp2 hybridization of C). Depending on the ligand species, the spectra are found to be dominated by the fingerprint of two largely different dimer geometries. Using the experimental C2H5+···Ar spectrum and the corresponding QCCs, the structure of the (weakly perturbed) C2H5+ was found to be the nonclassical one, with one proton straddling across the C=C bond of the H2C=CH2. On the other hand, ligands like N2 and CH4 are strongly influencing the geometry, as seen in the spectral signatures of the C2H5+···N2 and C2H5+···CH4, which correspond to the classical [H2CCH3]+. It was thus demonstrated that while the nonclassical C2H5+ is the global minimum on the PES of the free [C2,H5]+, the structure of the C2H5+ can be strongly influenced by the chemical properties of the environment.
A torsion free abelian group of finite rank is called almost completely decomposable if it has a completely decomposable subgroup of finite index. A p-local, p-reduced almost completely decomposable group of type (1,2) is briefly called a (1,2)-group. Almost completely decomposable groups can be represented by matrices over the ring Z/hZ, where h is the exponent of the regulator quotient. This particular choice of representation allows for a better investigation of the decomposability of the group. Arnold and Dugas showed in several of their works that (1,2)-groups with regulator quotient of exponent at least p^7 allow infinitely many isomorphism types of indecomposable groups. It is not known if the exponent 7 is minimal. In this dissertation, this problem is addressed.
The present work deals with the synthesis and the investigation of the photophysical properties of covalently constructed calix[4]arene–perylene bisimide dye arrays containing various PBI units. The obtained conjugates are characterized with respect towards their application in a new, zigzag-type architecture of artificial light-harvesting systems. For this purpose, orange (core-unsubstituted), red (6,7,11,12-tert-butylphenoxy-functionalized) and green (1,7-pyrrolidino-substituted) perylene bisimide building blocks have been attached to the calix[4]arene scaffold. First, the monochromophoric reference systems have been studied, and second, the photophysical properties of a comprehensive series of newly synthesized, multichromophoric calix[4]arene–perylene bisimide conjugates showing efficient energy transfer processes between the individual dye subunits have been investigated. Furthermore, a series of bichromophoric compounds containing identical chromophoric units has been obtained. Towards this goal, a variety of spectroscopic techniques such as UV/vis absorption, steady state and time-resolved fluorescence emission, and femtosecond transient absorption spectroscopy as well as a spectrotemporal analysis of the obtained data has been applied. This work presents a new concept for an artificial light-harvesting system positioning the dye units by means of calix[4]arene spacers along a zigzag chain. The investigations start with the syntheses and optical properties of the monochromophoric building blocks and result in an elaborate study on the energy and electron transfer processes occurring after photoexcitation in a comprehensive series of multichromophoric calix[4]arene–perylene bisimide conjugates. Finally, the photophysical properties of a series of compounds containing each two identical PBI units are discussed.
Sumoylation of transcription factors modulate their activity (either upregulating or downregulating) by altering protein-protein interactions as well as subcelluar/subnuclear localization. The transcription factor family of NFAT (Nuclear Factor of Activated T cells) plays an important role in cytokine gene regulation in T cells. Due to alternative usage of two promoters (P1 & P2), two polyadenylation sites (pA1 and pA2) and alternative splicing events, NFATc1 is expressed in six isoforms which are NFATc1/alphaA, betaA, alphaB, betaB, alphaC and betaC, where alpha and beta refer to two different 1st exons and A, B, C to the differentially spliced and extended C-termini. The short isoforms of NFATc1 (NF-ATc1/A) contain a relatively short C terminus whereas, the longer isoforms, B and C, span the extra C-terminal peptides of 128 and 246 aa, respectively. To analyze the specific biological effects of NFATc1 isoform, a yeast two hybrid screening of a human spleen cDNA library with extra C-terminal peptide of NFATc1 as a bait, was performed. At the end of the assay, the proteins involved in the sumoylation pathway such as Ubc9, PIAS1 were detected with highest frequencies and subsequently were were able to demonstrate that NFATc1 is sumoylated. The extent of sumoylation is isoform specific. While NFATc1/A, harboring only one sumoylation site, shows very weak sumoylation, the two additional sites within NFATc1/C lead to efficient sumoylation. This modification directs NFATc1/C into SUMO-1 bodies, which in turn colocalize with PML-nbs. Furthermore, sumoylated NFATc1/C recruits the transcriptional co-repressors HDAC (both class I as well as class II HDACs) which results in a significant decrease of the level of histone acetylation on the IL-2 promoter, an important NFATc1 target gene. As a consequence of this, a decrease of IL-2 production was observed, while NFATc1/C, which can no longer be sumoylated due to mutating the target lysines, exhibited dramatic elevated transcriptional potential on the IL2 promoter. This supports our finding from IL-2 promoter-driven reporter gene assay, which shows downregulation of NFATc1/C transactivation upon sumoylation. Hence, sumoylation exerts a negative effect on NFATc1 transcriptioanl activity. Immunofluorescence studies showed SUMO modification to relocate NFATc1/C also into transcriptionally inactive heterochromatin regions, demonstrated by H3K9 m3 (tri-methylated histone lysine 9) colocalization studies. Interestingly, in the absence of sumoylation, NFATc1 was partially colocalized with transcriptional hotspots in the nucleus, which might contribute to the higher transcription potentiality of the non-sumoylated NFATc1. It is important to note that, the transcriptional activity of other NFATc1 target genes (IL-13, IFN-gamma etc.) was positively upregulated upon sumoylation of NFATc1, suggesting a non-universal effect of sumoylation on NFATc1/C function. In conclusion, sumoylation directs NFATc1 into nuclear bodies where it interacts with transcriptional co-repressors and relocalize itself with heterochromatin, leading to repression of NFATc1/C-mediated transcription. Most importantly, the effect of NFATc1/C sumoylation is promoter specific. Taken together, SUMO modification alters the function of NFATc1 from an activator to a site-specific transcriptional repressor. This study unraveled a novel regulatory mechanism, which controls isoform specific NFATc1 function.
In this work, the laser control of molecules was investigated theoretically. In doing so, emphasis was layed on entering vectorial properties and in particular the orientation in the laboratory frame. Therefore, the rotational degree of freedom had to be included in the quantum mechanical description. The coupled vibrational and rotational dynamics was examined, which is usually not done in coherent control theory. Local control theory was applied, where the field is determined from the dynamics of a system, which reacts with an instantaneous response to the perturbation and, in turn, determines the field again. Thus, the field is entangled with the quantum mechanical motion and the presented examples document, that this leads to an intuitive interpretation of the fields in terms of the underlying molecular dynamics. The limiting case of a classical treatment was shown to give similar results and hence, eases to understand the complicated structure of the control fields. In a different approach, the phase- and amplitude shaping of laser fields was systematically studied in the context of controlling population transfer in molecules.
Microtubules are a fascinating component of the cellular scaffold protein network, the cytoskeleton. These hollow tubular structures are assembled of laterally associated proto-filaments containing ab-tubulin heterodimers in a head to tail arrangement. Accordingly microtubules have a defined polarity, which sets the base for the polarity of the cell. The microtubule lattice can be arranged in two conformations: In the more abundant B-lattice conformation, where the protofilaments interact laterally through a- to a- and b- to b-tubulin contacts and in the less stable A-lattice conformation, where a-tubulin interacts laterally with b-tubulin. In cells the microtubules generally contain 13 protofilaments of which usually one pair interacts in the A-lattice conformation, forming the so-called lattice seam. Microtubule dynamics and interactions are strongly regulated by micro-tubule associate proteins (MAPs). Structural investigations on MAPs and microtubule associated motor proteins in complex with microtubules have become possible in combination with modern electron microscopy (EM) and image processing. We have used biochemistry and different advanced EM techniques to study the interaction between microtubules and the MAP Mal3p in vitro. Mal3p is the sole member of the end-binding protein 1 (EB1) protein family in the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe. Previous in vivo studies have shown that Mal3p promotes microtubule growth. Our studies with high-resolution unidirectional shadowing EM revealed that Mal3p interacts with the microtubule lattice in a novel way, using binding sites on the microtubule that are different from those reported for other MAPs or motor proteins. Full-length Mal3p preferentially binds between two protofilaments on the microtubule lattice, leaving the rest of the lattice free. A case where Mal3p was found in two adjacent protofilament, revealed an A-lattice conformation on the microtubules, surprisingly indicating specific binding of Mal3p to the microtubule seam. With a lattice enhancer, in form of a b-tubulin binding kinesin motor domain, it was demonstrated that Mal3p stabilizes the seam which is thought to be the weakest part of a microtubule. Further, the presence of Mal3p during microtubule polymerization enhances the closure of protofilament sheets into a tubular organization. Cryo-EM and 3-D helical reconstruction on a monomeric microtubule binding domain of Mal3p, confirm the localization in between the protofilament and result in an accurate localization on the microtubule lattice. The results also indicate Mal3p’s capacity to influence the microtubule lattice conformation. Together, studies approached in vitro demonstrate that an EB1-family homolog not only interacts with the microtubule plus end, but also with the microtubule lattice. The structure of Mal3p interacting with microtubules reveals a new mechanism for microtubule stabilization and further insight on how plus end binding proteins are able promote microtubule growth. These findings further suggest that microtubules exhibit two distinct reaction platforms on their surface that can independently interact with selected MAPs or motors.
The main focus of this work was to get a deeper understanding of the relationship between the structure of sol-gel films, their densification and their macroscopic cracking. First of all titania was chosen as model system. Therefore a synthesis route starting from the preparation of long-term stable amorphous redissoluble precursor powders based on acetylacetone as chelate ligand was utilized. The solubility and stability of the powders in various solvents can be determined by chemical synthesis and technological parameters. When dissolved in a solvent mixture of ethanol and 1,5-pentanediol, thin films can be easily prepared by dip-coating technique. Thereby the quality of the titania films enormously depends on the calcinations temperature and the solvent mixture is used. In order to investigate the influence of different solvents and solvent mixtures on the microstructure and densification of the precursors, the coating solutions were stripped off (sol powder) and analyzed as function of annealing temperature. It was pointed out that a high densification rate caused by the addition of 1,5-pentanediol, results in dense microstructure with trapped residual carbon. These impurities can retard the phase transformation of anatase to rutile. The analysis of so-called “film powders” scraped off multiple dip-coated substrates provides valuable information on the effect of air moisture and unidirectional densification during drying and aging on the structure of thin films. The high surface-to-volume ratio and access to air moisture determine the chemical composition of the as-prepared film, which controls shrinkage, crystallization and defect structure of the coatings. Further it was shown, that drying as a thin film results in the formation of closed pores and much denser microstructure than the respective sol powder. Without the addition of 1,5-pentanediol all –OEt moieties undergo hydrolysis reactions, which causes the formation of a rigid network. The presence of 1,5-pentanediol retards this hydrolysis reactions and provides some network plasticity. Generally the microstructure of thin films is comparatively close to the microstructure of the film powders. The addition of 1,5-pentandiol prevents hydrolysis and condensation reactions as like in the film powders. However even at 700 °C, thin films never transform to rutile, which was attributed to the tensile stresses in thin films. In thin films and in film powders as well a comparable amount of closed pores are formed during annealing. Further it was shown that most of the thin sol-gel films investigated form a dense crust on their tops during annealing. This explains why crack free films exhibit only closed pores. However, when cracks appear during thin film shrinkage in the coating, this crust is burst, which generates open porosity. The defect density in the coatings was determined by an automated analysis of surface images. The crack formation and quantity can be directly referred to tensile stresses in the coatings, which arise from hydrolysis and condensation during thin film drying and aging. Therefore when 1,5-pentanediol is added to the sol, thin film cracking was avoided, because hydrolysis and condensation reactions are retarded, which preserves a higher network flexibility. Furthermore the crack formation was significantly influenced by the atmospheric humidity that was used during the coating process, which was explained by different drying and condensation rates. Under certain chemical starting conditions water soluble precursor powders can be also obtained. In general the observations made with the water based coating solutions are mostly in agreement with the former results based on ethanol based coating solutions. For example the high surface-to-volume ratio of film powders compared to sol powders also significantly enhances film drying and densification. The addition of 1,5-pentanediol also clearly contributes to their densification behavior and phase evolution. As seen before in the case of ethanol based coatings, 1,5-pentanediol enhances the stability towards hydrolysis and condensation reactions and preserves some network plasticity. Therefore coatings prepared without the addition of 1,5-pentanediol already form cracks during film drying and aging because of tensile stresses. Thus, the addition of 1,5-pentanediol results in a reduction/prevention of crack formation. Nevertheless some differences were observed, i.e. the critical single coating film thickness of ethanol based coatings is nearly twice that of water based coatings. This was explained by the different surface tensions of the basis solvents, which during thin film drying causes significantly higher capillary forces and tensile stresses in water based coatings. When acetylacetone is replaced by triethanolamine as chelating ligand for titanium also re-dissolvable precursor powders can be synthesized. The film powders combine a high hydrolytic stability of the precursor with sufficient intermediate network flexibility. The different type of organics changes the drying and densification behavior: i.e. in contrast to film powders obtained from acetylacetone based precursor powders the structure of triethanolamine based film powders is unaffected by the thin film drying process. This high hydrolytic stability and plasticity of this precursor allows the preparation of defect free coatings up to single film thickness of 300 nm. However triethanolamine based thin films present at intermediary annealing temperatures a distinctively different microstructure compared to acetylacetone based films. The general validity of the conclusions was proved on the basis of zirconia coatings that were also prepared by the use of re-dissolvable precursor powders. In principle all conclusions concerning the interconnection of precursor chemistry, film formation, densification and structure were transferable to the respective zirconia coatings. Differences mainly arise only from differential material properties i.e. bulk density. Finally, it has been pointed out that the findings obtained on the densification behavior of thinsol-gel films are also a valuable tool for improved explanations of other important scientific questions concerning sol-gel films, i.e. scratch resistance of sol-gel coatings, fiber -bridging and – degradation of sol-gel coated fibers.
The effective binding of anions like carboxylates and phosphates in aqueous solutions is of particular interest for various reasons. The natural archetypes of effective anion receptors are enzymes that contain often arginine as relevant amino acid in the binding pocket. For this reason, one class of artificial anion receptors that emerged more than two decades ago mimics the anion binding with the guanidinium group present in the amino acid side chain. In 1999, Schmuck and coworkers developed a new class of guanidinium-based oxo anion receptor that binds carboxylates even in aqueous media. The binding modes of the 2-(guanidiniocarbonyl)-1H-pyrroles are based on individually weak non-covalent interaction between artificial host and substrate like ion pairing and multiple hydrogen bonds. The zwitterionic derivative with substitution of a carboxylate group in position 5 of the pyrrole ring system shows a strong self-assembly to discrete dimers (dimer 1) with an estimated association constant of 170 M-1 even in water. In order to further improve the structure motif for an effective oxo anion binding it is therefore of great interest to quantify the different intermolecular interactions between two monomeric units of 1. Against this background several theoretical ab initio studies were conducted in order to elucidate the influences of intrinsic properties as well as solvent effects on the stability of self-assembled dimers. In chapter 4.1 the molecular interactions in dimer 1 were investigated by comparison to various “knock-out” analogues. In these analogues single hydrogen bonds were switched off by substitution of hydrogen donor atoms with either methylene groups or ether bridges. The calculations were done for vacuum and solvation, as represented by a conductor-like polarizable continuum. It could be shown that the application of a simple continuum solvent model fails to predict the absolute energies of the knock-out analogues in strongly polar solvents. However, the calculated trends can explain the relative stabilities. In chapter 4.2 the structural similarity of arginine with structure 1 was used in order to examine the dependence of self-assembly from the flexibility of the molecular structure. In chapter 4.2.1 new global minimum structures of the canonical and zwitterionic arginine in gas phase were found by means of exhaustive force field based conformational searches in conjunction with ab initio structure optimizations of the lowest energy conformers. Most of the newly identified minimum conformers of both the zwitterionic and canonical tautomer revealed geometrical arrangements with hitherto unreported stacked orientations of the terminal groups. Finally a novel global minimum structure was detected that is more than 8 kJ mol-1 lower in energy than the previously published conformers. The same strategy for finding minimum energy conformers of the arginine monomer has also been employed for the arginine dimer structures. While previous theoretical studies favoured directed hydrogen bonds the new global minimum structure MMFF1 is about 60 kJ mol-1 more stable and exhibits a stacked orientation of the guanidinium and carboxylate groups. The importance of rigidity on the dimer stability was proven by calculations of an artificially stiffened arginine dimer system. The high binding affinity dimer 1 results by about 50% from the rigidity of the monomers which prevents any intramolecular stabilization. In chapter 4.3 novel structure motifs with varying ring systems have been examined on a DFT level of theory in order to make proposals for an improved carboxylate binding motif. The direct dependency of the dimerization energy on an increasing dipole moment was demonstrated by various anellated ring structures. The influence of the delocalization in the monomer on the dimerization energy was examined by variation of the electronic structure of electronically decoupled biphenylenes. With the aid of various substituted 7-guanidinioindole-2-carboxylate derivatives we could show that the carbonyl function is mainly responsible for the advantageous preorganisation, whereas the effect on the acidity seems to be only of minor importance. In the last chapter cooperativity effects in supramolecular assemblies have been investigated. This was achieved by NMR shift calculations of adenosine-carboxylic acid complexes as model systems and comparison to experimental low-temperature NMR studies. We could demonstrate that only by applying vibrational averaged NMR shifts the experimental proton shifts obtained at very low temperatures in the hydrogen bond exchange regime could be reproduced.
The continuously increase in resistance of human pathogenic microorganisms to the known antibiotics leads to the necessity for searching new sources for production of new active antimicrobial compounds from different natural sources especially plants, since many plants have been found to be able to produce antimicrobial compounds as a defense phenomenon against invading microorganisms. The aim of this work is to screen cultures for production of antimicrobial activity against representative of human pathogenic microorganisms and selection the most active cell culture producing antimicrobial protein(s) which are active against these pathogenic microorganisms and also isolation ,purification of the active protein(s) and cloning of its/their genes. Ten different plant suspension cultures have been screened in presence of nine elicitors for their antimicrobial activity against five selected human pathogenic microorganisms, and it has been found that the heterotrophic cultures are more active against the tester isolates than the autotrophic ones. The intracellular fraction of the mixotrophic Arabidopsis thaliana culture elicited with salicylic acid showed the highest antimicrobial activity against the tester isolates. The presence of proteinous antimicrobial activity has been elucidated by testing the activity of ammonium sulphate precipitate against Candida maltosa. High speed centrifugation technique has been used for partial purification of the active protein. The proteinous nature of the isolated compound has been confirmed by using bioautography technique and its molecular weight could be estimated to be around 26KDa. The active protein has been purified using gel filtration, and using mass spectrometry technique, for microsequencing of the active protein, it has been found that the function of the protein is unknown and we have termed it as AtPDP1 according to Arabidopsis thaliana Plat-Domain Protein1, since it contains a plant stress domain termed PLAT domain. It has been found that a second protein from the same plant with high homology level to AtPDP1 with the same domain, we termed it as AtPDP2. Genes for AtPDP1 and AtPDP2 have been cloned in E. coli using PGEM-T easy vector. The expression of both genes have been tested using Digital Northern program, and it has been observed that both genes are induced by different pathogens, chemicals known to induce defense in plant cells and also different hormones. We tried to clone the gene for AtPDP1 in PBI121 binary vector under the control of an elicitor inducible promoter of a proteinase inhibitor gene, to test its function in plant by overexpression, but we did not succeeded. Also the work aims to cloning the different known thaumatin genes from Arabidopsis thaliana for future work which represented by testing their expression under different stimuli, since most thaumatins have antimicrobial activity and some of them are active against Candida spp..Thirteen genes of known thaumatins from Arabidopsis thaliana have been cloned in PGEM-Teasy vector in DH5-alpha cells. coli cells. The expression of the thirteen genes has been done using Digital Northern program and it has been found that different genes show different expressions under different stimuli and the expression of At1g75800 gene was the maximum under all stimuli. The minimum expression of genes was for At1g75050. The rest of thaumatin genes showed moderate expressions under different stimuli.
Despite its precise agreement with the experiment, the validity of the standard model (SM) of elementary particle physics is ensured only up to a scale of several hundred GeV so far. Even more, the inclusion of gravity into an unifying theory poses a problem which cannot be solved by ordinary quantum field theory (QFT). String theory, which is the most popular ansatz for a unified theory, predicts QFT on noncommutative space-time as a low energy limit. Nevertheless, independently of the motivation given by string theory, the nonlocality inherent to noncommutative QFT opens up the possibility for the inclusion of gravity. There are no theoretical predictions for the energy scale Lambda_NC at which noncommutative effects arise and it can be assumed to lie in the TeV range, which is the energy range probed by the next generation of colliders. Within this work we study the phenomenological consequences of a possible realization of QFT on noncommutative space-time relying on this assumption. The motivation for this thesis was given by the gap in the range of phenomenological studies of noncommutative effects in collider experiments, due to the absence in the literature of Large Hadron Collider (LHC) studies regarding noncommutative QFTs. In the first part we thus performed a phenomenological analysis of the hadronic process pp -> Z gamma -> l^+l^- gamma at the LHC and of electron-positron pair annihilation into a Z boson and a photon at the International Linear Collider (ILC). The noncommutative extension of the SM considered within this work relies on two building blocks: the Moyal-Weyl star-product of functions on ordinary space-time and the Seiberg-Witten maps. The latter relate the ordinary fields and parameters to their noncommutative counterparts such that ordinary gauge transformations induce noncommutative gauge transformations. This requirement is expressed by a set of inhomogeneous differential equations (the gauge equivalence equations) which are solved by the Seiberg-Witten maps order by order in the noncommutative parameter Theta. Thus, by means of the Moyal-Weyl star-product and the Seiberg-Witten maps a noncommutative extension of the SM as an effective theory as expansion in powers of Theta can be achieved, providing the framework of our phenomenological studies. A consequence of the noncommutativity of space-time is the violation of rotational invariance with respect to the beam axis. This effect shows up in the azimuthal dependence of cross sections, which is absent in the SM as well as in other models beyond the SM. Thus, the azimuthal dependence of the cross section is a typical signature of noncommutativity and can be used in order to discriminate it against other new physics effects. We have found this dependence to be best suited for deriving the sensitivity bounds on the noncommutative scale Lambda_NC. By studying pp -> Z gamma -> l^+l^- gamma to first order in the noncommutative parameter Theta, we show in the first part of this work that measurements at the LHC are sensitive to noncommutative effects only in certain cases, giving bounds on the noncommutative scale of Lambda_NC > 1.2 TeV. Our result improved the bounds present in the literature coming from past and present collider experiments by one order of magnitude. In order to explore the whole parameter range of the noncommutativity, ILC studies are required. By means of e^+e^- -> Z gamma -> l^+l^- gamma to first order in Theta we have shown that ILC measurements are complementary to LHC measurements of the noncommutative parameters. In addition, the bounds on Lambda_NC derived from the ILC are significantly higher and reach Lambda_NC > 6 TeV. The second part of this work arose from the necessity to enlarge the range of validity of our model towards higher energies. Thus, we expand the neutral current sector of the noncommutative SM to second order in $\theta$. We found that, against the general expectation, the theory must be enlarged by additional parameters. The new parameters enter the theory as ambiguities of the Seiberg-Witten maps. The latter are not uniquely determined and differ by homogeneous solutions of the gauge equivalence equations. The expectation was that the ambiguities correspond to field redefinitions and therefore should vanish in scattering matrix elements. However, we proved that this is not the case, and the ambiguities do affect physical observables. Our conjecture is, that every order in Theta will introduce new parameters to the theory. However, only the experiment can decide to what extent efforts with still higher orders in Theta are reasonable and will also give directions for the development of theoretical models of noncommutative QFTs.
Oxylipins are important biological active compounds that play essential roles in defense, growth, development, and reproduction of plants and animals. Oxylipins are formed either by enzymatic pathways or radical catalyzed reaction from polyunsaturated fatty acids. Products of oxidation of arachidonic acid (C20:4) in animals by enzymatic and non-enzymatic pathways are prostaglandins and isoprostanes, respectively. In plants, radical catalyzed reaction of -linolenic acid (C18:3) forms phytoprostanes and enzymatic oxidation of this fatty acid produces OPDA and jasmonic acid. Like plants, cyanobacterial membranes contain a high ratio of polyunsaturated fatty acid, about 25% of total fatty acids. Oxylipin biosynthesis and function was studied in two model cyanobacteria, Anabaena PCC 7120 and Synechocystis PCC 6803, for the first time: 1. The filamentous cyanobaterium Anabaena PCC 7120 can naturally produce phytoprostanes type I and II as well as hydroxy fatty acids like in plants but lacks the enzymatic capacity to form jasmonates (12-oxo-phytodienoic acid and jasmonic acid) and prostaglandins. Data obtained provide the first evidence for the occurence of phytoprostanes in cyanobacteria as well as in the baterial kingdom. 2. By GC-MS analysis, the E1- and F1-phytoprostanes in Anabaena PCC 7120 were detected both in free and esterified form. Their levels are comparable with those in plants, in the range of ng/g DW. In one week old cultures, there was no evidence of PPF1 in the medium but its level accumulated up to 142 ng/l in six weeks old cultures. In contrast, PPE1 was stable over time, about 20 ng/g DW. Free cellular PPE1 was found about 4 times higher than that of PPF1, 80.5  23.6 and 24.1  10.9 ng/g DW, respectively. However, there was no significant difference in the total cellular levels of PPF1 and PPE1, ranging from 150 to about 200 ng/g DW. 3. Phytoprostanes are inducible in Anabaena. In the combination of oxidative stress (200 µM H2O2 or 10 µM CuSO4) with high light intensity (330 µE.m-2.s-1) for 8 h, levels of total cellular PPE1 and PPF1 were increased about 2 to 4 times. Interestingly, unlike in higher plants, application of oxidative stress or high light intensity alone showed no phytoprostaneous induction in this cyanobacterium. 4. When Anabaena cells were treated with phytoprostanes, Anabaena cells became remarkably resistant against subsequently applied – otherwise lethal – oxidative stress. All phytoprostanes displayed a high protective effect except for PPE1. The highest protection level was contributed by a mixture of PPA1 type I and II. After preincubation of Anabena cells with 100 µM PPA1–type I/II for 16 h followed by application of 1 mM H2O2 or 50 µM CuSO4 for 5 h, A1-phytoprostane pre-treatment protected 84.2% and 77.5% of the cells from cell death, respectively. Without oxylipins pre-treatment, about 98% of the cells were dead. Surprisingly, preincubation of Anabaena with other oxylipins derived from enzymatic pathway in plants and animals showed also an effect, however, the protection effect was low and ranged from 10 to 30%. In contrast, phytoprostanes did not protect Pseudomonas syringae and Escherichia coli from the toxicity of hydrogen peroxide. However, these bacteria do not synthesize polyunsaturated fatty acids and are therefore devoid of and not exposed to endogenously formed oxidized lipids. 5. Exogenous application of 100 µM PPF1 or 1.5 mM H2O2 for 90 min did not activate the expression of isiA in Anabaena. Oxylipins also displayed no effect on shinorine and tocopherol levels in Anabaena. However, application of 100 µM PPF1 for 6 h altered the protein expression in Anabaena. Most PPF1-modulated proteins are down-regulated and related to photosynthesis. Since oxidative stress only in combination with high light intensity increased lipid peroxidation, down-regulation of photosynthesis after recognition of oxidised lipids (phytoprostanes) may be a survival strategy of Anabaena to avoid damage by peroxidized lipids. 6. Dead plants may be the main source of (exogenous) phytoprostanes in the natural environment of Anabaena. Dry hay releases PPE1 and PPF1 (11 µg/g DW) into an aqueous environment. Anabaena is the typical cyanobacterium in paddy rice fields. After harvesting, most of uneconomical parts of rice plants are abundant on the field, which may release phytoprostanes that in turn might have an impact on cyanobacteria in the rice ecosystems. However, field research is needed to clarify this suspection. 7. A new class of oxylipins, phytoprostanes type III and IV, was identified and quantified in vitro. The two main phytoprostanes, PPE1 and PPF1 (type III and IV), can be obtained by autoxidation of -linolenic acid or Borage oil (containing 25% esterified -linolenic acid). After 12 days of autoxidation and subsequent hydrolysis, 1 g of Borage oil yielded 112.71 ± 1.93 µg of PPF1 and 3.80 ± 0.14 mg of PPE1. PPB1 and PPA1 (type III and IV) were prepared by isomerization and dehydration of PPE1 (type III and IV). The overall yield of PPB1 was 1.71 ± 0.04 mg/g oil (type III) and 2.09 ± 0.12 mg/g oil (type IV). Those of PPA1 were 8.38 ± 0.35 µg/g and 10.18 ± 0.30 µg/oil, respectively. 8. A rapid HPLC-MS/MS method for phytoprostane and phytohormone analysis has been developed. This method was applied to quantify free and esterified E1- and F1-phytoprostanes type III and IV in Synechocystis PCC 6803. The in vivo phytoprostanes type III and IV are present both in free and esterified form. The total cellular level of PPE1 type III and IV in Synechocystis is at least 2 times higher than that of PPF1. Unlike Anabaena, PPE1 and PPF1 were detectable in the medium of one week old Synechocystis cultures. Free levels of PPF1 in the medium (231.8 ± 36.2 ng/l) and in the cells (164.9 ± 15.2 ng/g DW) are lower than those of PPE1 (1003.3 ± 365.2 ng/l and 2331.0 ± 87.7 ng/g DW).
With ageing, the loss of bone mass correlates with the expansion of adipose tissue in human bone marrow thus facilitating bone-related diseases like osteopenia and osteoporosis. The molecular mechanisms underlying these events are still largely unknown. Reduced osteogenesis and concurrently enhanced adipogenesis might not only occur due to the impairment of conventional osteogenic differentiation originating from mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs). Additionally, transdifferentiation of (pre-)osteoblasts into adipocytes could contribute to the fatty conversion. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to prove the existence of transdifferentiation between the adipogenic and osteogenic lineage and to elucidate molecular mechanisms underlying this phenomenon. At first, a cell culture system of primary human MSCs was established that allowed for differentiation into the adipogenic and osteogenic lineage and proved that the MSC-derived adipocytes and pre-osteoblasts were capable of transdifferentiation (reprogramming) from one into the other lineage. Thereby, lineage-specific markers were completely reversed after reprogramming of pre-osteoblasts into adipocytes. The osteogenic transdifferentiation of adipocytes was slightly less efficient since osteogenic markers were present but the adipogenic ones partly persisted. Hence, plasticity also reached into the differentiation pathways of both lineages and the better performance of adipogenic reprogramming further supported the assumption of its occurrence in vivo. The subsequent examination of gene expression changes by microarray analyses that compared transdifferentiated cells with conventionally differentiated ones revealed high numbers of reproducibly regulated genes shortly after initiation of adipogenic and osteogenic reprogramming. Thereof, many genes were correlated with metabolism, transcription, and signal transduction as FGF, IGF, and Wnt signalling, but only few of the established adipogenesis- and none of the osteogenesis-associated marker genes were detected within 24 h after initiation of transdifferentiation. To find possible key control factors of transdifferentiation amongst the huge amount of regulated genes, a novel bioinformatic scoring scheme was developed that ranked genes due to their potential relevance for reprogramming. Besides the reproducibility and level of their regulation, also the possible reciprocity between the adipogenic and osteogenic transdifferentiation pathway was taken into account. Fibroblast growth factor 1 (FGF1) that ranked as one of the leading candidates to govern reprogramming was proven to inhibit adipogenic differentiation as well as adipogenic transdifferentiation in our cell culture system. Further examination of the FGF signalling pathway and other highly ranked genes could help to better understand the age-related fatty degeneration at the molecular level and therefore provide target molecules for therapeutic modulation of the plasticity of both lineages in order to inhibit adipogenic degeneration and to enhance osteogenesis.
The Nuclear Factors of Activated T cells (NFATs) are critical transcription factors that direct gene expression in immune and non-immune cells. Interaction of T cells with Ag-presenting cells results in the clustering of T-cell antigen receptor (TCR), co-receptors and integrins. Subsequent signal transduction resulting in NFAT activation leads to cytokine gene expression. Among the NFATs expressed in T cells, NFATc1 shows a unique induction property, which is essential for T cell differentiation and activation. It was revealed before that 3 major isoforms of NFATc1 are generated in activated T cells – the inducible short NFATc1/A, and the longer isoforms NFATc1/B and C. However, due to alternative splicing events and the existence of two different promoters and two alternative polyadenylation, we show here that 6 isoforms are synthesized in T cells which differ in their N-terminal and C-terminal peptides. In these experiments, we have identified these 6 isoforms by semi-quantitative long distance RT-PCR in several T cells subsets, and the inducible properties of 6 isoforms were investigated in those cells. The short NFATc1/A which is under control of the P1 promoter and the proximal pA1 polyadenylation site was the most prominent and inducible isoform in T effector cells. The transcription of the longer NFATc1/B and C isoforms is constitutive and even reduced in activated T lymphocytes. In addition to NFATc1 autoregulation, we tried to understand the NFATc1 gene regulation under the control of PKC pathways by microarray analysis. Compared to treatment of T cells with ionomycin alone (which enhances Ca++ flux), treatment of cells with the phorbolester TPA (leading to PKC activation) enhanced the induction of NFATc1. Microarray analysis revealed that PKC activation increased the transcription of NF-B1, Fos and JunB, which are important transcription factors binding to the regulatory regions of the NFATc1 gene. Besides the promoting effect of these transcription factors, we provided evidence that p53 and its targeting gene, Gadd45, exerted a negative effect on NFATc1 gene transcription. Summarizing all these results, we drew novel conclusions on NFATc1 expression, which provide a more detailed view on the regulatory mechanisms of NFATc1 transcription. Considering the high transcription and strong expression of NFATc1 in various human lymphomas, we propose that similar to NF-B, NFATc1/A plays a pivotal role in lymphomagenesis.