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Cytosolic calcium signals are evoked by a large variety of biotic and abiotic stimuli and play an important role in cellular and long distance signalling in plants. While the function of the plasma membrane in cytosolic Ca\(^{2+}\) signalling has been intensively studied, the role of the vacuolar membrane remains elusive.
A newly developed vacuolar voltage clamp technique was used in combination with live-cell imaging, to study the role of the vacuolar membrane in Ca\(^{2+}\) and pH homeostasis of bulging root hair cells of Arabidopsis.
Depolarisation of the vacuolar membrane caused a rapid increase in the Ca\(^{2+}\) concentration and alkalised the cytosol, while hyperpolarisation led to the opposite responses.
The relationship between the vacuolar membrane potential, the cytosolic pH and Ca2+ concentration suggests that a vacuolar H\(^{+}\)/Ca\(^{2+}\) exchange mechanism plays a central role in cytosolic Ca2+ homeostasis. Mathematical modelling further suggests that the voltage-dependent vacuolar Ca\(^{2+}\) homeostat could contribute to calcium signalling when coupled to a recently discovered K\(^{+}\) channel-dependent module for electrical excitability of the vacuolar membrane.
In contrast to the plasma membrane, the vacuole membrane has not yet been associated with electrical excitation of plants. Here, we show that mesophyll vacuoles from Arabidopsis sense and control the membrane potential essentially via the K\(^+\)-permeable TPC1 and TPK channels. Electrical stimuli elicit transient depolarization of the vacuole membrane that can last for seconds. Electrical excitability is suppressed by increased vacuolar Ca\(^{2+}\) levels. In comparison to wild type, vacuoles from the fou2 mutant, harboring TPC1 channels insensitive to luminal Ca\(^{2+}\), can be excited fully by even weak electrical stimuli. The TPC1-loss-of-function mutant tpc1-2 does not respond to electrical stimulation at all, and the loss of TPK1/TPK3-mediated K\(^{+}\) transport affects the duration of TPC1-dependent membrane depolarization. In combination with mathematical modeling, these results show that the vacuolar K\(^+\)-conducting TPC1 and TPK1/TPK3 channels act in concert to provide for Ca\(^{2+}\)- and voltage-induced electrical excitability to the central organelle of plant cells.
The phytohormone auxin performs important functions in the initiation of plant tissues and organs, as well as in the control of root growth in conjunction with external stimuli such as gravity, water and nutrient availability. These functions are based primarily on the auxin-dependent regulation of cell division and elongation. Important for the latter is the control of the cell turgor by the vacuole. As storage for nutrients, metabolites and toxins, vacuoles are of vital importance. Vacuolar stored metabolites and ions are exchanged across the vacuolar membrane with the cytoplasm via active transport processes as well as passively through ion channels. In their function as second messenger, calcium ions are important regulators but also subject to vacuolar transport processes. Changes in the cytosolic calcium concentration not only act locally, but are also associated with signal transduction over longer distances. In this work, electrophysiological methods were combined with imaging techniques to gain insights into the interaction between cytosolic calcium signals, vacuolar transport processes and auxin physiology in the intact plant organism.
Calcium signals are involved in the regulation of vacuolar ion channels and transporters. In order to investigate this in the intact organism, intracellular microelectrode measurements were performed in the model system of bulging Arabidopsis thaliana root hairs. By means of the two-electrode voltage-clamp technique, it could be confirmed that the vacuolar membrane is the limiting electrical resistance during intravacuolar measurements and thus measured ion currents actually represent only the currents across the vacuolar membrane. The already known time-dependent decrease of vacuolar conductivity during intravacuolar experiments could be further correlated with an impalement-related, transient increase of the cytosolic calcium concentration. Intravacuolar voltage-clamp experiments in root hair cells of calcium reporter plants confirmed this relationship between vacuolar conductivity and the cytosolic calcium concentration.
However, the vacuole is not just a recipient of cytosolic calcium signals. Since the vacuole represents the largest intracellular calcium reservoir, it has long been argued that it is also involved in the generation of such signals. This could be confirmed in intact root hair cells. Changes in the vacuolar membrane potential affected the cytosolic calcium concentration in these cells. While depolarizing potentials led to an increase of the cytosolic calcium concentration, hyperpolarization of the vacuolar membrane caused the opposite. Thermodynamic considerations of passive and active calcium transport across the vacuolar membrane suggested that the results described herein reflect the behaviour of vacuolar H+/Ca2+ exchangers whose activity is determined by the proton motive force.
In addition, cytosolic calcium has been shown to be a key regulator of a rapid auxin-induced signaling pathway that regulates polar transport of the hormone.
In the same model system of bulging root hairs it could be shown that the external application of auxin results in a very fast, auxin concentration- and pH-dependent depolarization of the plasma membrane potential. Synchronous with the depolarization of the plasma membrane potential, transient calcium signals were recorded in the cytosol. These were caused by an auxin-activated influx of calcium ions through the ion channel CNGC14. Experiments on loss-of-function mutants as well as pharmacological experiments showed that the auxin-induced activation of the calcium channel requires auxin-perception by the F-box proteins of the TIR1/AFB family.
Investigations of auxin-dependent depolarization as well as the auxin-induced influx of protons into epidermal root cells of loss-of-function mutants showed that the secondary active uptake of auxin by the high-affinity transport protein AUX1 is responsible for the rapid depolarization
Not only the cytosolic calcium signals correlated with CNGC14 function, but also the AUX1-mediated depolarization of root hairs. An unchanged expression of AUX1 in the cngc14 loss-of-function mutant suggested that the activity of AUX1 must be post-translationally regulated. This hypothesis was supported by experiments in which treatment with the calcium channel blocker lanthanum led to inactivation of AUX1 in the wild type.
The cytosolic loading of individual epidermal root cells with auxin resulted in the spread of lateral and acropetal calcium waves. These correlated with a shift of the auxin gradient at the root apex and thus supported a hypothetical calcium-dependent regulation of polar auxin transport. A model for a rapid, auxin-induced and calcium-dependent signaling pathway is presented and its importance for gravitropic root growth is discussed. Since AUX1-mediated depolarization varied with external phosphate concentration, the importance of this rapid signaling pathway is also discussed for the adaptation of root hair growth to an inadequate availability of phosphate.
Auxin is a key regulator of plant growth and development, but the causal relationship between hormone transport and root responses remains unresolved. Here we describe auxin uptake, together with early steps in signaling, in Arabidopsis root hairs. Using intracellular microelectrodes we show membrane depolarization, in response to IAA in a concentration- and pH-dependent manner. This depolarization is strongly impaired in aux1 mutants, indicating that AUX1 is the major transporter for auxin uptake in root hairs. Local intracellular auxin application triggers Ca2+ signals that propagate as long-distance waves between root cells and modulate their auxin responses. AUX1-mediated IAA transport, as well as IAA- triggered calcium signals, are blocked by treatment with the SCFTIR1/AFB - inhibitor auxinole. Further, they are strongly reduced in the tir1afb2afb3 and the cngc14 mutant. Our study reveals that the AUX1 transporter, the SCFTIR1/AFB receptor and the CNGC14 Ca2+ channel, mediate fast auxin signaling in roots.