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Institute
- Julius-von-Sachs-Institut für Biowissenschaften (360) (remove)
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Synthese und Relevanz von Oxylipinen in Blättern, Wurzeln und Samen von \(Arabidopsis\) \(thaliana\)
(2016)
Die Lipidoxidation kann sowohl enzymatisch als auch nicht enzymatisch erfolgen. Der erste Schritt der enzymatischen Oxidation wird durch Lipoxygenasen katalysiert, von welchen es in Arabidopsis thaliana sechs verschiedene Isoformen gibt. Dabei werden die Lipoxygenasen nach dem Kohlenstoffatom klassifiziert, welches sie oxidieren. Somit gehören die LOX1 und LOX5 zu den 9-Lipoxygenasen, während LOX2, LOX3, LOX4 und LOX6 zu den 13 Lipoxygenasen zählen. Während der Samenalterung findet vermehrt eine Lipidperoxidation statt, welche mit einem Verfall des Samens sowie einer verringerten Keimrate korreliert. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurde zunächst erfolgreich ein System zur künstlichen Samenalterung von Arabidopsis thaliana etabliert. Bei der künstlichen Alterung stiegen ähnlich wie bei der natürlichen Samenalterung oxidierte Lipide an und die Keimrate fiel ab. Nach Alterung konnte ein Anstieg von sechs verschiedenen oxidierten Triacylglycerolen detektiert werden. Es konnte in dieser Arbeit mit Hilfe von Mutanten mit Defekten in mehreren der Lipoxygenase Gene gezeigt werden, dass die Oxidation dieser veresterten Fettsäuren zum größten Teil nicht enzymatisch erfolgt. Bei der Alterung stiegen zudem enzymatisch gebildete 9 Lipoxygenase Produkte wie freie Hydroxy- und Ketofettsäuren an. Bei einer Analyse der freien oxidierten Fettsäuren konnte ebenfalls mit Lipoxygenase Mutanten ermittelt werden, dass diese hauptsächlich via LOX1 oxidiert werden. Die Untersuchung der Keimraten der Lipoxygenase Mutanten nach Alterung zeigte in mehreren Versuchen eine leicht erhöhte Keimrate der lox1 im Vergleich zum Wildtyp. Eine exogene Behandlung von Wildtyp Samen mit verschiedenen 9-Lipoxygenase Produkten, welche bei der Alterung ansteigen, führte allerdings nicht zu einer Keimungshemmung. Somit scheinen Produkte wie Hydroxy- und Ketofettsäuren der 9-Lipoxygenase LOX1 nicht die Hauptursache für die Keimungshemmung nach Alterung zu sein.
Darüber hinaus konnte in dieser Arbeit gezeigt werden, dass eine Behandlung der Blüten des Wildtyps mit Methyljasmonat zu einer signifikant höheren Keimrate der Samen im Vergleich zu Samen von unbehandelten Pflanzen nach Alterung führt. Ein „Lipidprofiling“ der Samen von mit Methyljasmonat behandelten Pflanzen wies signifikant geringere Gehalte sowohl an freien als auch veresterten oxidierten Fettsäuren auf, was mit einer erhöhten Lebensfähigkeit korrelierte. Diese Erkenntnisse könnten von großer Relevanz für die Landwirtschaft sein, falls eine Übertragung auf Nutzpflanzen möglich ist.
Ein weiterer Schwerpunkt dieser Arbeit war eine eingehende Untersuchung der Rolle und Funktion der LOX6. Mit Hilfe von GUS Färbungen konnte eine Lokalisation der LOX6 in Blättern und Wurzeln nachgewiesen werden.
Zudem wurde ein 35SLOX6GFP Konstrukt erstellt und in Arabidopsis thaliana Pflanzen stabil transformiert. Mit den selektionierten Linien könnte in Zukunft auch die intrazelluläre Lokalisation der LOX6 untersucht werden. Außerdem wurden Konstrukte mit dem Reportergen GFP und AOS sowie LOX2 hinter dem 35S Promotor kloniert, welche ebenfalls für weitere Lokalisations- und Kolokalisationsstudien genutzt werden können. Zudem wurde mit der Klonierung eines Konstruktes begonnen, um in Zukunft einen spezifischen LOX6 Antikörper herstellen und auch die endogene LOX6 Lokalisation in dem Wildtyp analysieren zu können. Um die Produkte der LOX6 zu untersuchen, wurden 35SLOX6 Linien sowie die lox6 Mutante verwendet. Obwohl Hydroxyfettsäuren und Jasmonate Folgeprodukte der LOX6 sind, wiesen die 35SLOX6 Linien weder basal, noch nach Stress erhöhte Gehalte dieser im Vergleich zum Wildtyp auf. Somit geben die 35SLOX6 Linien einen Hinweis darauf, dass LOX6 im Wildtyp nicht limitierend für die Produktion von Hydroxyfettsäuren und Jasmonaten sein könnte. Um zu untersuchen, ob das Substrat der LOX6 der limitierende Faktor sein könnte, wurde eine Behandlung mit α Linolensäure durchgeführt. Dabei entstanden allerdings nicht mehr Folgeprodukte der LOX6, sondern es fand sowohl in den 35SLOX6 Linien als auch in dem Wildtyp eine massive nicht enzymatische radikalische Oxidation der Fettsäuren statt. Um festzustellen, ob sich durch eine LOX6 Überexpression das Metabolom ändert, wurde eine „untargeted Analyse“ mit 35SLOX6 Linien durchgeführt. Diese zeigte vier Metabolite, welche in den 35SLOX6 Linien im Vergleich zum Wildtyp unterschiedlich stark vorhanden waren. Zudem sollte untersucht werden, ob sich die Physiologie und Stressresistenz in den Überexpressionslinien im Vergleich zum Wildtyp unterscheiden. Dabei zeichneten sich die 35SLOX6 Linien durch kleinere, hellere und rundere Blätter aus. Zudem wurden die Wurzeln der 35SLOX6 Linien bei Fraßversuchen mit Pocellio scaber im Vergleich zum Wildtyp weniger bevorzugt gefressen. Diese Erkenntnisse sowie die generierten Konstrukte und Pflanzenlinien können in der Zukunft einen weiteren Einblick in die vielfältigen Funktionen und Produkte der LOX6 gewähren.
Die Biosynthese von fragmentierten Fettsäuren (kurzkettige Dicarbonsäuren und deren Oxocarbonsäure-Vorstufen) ist in den meisten Pflanzen noch unklar. Wichtige, bekannte Dicarbonsäuren sind Pimelinsäure (PIM) und Azelainsäure (AZA) mit den putativen Vorstufen 7-Oxo¬heptanonsäure (OHA) und 9-Oxononanonsäure (ONA). Es besteht großes Interesse die Biosynthese¬mechanismen und die Regulation der Synthese dieser Substanzen aufzuklären, da Fettsäure¬fragmente an wichtigen biologischen Prozessen beteiligt sind. PIM ist eine essentielle Vorstufe von Biotin in Mikroben, Pilzen und Pflanzen. Bisher konnte die Biosynthese von PIM nur in Bakterien (E. coli und B. subtilis) aufgeklärt werden. Es gibt keine Hinweise auf einen analogen Mechanismus in Pflanzen. Eine biologische Aktivität von AZA bei Pflanzen konnte erst vor kurzem beschrieben werden. Eine Forschergruppe identifizierte AZA als Metabolit, der nach Infektion mit dem Pathogen Pseudomonas syringae vermehrt im Phloemsaft von Arabidopsis vorhanden ist und der in Pflanzen eine lokale und systemische Resistenz gegenüber dem Pathogen induziert. In Tieren sind Fettsäurefragmente ebenfalls Gegenstand aktueller Forschung. Es ist bekannt, dass eine nichtenzymatische oxidative Fragmentierung von Fettsäurehydroperoxiden in komplexen Membranlipiden als Folge von oxidativem Stress abläuft. Phospholipide mit veresterter ONA / AZA spielen aufgrund ihrer Struktur eine Rolle als endogene Liganden bei Reaktionen des angeborenen Immunsystems. Ziel dieser Arbeit war es, die Mechanismen der Oxidation von Fettsäuren und deren Fragmentierung in Pflanzen aufzuklären. Weiterhin sollte die Rolle der oxidierten Fragmente in der Immunantwort der Modellpflanze Arabidopsis thaliana untersucht werden. In Pflanzen wurden fragmentierte Fettsäuren im Rahmen dieser Arbeit erstmals in komplexen Lipiden identifiziert und verschiedene Hypothesen zur Bildung von Fettsäurefragmenten experimentell überprüft. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Biosynthese der Fettsäurefragmente in A. thaliana ausgehend von zwei- oder dreifach ungesättigten Fettsäuren stattfindet. 9- und 13-Lipoxygenasen (LOX1, LOX5 und LOX2) spielen dabei keine essentielle Rolle. Die Fettsäurefragmente konnten in Arabidopsis in freier Form und in komplexen Lipiden verestert (ausschließlich in Galactolipiden) detektiert werden. Applikationsexperimente zeigten, dass die Biosynthese der Fettsäurefragmente in den komplexen Lipiden auf nichtenzymatischem Wege in situ stattfindet. Dabei wird in Übereinstimmung mit den experimentellen in vitro und in vivo Daten als Reaktionsmechanismus die Dimer-Hypothese der Arbeitsgruppe um Alan Brash vorgeschlagen. In grünen Pflanzenteilen verläuft die Biosynthese demzufolge in drei Schritten ab: Im ersten Schritt entsteht ein „Pool“ von oxidierten Galactolipiden mit Hydroperoxid-Acylketten (mit konjugierten Dienen). Diese Hydroperoxide entstehen fortlaufend durch Oxidation der Fettsäureacyle mittels Singulett Sauerstoff in Plastiden. Nach Infektion mit dem Pathogen P. syringae (avirulenter Stamm) wird der „Pool“ von Galactolipidperoxiden durch die katalytische Einwirkung von freien Radikalen und der LOX2 erhöht. Im zweiten Schritt findet eine Radikal-katalysierte Addition von Peroxylradikalen an Fettsäurehydroperoxide statt, wobei Lipid-Peroxid-Dimere gebildet werden. Diese instabilen Zwischenprodukte zerfallen spontan in vier Produkte, darunter zwei Aldehyd-Fragmente, ein Alkoxyradikal und ein Hydroxylradikal. Bemerkenswert ist, dass durch die Fragmentierung des Dimers weitere Radikale de novo entstehen. Im dritten Schritt können die in Galactolipiden veresterten Oxocarbonsäuren zu Dicarbonsäuren oxidiert werden. Hydroperoxide, die Vorläufer der Fettsäurefragmente, wurden in freier Form und in komplexen Lipiden verestert analysiert. Unter basalen Bedingungen liegt sowohl bei den freien, als auch bei den veresterten Hydroxyfettsäuren ein fast komplett Singulett Sauerstoff abhängiger Oxidationsmechanismus vor. Drei Galactolipid Hauptspezies (Monogalactosyldiacylglycerol (MGDG)-18:3-16:3, Digalactosyldiacylglycerol (DGDG)-18:3-18:3 und DGDG-18:3-16:3) sind hoch oxidiert (5 bis 9 Mol-%, relativ zur jeweiligen Vorstufe). MGDG-18:3-18:3, ebenso wie Phosphatidylglycerol-, Phosphatidylinositol- und Triacylglycerol-Hydroxyfettsäurespezies liegen basal nur schwach oxidiert vor (< 2 Mol-%). Nach Infektion mit dem Pathogen P. syringae kommt es zu einer massiven Lipid Biosynthese und Oxidation durch die 13-Lipoxygenase LOX2, Singulett Sauerstoff und freie Radikale. Der Oxidationsgrad der Hydroxyfettsäuren in den Galactolipiden ändert sich kaum. Innerhalb der Triacylglycerole kommt es zu einem großen Anstieg der oxidierten Spezies (auf 12 bis 38 Mol-%). Die Oxidation und Fragmentierung der Fettsäuren in den Galactolipiden unter basalen Bedingungen und induziert durch die Pathogenbehandlung, stellen einen wichtigen biochemischen Prozess dar, auf dem PIM und AZA entstehen.
Blumeria graminis, the obligate biotrophic grass powdery mildew, is a highly pathogenic fungus capable of inflicting foliar diseases and of causing severe yield losses. There is asexual and sexual propagation in the life cycle of B. graminis. In the epidemiological processes of this pathogen, both types of spores - asexual conidia and sexual ascospores – are crucial.
Conidia of B. graminis are demonstrated to perceive cuticular very-long-chain aldehydes as molecular signal substances notably promoting germination and differentiation of the infection structure (the appressorium) – the prepenetration processes – in a concentration- and chain-length-dependent manner. Conidial germination and appressorium formation are known to be dramatically impeded by the presence of free water on the host surface. However, sexually formed ascospores are reported to easily germinate immersed in water. There are abundant assays on conidial prepenetration processes. However, with respect to the stimulating effects of very-long-chain aldehydes and to the influence of the presence of free water, ascosporic prepenetration processes are still obscure.
In order to study the effects of very-long-chain aldehydes on the ascosporic prepenetration processes of wheat powdery mildew fungus B. graminis f. sp. tritici, Formvar®-based in vitro systems were applied to exclude the secondary host effects (such as host resistance) and to reproducibly provide homogeneous hydrophobic substratum surfaces. By the presence of even-numbered very-long-chain aldehydes (C22 - C30), the appressorium formation of the ascospores was notably triggered in a chain-length dependent manner. N-octacosanal (C28) was the most inducing aldehyde tested. Unlike conidia, ascospores could easily differentiate immersed in water and showed a more variable differentiation pattern even with a single germ tube differentiating an appressorium.
To evaluate the alternative management against barley powdery mildew fungus Blumeria graminis f. sp. hordei, the suppressing effects of UV-C irradiation on the developmental processes of conidia on artificial surfaces (in vitro) and on host leaf surfaces (in vivo) were assayed. In vitro and in vivo, a single dose of 100 J m-2 UV-C was adequate to decrease conidial germination to < 20 % and to reduce appressorium formation to values < 5 %. UV-C irradiation negatively affected colony pustule size and vegetative propagation. Under photoperiodic conditions of 2h light/16h dark, 6h dark/12h light or 6h dark/18h light, UV-C-treated conidia showed photoreactivation (photo-recovery). White light-mediated photoreactivation was most effective immediately after UV-C irradiation, suggesting that a prolonged phase of darkness after UV-C application increased the efficacy of management against B. graminis. UV-C irradiation increased transcript levels of three putative photolyase genes in B. graminis, indicating those were probably involved in photoreactivation processes. However, mere white light or blue light (wavelength peak, 475 nm) could not induce the up-regulation of these genes.
To determine whether visible light directly impacted the prepenetration and penetration processes of this powdery mildew pathogen, conidia of Blumeria graminis f. sp. hordei and Blumeria graminis f. sp. tritici were inoculated onto artificial surfaces and on host leaf surfaces. Samples were analyzed after incubation periods under light conditions (white light intensity and spectral quality). Increasing white light intensities directly impaired conidial prepenetration processes in vitro but not in vivo. Applying an agar layer under the wax membrane compensated for conidial water loss as a consequence of high white light irradiation. Light stimulated in vitro and in vivo the appressorium elongation of B. graminis in a wavelength-dependent manner. Red light was more effective to trigger the elongation of appressorium than blue light or green light assayed.
Taken together, the findings of this study demonstrate that 1) a host surface recognition principle based on cuticular very-long-chain aldehydes is a common feature of B. graminis f. sp. tritici ascospores and conidia; 2) the transcriptional changes of three putative photolyase genes in B. graminis are mediated in a UV-C-dependent manner; 3) light directly affected the (pre)penetration processes of B. graminis.
Salinity stress tolerance in durum wheat is strongly associated with a plant's ability to control Na\(^+\) delivery to the shoot. Two loci, termed Nax1 and Nax2, were recently identified as being critical for this process and the sodium transporters HKT1;4 and HKT1; 5 were identified as the respective candidate genes. These transporters retrieve Na\(^+\) from the xylem, thus limiting the rates of Na\(^+\) transport from the root to the shoot. In this work, we show that the Nax loci also affect activity and expression levels of the SOS1-like Na\(^+\)/H\(^+\) exchanger in both root cortical and stelar tissues. Net Na\(^+\) efflux measured in isolated steles from salt-treated plants, using the non-invasive ion flux measuring MIFE technique, decreased in the sequence: Tamaroi (parental line)>Nax1=Nax2>Nax1:Nax2 lines. This efflux was sensitive to amiloride (a known inhibitor of the Na\(^+\)/H\(^+\) exchanger) and was mirrored by net H\(^+\) flux changes. TdSOS1 relative transcript levels were 6-10-fold lower in Nax lines compared with Tamaroi. Thus, it appears that Nax loci confer two highly complementary mechanisms, both of which contribute towards reducing the xylem Na\(^+\) content. One enhances the retrieval of Na\(^+\) back into the root stele via HKT1;4 or HKT1;5, whilst the other reduces the rate of Na\(^+\) loading into the xylem via SOS1. It is suggested that such duality plays an important adaptive role with greater versatility for responding to a changing environment and controlling Na\(^+\) delivery to the shoot.
Optogenetics was developed in the field of neuroscience and is most commonly using light-sensitive rhodopsins to control the neural activities. Lately, we have expanded this technique into plant science by co-expression of a chloroplast-targeted β-carotene dioxygenase and an improved anion channelrhodopsin GtACR1 from the green alga Guillardia theta. The growth of Nicotiana tabacum pollen tube can then be manipulated by localized green light illumination. To extend the application of analogous optogenetic tools in the pollen tube system, we engineered another two ACRs, GtACR2, and ZipACR, which have different action spectra, light sensitivity and kinetic features, and characterized them in Xenopus laevis oocytes, Nicotiana benthamiana leaves and N. tabacum pollen tubes. We found that the similar molecular engineering method used to improve GtACR1 also enhanced GtACR2 and ZipACR performance in Xenopus laevis oocytes. The ZipACR1 performed in N. benthamiana mesophyll cells and N. tabacum pollen tubes with faster kinetics and reduced light sensitivity, allowing for optogenetic control of anion fluxes with better temporal resolution. The reduced light sensitivity would potentially facilitate future application in plants, grown under low ambient white light, combined with an optogenetic manipulation triggered by stronger green light.
The discovery, heterologous expression, and characterization of channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2) – a light-sensitive cation channel found in the green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii – led to the success of optogenetics as a powerful technology, first in neuroscience. ChR2 was employed to induce action potentials by blue light in genetically modified nerve cells. In optogenetics, exogenous photoreceptors are expressed in cells to manipulate cellular activity. These photoreceptors were in the beginning mainly microbial opsins. During nearly two decades, many microbial opsins and their mutants were explored for their application in neuroscience. Until now, however, the application of optogenetics to plant studies is limited to very few reports. Several optogenetic strategies for plant research were demonstrated, in which most attempts are based on non-opsin optogenetic tools. Opsins need retinal (vitamin A) as a cofactor to generate the functional protein, the rhodopsin. As most animals have eyes that contain animal rhodopsins, they also have the enzyme - a 15, 15'-Dioxygenase - for retinal production from food-supplied provitamin A (beta-carotene). However, higher plants lack a similar enzyme, making it difficult to express functional rhodopsins successfully in plants. But plant chloroplasts contain plenty of beta-carotene. I introduced a gene, coding for a 15, 15'-Dioxygenase with a chloroplast target peptide, to tobacco plants. This enzyme converts a molecule of β-carotene into two of all-trans-retinal. After expressing this enzyme in plants, the concentration of all-trans-retinal was increased greatly. The increased retinal concentration led to increased expression of several microbial opsins, tested in model higher plants. Unfortunately, most opsins were observed intracellularly and not in the plasma membrane. To improve their localization in the plasma membrane, some reported signal peptides were fused to the N- or C-terminal end of opsins. Finally, I helped to identify three microbial opsins -- GtACR1 (a light-gated anion channel), ChR2 (a light-gated cation channel), PPR (a light-gated proton pump) which express and work well in the plasma membrane of plants. The transgene plants were grown under red light to prevent activation of the expressed opsins. Upon illumination with blue or green light, the activation of these opsins then induced the expected change of the membrane potential, dramatically changing the phenotype of plants with activated rhodopsins.
This study is the first which shows the potential of microbial opsins for optogenetic research in higher plants, using the ubq10 promoter for ubiquitous expression. I expect this to be just the beginning, as many different opsins and tissue-specific promoters for selective expression now can be tested for their usefulness. It is further to be expected that the here established method will help investigators to exploit more optogenetic tools and explore the secrets, kept in the plant kingdom.
Polygonum cuspidatum (Japanese knotweed, also known as Huzhang in Chinese), a plant that produces bioactive components such as stilbenes and quinones, has long been recognized as important in traditional Chinese herbal medicine. To better understand the biological features of this plant and to gain genetic insight into the biosynthesis of its natural products, we assembled a draft genome of P. cuspidatum using Illumina sequencing technology. The draft genome is ca. 2.56 Gb long, with 71.54% of the genome annotated as transposable elements. Integrated gene prediction suggested that the P. cuspidatum genome encodes 55,075 functional genes, including 6,776 gene families that are conserved in the five eudicot species examined and 2,386 that are unique to P. cuspidatum. Among the functional genes identified, 4,753 are predicted to encode transcription factors. We traced the gene duplication history of P. cuspidatum and determined that it has undergone two whole-genome duplication events about 65 and 6.6 million years ago. Roots are considered the primary medicinal tissue, and transcriptome analysis identified 2,173 genes that were expressed at higher levels in roots compared to aboveground tissues. Detailed phylogenetic analysis demonstrated expansion of the gene family encoding stilbene synthase and chalcone synthase enzymes in the phenylpropanoid metabolic pathway, which is associated with the biosynthesis of resveratrol, a pharmacologically important stilbene. Analysis of the draft genome identified 7 abscisic acid and water deficit stress-induced protein-coding genes and 14 cysteine-rich transmembrane module genes predicted to be involved in stress responses. The draft de novo genome assembly produced in this study represents a valuable resource for the molecular characterization of medicinal compounds in P. cuspidatum, the improvement of this important medicinal plant, and the exploration of its abiotic stress resistance.
Virulent Agrobacterium tumefaciens strains integrate their T-DNA into the plant genome where the encoded agrobacterial oncogenes are expressed and cause crown gall disease. Essential for crown gall development are IaaH (indole-3-acetamide hydrolase), IaaM (tryptophan monooxygenase) and Ipt (isopentenyl transferase), which encode enzymes for the biosynthesis of auxin (IaaH, IaaM) and cytokinin (Ipt). Although these oncogenes are well studied as the tumor-inducing principle, nothing is known about the regulation of oncogene expression in plant cells. Our studies show that the intergenic regions (IGRs) between the coding sequences (CDS) of the three oncogenes function as promoters in plant cells. These promoters possess a eukaryotic sequence organization and cis-regulatory elements for the binding of plant transcription factors. WRKY18, WRKY40, WRKY60 and ARF5 were identified as activators of the Ipt promoter whereas IaaH and IaaM is constitutively expressed and no transcription factor further activates their promoters. Consistent with these results, the wrky triple mutant plants in particular, develops smaller crown galls than wild-type and exhibits a reduced Ipt transcription, despite the presence of an intact ARF5 gene. WRKY40 and WRKY60 gene expression is induced by A. tumefaciens within a few hours whereas the ARF5 gene is transcribed later during crown gall development. The WRKY proteins interact with ARF5 in the plant nucleus, but only WRKY40 together with ARF5 synergistically boosts the activation of the Ipt promoter in an auxin-dependent manner. From our data, we propose that A. tumefaciens initially induces WRKY40 gene expression as a pathogen defense response of the host cell. The WRKY protein is recruited to induce Ipt expression, which initiates cytokinin-dependent host cell division. With increasing auxin levels triggered by ubiquitous expression of IaaH and IaaM, ARF5 is activated and interacts with WRKY40 to potentiate Ipt expression and balance cytokinin and auxin levels for further cell proliferation.
Virulent Agrobacterium tumefaciens strains transfer and integrate a DNA region of the tumor-inducing (Ti) plasmid, the T-DNA, into the plant genome and thereby cause crown gall disease. The most essential genes required for crown gall development are the T-DNA-encoded oncogenes, IaaH (indole-3-acetamide hydrolase), IaaM (tryptophan monooxygenase) for auxin, and Ipt (isopentenyl transferase) for cytokinin biosynthesis. When these oncogenes are expressed in the host cell, the levels of auxin and cytokinin increase and cause cell proliferation. The aim of this study was to unravel the molecular mechanisms, which regulate expression of the agrobacterial oncogenes in plant cells. Transcripts of the three oncogenes were expressed in Arabidopsis thaliana crown galls induced by A. tumefaciens strain C58 and the intergenic regions (IGRs) between their coding sequences (CDS) were proven to have promoter activity in plant cells. These promoters possess eukaryotic sequence structures and contain cis-regulatory elements for the binding of plant transcription factors. The high-throughput protoplast transactivation (PTA) system was used and identified the Arabidopsis thaliana transcription factors WRKY18, WRKY40, WRKY60 and ARF5 to activate the Ipt oncogene promoter. No transcription factor promoted the activity of the IaaH and IaaM promoters, despite the fact that the sequences contained binding elements for type B ARR transcription factors. Likewise, the treatment of Arabidopsis mesophyll protoplasts with cytokinin (trans-zeatin) and auxin (1-NAA) exerted no positive effect on IaaH and IaaM promoter activity. In contrast, the Ipt promoter strongly responded to a treatment with auxin and only modestly to cytokinin. The three Arabidopsis WRKYs play a role in crown gall development as the wrky mutants developed smaller crown galls than wild-type plants. The WRKY40 and WRKY60 genes responded very quickly to pathogen infection, two and four hours post infection, respectively. Transcription of the WRKY18 gene was induced upon buffer infiltration, which implicates a response to wounding. The three WRKY proteins interacted with ARF5 and with each other in the plant nucleus, but only WRKY40 together with ARF5 increased activation of the Ipt promoter. Moreover, ARF5 activated the Ipt promoter in an auxin-dependent manner. The severe developmental phenotype of the arf5 mutant prevented studies on crown gall development, nevertheless, the reduced crown gall growth on the transport inhibitor response 1 (TIR1) tir1 mutant, lacking the auxin sensor, suggested that auxin signaling is required for optimal crown gall development. In conclusion, A. tumefaciens recruits the pathogen defense related WRKY40 pathway to activate Ipt expression in T-DNA-transformed plant cells. IaaH and IaaM gene expression seems not to be controlled by transcriptional activators, but the increasing auxin levels are signaled via ARF5. The auxin-depended activation of ARF5 boosts expression of the Ipt gene in combination with WRKY40 to increase cytokinin levels and induce crown gall development.
In order to test the effects of environmental factors on different characteristics of plant leaf waxes, barley plants (Hordeum vulgare) were abiotically stress treated (exposure to darkness, heavy metal, high salt concentrations and drought), and biotically stressed by the infection with powdery mildew (Blumeria graminis f.sp. hordei; Bgh). Different wax parameters like amount, chemical composition, and micromorphology of epicuticular wax crystals, were investigated. Etiolated leaves of barley showed distinctly reduced wax amounts and modifications in their relative composition. The alterations of these wax parameters might be a result of a developmental delay, which could have been caused by a decreased availability of energy for cellular processes, due to lack of light. Cadmium exposure led to a 1.5-fold increase of wax amount, while chemical composition was unaffected. In drought- and salt-stressed plants, all investigated leaf wax parameters remained unaltered. In each of the abiotic treatments, the microstructure of epicuticular wax crystals, formed as typical platelets, was not modified. Even after 6d infection with powdery mildew (Bgh), neither locally nor systemically enforced modifications of wax features were revealed.
The analyzed leave surfaces, resulting from these four abiotic and the biotic treatment (phenotypic approach), were compared to altered leaf surfaces’ characteristics of 18 analyzed eceriferum (cer-) wax mutants (genotypic approach). Within the screening, 5 mutants were selected which distinctly differed from the wild-type in wax amount, portions of epi- and intracuticular wax fraction, relative chemical composition, crystal morphology, and surface wettability (hydrophobicity).
Apart from quantitative and qualitative effects on the leaf waxes, environmentally enforced modifications in cuticular waxes might be reflected in molecular processes of wax biogenesis. Therefore, a barley wax-microarray was established. 254 genes were selected, which are putatively involved in processes of de novo fatty acid biosynthesis, fatty acid elongation, and modification, and which are supposed to take part in lipid-trafficking between cell compartments, and transport of wax components to the outer cell surface. The regulations within the expression pattern evoked by the respective treatments were correlated with the corresponding analytical wax data, and the observed molecular effects of a 3d powdery mildew infection were compared with succeeding fungal morphogenesis. Etiolation and cadmium exposition pointed to transcriptional modifications in the de novo fatty acid synthesis, and in the screened, transport-related mechanisms, which correlate with respective alterations in surface wax characteristics. Moderate changes in the gene expression pattern, evoked by drought- and salinity-stress, might give hints for evolved adaptations in barley to such common habitat stresses. Theinvasion of powdery mildew into the epidermal host cells was reflected in the regulation of several genes. Beside other functions, these genes take part in pathogen defense, and intracellular component transport, or they encode transcription factors. The different modifications within the molecular responses evoked by the investigated abiotic treatments, and the effects of powdery mildew infection representing a biotic stressor, were compared between the different treatments.
In order to test the potential impact of different wax parameters on Bgh, conidia germination and differentiation was comparably investigated on leaf surfaces of abiotically stressed wild-type and cer-mutants, isolated cuticles, and further artificial surfaces. The rates of conidial development were similar on each of the leaf surfaces resulting from the abiotic treatments, while a significant reduction of the germination and differentiation success was revealed for the wax mutant cer-yp.949. Compared to the wild-type, developmental rates on isolated cuticles and extracted leaf waxes of the mutant cer-yp.949 indicated a modified embedding of cuticular waxes, and a possibly changed three-dimensional structure of the cer-yp.949 cuticle, which might explain the reduced conidial developmental rates on leaf surfaces of this particular mutant.
Experiments with Bgh conidia on mechanically de-waxed leaf surfaces (selective mechanical removal of the epicuticular leaf waxes with glue-like gum arabic, followed by an extraction of the intracuticular wax portion with chloroform) demonstrated the importance of the wax coverage for the germination and differentiation of the fungal conidia. On all dewaxed leaf surfaces, except those of cer-yp.949, the differentiation success of the germlings was significantly reduced, by about 20% (“wax-effect”). This result was verified through an artificial system with increased conidia developmental rates on glass slides covered with extracted leaf waxes. Further comparative tests with the major components of barley leaf wax, hexacosanol and hexacosanal, showed that the germination and differentiation of powdery mildew conidia not only depends on the different chemistry, but is also influenced by the respective surface hydrophobicity. Compared to hexacosanol, on hexacosanal coated glass surfaces, higher germination and differentiation rates were achieved, which correlated with increased levels of surface hydrophobicity. Developmental rates of conidia on hydrophobic foils demonstrated that hydrophobicity, as a sole surface factor, may stimulate the conidial germination and differentiation processes. Moreover, the survival of conidia on artificial surfaces is determined by additional surface derived factors, e.g. the availability of water, and a pervadable matrix.
The light-gated cation channel Channelrhodopsin-2 was discovered and characterized in 2003. Already in 2005/2006 five independent groups demonstrated that heterologous expression of Channelrhodopsin-2 is a highly useful and simply applicable method for depolarizing and thereby activating nerve cells. The application of Channelrhodopsin-2 revolutionized neuroscience research and the method was then called optogenetics. In recent years more and more light-sensitive proteins were successfully introduced as “optogenetic tools”, not only in neuroscience. Optogenetic tools for neuronal excitation are well developed with many different cation-conducting wildtype and mutated channelrhodopsins, whereas for inhibition of neurons in the beginning (2007) only hyperpolarizing ion pumps were available. The later discovered light-activated anion channels (anion channelrhodopsins) can be useful hyperpolarizers, but only at low cytoplasmic anion concentration. For this thesis, I optimized CsR, a proton-pumping rhodopsin from Coccomyxa subellipsoidea, which naturally shows a robust expression in Xenopus laevis oocytes and plant leaves. I improved the expression and therefore the photocurrent of CsR about two-fold by N-terminal modification to the improved version CsR2.0, without altering the proton pump function and the action spectrum. A light pulse hyperpolarised the mesophyll cells of CsR2.0-expressing transgenic tobacco plants (N. tabacum) by up to 20 mV from the resting membrane potential of -150 to -200 mV. The robust heterologous expression makes CsR2.0 a promising optogenetic tool for hyperpolarization in other organisms as well. A single R83H point-mutation converted CsR2.0 into a light-activated (passive) proton channel with a reversal potential close to the Nernst potential for intra-/extra-cellular H+ concentration. This light-gated proton channel is expected to become a further useful optogenetic tool, e.g. for analysis of pH-regulation in cells or the intercellular space. Ion pumps as optogenetic tools require high expression levels and high light intensity for efficient pump currents, whereas long-term illumination may cause unwanted heating effects. Although anion channelrhodopsins are effective hyperpolarizing tools in some cases, their effect on neuronal activity is dependent on the cytoplasmic chloride concentration which can vary among neurons. In nerve cells, increased conductance for potassium terminates the action potential and K+ conductance underlies the resting membrane potential in excitable cells. Therefore, several groups attempted to synthesize artificial light-gated potassium channels but 2 all of these published innovations showed serious drawbacks, ranging from poor expression over lacking reversibility to poor temporal precision. A highly potassium selective light-sensitive silencer of action potentials is needed. To achieve this, I engineered a light-activated potassium channel by the genetic fusion of a photoactivated adenylyl cyclase, bPAC, and a cAMP-gated potassium channel, SthK. Illumination activates bPAC to produce cAMP and the elevated cAMP level opens SthK. The slow diffusion and degradation of cAMP makes this construct a very light-sensitive, long-lasting inhibitor. I have successfully developed four variants with EC50 to cAMP ranging from 7 over 10, 21, to 29 μM. Together with the original fusion construct (EC50 to cAMP is 3 μm), there are five different light- (or cAMP-) sensitive potassium channels for researchersto choose, depending on their cell type and light intensity needs.
The green synthesis of silver nanoparticles (SNPs) using plant extracts is an eco-friendly method. It is a single step and offers several advantages such as time reducing, cost-effective and environmental non-toxic. Silver nanoparticles are a type of Noble metal nanoparticles and it has tremendous applications in the field of diagnostics, therapeutics, antimicrobial activity, anticancer and neurodegenerative diseases. In the present work, the aqueous extracts of aerial parts of Lampranthus coccineus and Malephora lutea F. Aizoaceae were successfully used for the synthesis of silver nanoparticles. The formation of silver nanoparticles was early detected by a color change from pale yellow to reddish-brown color and was further confirmed by transmission electron microscope (TEM), UV–visible spectroscopy, Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, dynamic light scattering (DLS), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and energy-dispersive X-ray diffraction (EDX). The TEM analysis of showed spherical nanoparticles with a mean size between 12.86 nm and 28.19 nm and the UV- visible spectroscopy showed λ\(_{max}\) of 417 nm, which confirms the presence of nanoparticles. The neuroprotective potential of SNPs was evaluated by assessing the antioxidant and cholinesterase inhibitory activity. Metabolomic profiling was performed on methanolic extracts of L. coccineus and M. lutea and resulted in the identification of 12 compounds, then docking was performed to investigate the possible interaction between the identified compounds and human acetylcholinesterase, butyrylcholinesterase, and glutathione transferase receptor, which are associated with the progress of Alzheimer’s disease. Overall our SNPs highlighted its promising potential in terms of anticholinesterase and antioxidant activity as plant-based anti-Alzheimer drug and against oxidative stress.
Optogenetics became successful in neuroscience with Channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2), a light-gated cation channel from the green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, as an easy applicable tool. The success of ChR2 inspired the development of various photosensory proteins as powerful actuators for optogenetic manipulation of biological activity. However, the current optogenetic toolbox is still not perfect and further improvements are desirable. In my thesis, I engineered and characterized several different optogenetic tools with new features.
(i) Although ChR2 is the most often used optogenetic actuator, its single-channel conductance and its Ca2+ permeability are relatively low. ChR2 variants with increased Ca2+ conductance were described recently but a further increase seemed possible. In addition, the H+ conductance of ChR2 may lead to cellular acidification and unintended pH-related side effects upon prolonged illumination. Through rational design, I developed several improved ChR2 variants with larger photocurrent, higher cation selectivity, and lower H+ conductance.
(ii) The light-activated inward chloride pump NpHR is a widely used optogenetic tool for neural silencing. However, pronounced inactivation upon long time illumination constrains its application for long-lasting neural inhibition. I found that the deprotonation of the Schiff base underlies the inactivation of NpHR. Through systematically exploring optimized illumination schemes, I found illumination with blue light alone could profoundly increase the temporal stability of the NpHR-mediated photocurrent. A combination of green and violet light eliminates the inactivation effect, similar to blue light, but leading to a higher photocurrent and therefore better light-induced inhibition.
(iii) Photoactivated adenylyl cyclases (PACs) were shown to be useful for light-manipulation of cellular cAMP levels. I developed a convenient in-vitro assay for soluble PACs that allows their reliable characterization. Comparison of different PACs revealed that bPAC from Beggiatoa is the best optogenetic tool for cAMP manipulation, due to its high efficiency and small size. However, a residual activity of bPAC in the dark is unwanted and the cytosolic localization prevents subcellular precise cAMP manipulation. I therefore introduced point mutations into bPAC to reduce its dark activity. Interestingly, I found that membrane targeting of bPAC with different linkers can remarkably alter its activity, in addition to its localization. Taken together, a set of PACs with different activity and subcellular localization were engineered for selection based on the intended usage. The membrane-bound PM-bPAC 2.0 with reduced dark activity is well-tolerated by hippocampal neurons and reliably evokes a transient photocurrent, when co-expression with a CNG channel.
(iv) Bidirectional manipulation of cell activity with light of different wavelengths is of great importance in dissecting neural networks in the brain. Selection of optimal tool pairs is the first and most important step for dual-color optogenetics. Through N- and C-terminal modifications, an improved ChR variant (i.e. vf-Chrimson 2.0) was engineered and selected as the red light-controlled actuator for excitation. Detailed comparison of three two-component potassium channels, composed of bPAC and the cAMP-activated potassium channel SthK, revealed the superior properties of SthK-bP. Combining vf-Chrimson 2.0 and improved SthK-bP “SthK(TV418)-bP” could reliably induce depolarization by red light and hyperpolarization by blue light. A residual tiny crosstalk between vf-Chrimson 2.0 and SthK(TV418)-bP, when applying blue light, can be minimized to a negligible level by applying light pulses or simply lowering the blue
light intensity.
Three different types of non-photochemical de-excitation of absorbed light energy protect photosystem II of the sun- and desiccation-tolerant moss Rhytidium rugosum against photo-oxidation. The first mechanism, which is light-induced in hydrated thalli, is sensitive to inhibition by dithiothreitol. It is controlled by the protonation of a thylakoid protein. Other mechanisms are activated by desiccation. One of them permits exciton migration towards a far-red band in the antenna pigments where fast thermal deactivation takes place. This mechanism appears to be similar to a mechanism detected before in desiccated lichens. A third mechanism is based on the reversible photo-accumulation of a radical that acts as a quencher of excitation energy in reaction centres of photosystem II. On the basis of absorption changes around 800 nm, the quencher is suggested to be an oxidized chlorophyll. The data show that desiccated moss is better protected against photo-oxidative damage than hydrated moss. Slow drying of moss thalli in the light increases photo-protection more than slow drying in darkness.
Einerseits werden anthropogene Störungen oft genannt, um erfolgreiche Invasionen von invasiven Organismen in ihren neuen Arealen zu erklären. Andererseits sind gängige Theorien pflanzlicher Invasionen häufig für ihren limitierten erklärenden und voraussagenden Wert kritisiert worden, hauptsächlich aus Gründen der ökologisch komplexen Zusammenhänge, die Invasionen zu Grunde liegen. Die ökologische Komplexität eines andauernden Invasionsprozesses zweier invasiver Brassicaceen berücksichtigend, wurde diese Studie durchgeführt, um experimentell die wichtigsten Faktoren zu bestimmen, die den an Feldstandorten zu beobachtenden variablen Dominanz-Mustern der Arten im Vergleich zu vergesellschafteten indigenen Arten zugrunde liegen. Das Vorkommen, die relative Häufigkeit und die Dynamik der genannten Arten in spontanen Beständen stand daher im Zentrum dieser Arbeit. Ziel der Arbeit war es, auf der Basis des erlangten Verständnisses der funktionellen Ökologie der Kodominanzgesellschaften Vorhersagen zum gegenwärtig fortschreitenden Invasionsprozeß zu machen. Die Bestandsentwicklung (Wachstum und Fitneß) der zwei invasiven Arten wurde in Abhängigkeit unterschiedlicher Artenkombination, Etablierungsstadium und anthropogenem Störungsregime in experimenteller Vegetation untersucht. Diese Untersuchungen sind von unmittelbarer Bedeutung für das untersuchte System, weil eine möglichst 'naturgetreue' Artenvergesellschaftung an einem geeigneten Standort gewählt wurde. Darüber hinaus sollte durch die Dauer des Experiments (3 volle Vegetationsperioden) vermieden werden, daß es zu Fehleinschätzungen von Bestandsentwicklungsdynamiken kommt, die aus zu kurzen Beobachtungszeiträumen resultieren können und für prädiktive Aussagen bedeutungslos sind. Die dieser Arbeit zugrunde liegenden Fragen und Hypothesen waren: (?) Werden die invasiven relativ zu den indigenen Arten durch Störungsmanagements gefördert? Führt wiederholte Störung zu einer Verstärkung der Effekte über die Zeit? (!) Hypothese: Die invasiven können relativ zu den indigenen Arten unter dem Einfluß von Störungsmanagements profitieren, wobei die Unterschiede mit der Zeit stärker werden. (.)Die Hypothese wird durch die Ergebnisse bestätigt. Kumulative, durch wiederholte Störungen verursachte Effekte, fördern die Invasiven relativ zu den Indigenen. (?) Unterscheiden sich die unterschiedlichen Störungsregime in ihren Effekten voneinander? (!) Hypothese: Beide invasive Arten reagieren in ähnlicher Weise. Eine zunehmende Störungsintensität (P>M2>M1>K) verstärkt die Effekte. (.)Diese Hypothese wird durch die Ergebnisse teilweise bestätigt. Insgesamt gesehen werden die Invasiven durch eine zunehmende Intensität der Störung stärker gefördert. Allerdings unterscheiden sich die beiden Arten in ihrer Reaktion auf unterschiedliche Störungen erheblich. B. orientalis profitierte nur mäßig, sowohl von Mahd als auch von Bodenabtragung. R. austriaca dagegen wurde von Mahd eher beeinträchtigt und profitierte sehr stark von Bodenabtragung. (?) Wie wirken sich Variationen in der Zusammensetzung von Etablierungsstadien zu Beginn einer Bestandsentwicklung aus? (!)Hypothese: Ein Entwicklungsvorsprung, i.a. ein weiter fortgeschrittenes Etablierungssstadium im Vergleich zu den vergesellschafteten Indigenen, sollte für die Invasiven von Vorteil sein. Im Falle, daß beide Gruppen durch gleiche Etablierungsstadien vertreten sind, sollte die Etablierung aus juvenilen Stadien vorteilhafter sein als jene aus adultem Pflanzenmaterial, weil angenommen wird, daß invasive Arten hohe anfängliche Wachstumsraten juveniler Stadien aufweisen. (.) Auch diese Hypothese kann durch die Ergebnisse nur teilweise bestätigt werden. Ein Etablierungsvorsprung ist für die Invasiven nur zu Beginn der Bestandsentwicklung bedeutend. Darüber hinaus profitiert R. austriaca relativ stärker von der Regeneration aus adultem Pflanzenmaterial. Zurückzuführen ist das auf das enorme Potential dieser Art, aus fragmentierten Pflanzen erfolgreich zu regenerieren. (?) Haben unterschiedliche Artenkombinationen einen Einfluß auf die Reaktion der Invasiven auf die unterschiedlichen Störungsregime und Etablierungsstadien? (!) Hypothese: Ein Unterschied in der Reaktion wird erwartet, aber keine Veränderung der wesentlichen Muster. (.) Der Austausch einer Art (funktioneller Ökotyp) der fünf (sechs) vergesellschafteten Arten in experimenteller Vegetation hatte einen stärkeren Effekt auf die Ergebnisse als erwartet. Es zeigt sich, daß die An- oder Abwesenheit eines funktionellen Ökotyps dafür verantwortlich ist, ob die invasive Art in ihrer Bestandsentwicklung prosperiert oder beeinträchtigt wird. Zusammenfassend läßt sich sagen, daß die Invasiven schwache Konkurrenten sind, aber von anthropogener Störung opportun profitieren. Ihre Entwicklung in den weit verbreiteten 'Co-Dominanzgesellschaften', welche Betrachtungsgegenstand dieser Untersuchung waren, hängt eindeutig mit allen vier untersuchten Faktoren zusammen und ist von diesen abhängig: Artidentität, Art der Störung, Etablierungsstadium und Artkombination. Die Effekte dieser Faktoren interagieren in komplexer Art und Weise. Zieht man die gegenwärtige Art der Landnutzung in der Region in Betracht, muß davon ausgegangen werden, daß beide Arten in mäßig bis stark gestörten krautigen Gesellschaften mit ausreichender Nährstoffversorgung weiter zunehmen werden. Der Invasionserfolg von R. austriaca wird stärker von Bodenstörung und Bodentranslokation abhängen, während für B. orientalis zu erwarten ist, daß sie vor allem an gemähten Standorten mit nicht zu dichtem Bestand an Gräsern weiter expandieren wird.
Bei der Betrachtung des Pathosystems Ustilago maydis/Zea mays kommen sich Proteine unterschiedlicher Organismen sehr nahe. Die derzeitige Hypothese zur lokalen Szenerie in der ausgebildeten Interaktionszone von Pflanze und Pilz spricht zwei SUC-Transportern dabei wichtige Rollen in der Pflanze/Pilz Interaktion zu. UmSrt1, der erste beschriebene pilzliche SUC-Transporter aus dem Maispathogen Ustilago maydis (Wahl et al., 2010) und ZmSUT1, der aus Zea mays stammende low affinity SUC-Transporter (Carpaneto et al., 2005) werden als Gegenspieler im Konkurrenzkampf um die extrazelluläre SUC beschrieben (Wahl et al., 2010).
ZmSUT1 ist in der Plasmamembran der Geleitzellen lokalisiert und dort für die Beladung des Phloems mit SUC aus dem Apoplasten zuständig. UmSrt1, für den eine Lokalisation in der Plasmamembran in Hefen gezeigt werden konnte, sorgt als „high affinity“ Transporter mit dem Import extrazellulärer SUC für die Kohlenhydratversorgung der pilzlichen Entwicklung und Ernährung (Wahl et al., 2010).
Gegenstand der vorliegenden Arbeit waren vergleichende elektrophysiologische Charakterisierungen der SUC-Transporteigenschaften von ZmSUT1 und UmSrt1. Durch heterologe Expression der Proteine in Xenopus Oozyten und anschließende Messungen unter Verwendung der DEVC-Technik wurden die Eigenschaften des SUC-Transports beider SUC-Transporter im Hinblick auf ihre Konzentrations-, pH-, Spannungsabhängigkeit, sowie auf die Substratspezifität hin untersucht. Diese vergleichenden Studien zur Charakterisierung beider Transportproteine ergaben ihren physiologischen Aufgaben entsprechende Unterschiede. ZmSUT1 konnte ein Verhalten als „low affinity/high capacity“ Transporter mit Affinitäten gegenüber SUC im millimolaren Bereich mit einer spannungsunabhängigen Transportaktivität bestätigt werden. Zudem konnte die Transportaktivität als stark H+-abhängig beschrieben werden (Carpaneto et al., 2005), deren Optimum nahe des physiologischen Bereichs des Apoplasten bestimmt werden konnte. Des Weiteren wurden Untersuchungen zur Substratspezifität angefertigt, die ZmSUT1 eindeutig eine Typ-II SUT Zugehörigkeit (Sivitz et al., 2005; Reinders et al., 2006; Sun et al., 2010) mit einem engen Substratspektrum belegen.
Für UmSrt1 dagegen wurde ein Transportverhalten als „high affinity/low capacity“ Transporter mit höheren Affinitäten gegenüber SUC im mikromolaren Bereich ermittelt (Wahl et al., 2010). Darüber hinaus beschreiben die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit eine weitestgehend H+-unabhängige Transportaktivität in einem weiten pH-Wert Bereich. Im Profil der Substratspezifität zeigte sich neben SUC als primärem Substrat ein eher unspezifischer Transport weiterer Mono-, Di- und Trisaccharide. Die postulierte SUC-Spezifität von UmSrt1 (Wahl et al., 2010) konnte mit den vorliegenden Ergebnissen nicht bestätigt werden. Mit einem effektivem Import von SUC mittels UmSrt1 in den Pilz umgeht U. maydis die Hydrolyse von SUC im pflanzlichen Apoplasten und damit die Bildung extrazellulärer Glukose, die ein Signal in der pflanzlichen Pathogenabwehr darstellt (Herbers et al., 1996b; Ehness et al., 1997; Kocal et al., 2008). Somit scheint es für Ustillago maydis möglich zu sein, eine von der Wirtspflanze Zea mays weitestgehend „unbemerkte“ Aufnahme von Kohlenhydraten über einen breiten pH-Wert Bereich bewerkstelligen zu können. Die vielfach höheren Affinitäten gegenüber SUC und H+ verschaffen UmSrt1 im Konkurrenzkampf um die extrazelluläre SUC einen klaren Vorteil gegenüber ZmSUT1. Diese Daten deuten darauf hin, dass U. maydis auch unter Stressbedingungen der Pflanze und damit resultierenden Schwankungen der H+-Konzentrationen in der Lage ist, den SUC-Import für seine eigene Ernährung sicher zu stellen.
Das Gebiet posttranslationaler Modifikationen von SUC-Transportern ist weitestgehend unerforscht. In planta Versuche deuteten darauf hin, dass Redox-aktive Substanzen den Zuckertransport beeinflussen. Im Oozytensystem wurde deshalb die Aktivität von ZmSUT1 in Anwesenheit der Redox-aktiven Substanzen GSH, GSSG, H2O2 und DTT getestet. Der geringfügige Einfluss dieser Substanzen auf SUC-induzierte Ströme von ZmSUT1 deuten jedoch darauf hin, dass SUC-Transporter nicht ein direktes Ziel von Redox-Veränderungen darstellen.
Um die Struktur des pflanzlichen SUC-Transporters ZmSUT1 näher zu beleuchten und die an der Bindung von SUC involvierten Aminosäuren zu identifizieren, wurde auf der Basis der bereits bekannten Struktur von LacY aus E.coli, ebenfalls einem Vertreter der MFS, ein 3D-Modell für ZmSUT1 erstellt. Die AS, die in LacY an der Bindung des Substrats beteiligt sind, wurden bereits identifiziert (Vadyvaloo et al., 2006). Darauf aufbauend wurden im Rahmen einer Mutagenesestudie gezielt AS im Protein ZmSUT1 ausgewählt, die in verwandten SUC-Transportern konserviert und in homolgen Positionen zu den in LacY bereits identifizierten AS vorliegen. In diesen ausgewählten Positionen wurden mittels gerichteter Mutagenese acht Mutanten generiert. Die elektrophysiologische Charakterisierung dieser ZmSUT1-Mutanten identifizierte zwei Mutanten, die in der SUC-/H+-Translokation gestört waren sowie zwei WT-ähnliche. Es konnten vier Mutanten mit erniedrigten Affinitäten gegenüber SUC identifiziert werden, von denen zwei zusätzlich Veränderungen in ihrer Substratspezifität aufweisen. Diese vier AS werden als mögliche Kandidaten angesehen, an der Bindung und/oder Translokation von SUC beteiligt zu sein.
Plants exposed to herbivory may defend themselves by attracting the “enemies of their enemies”, a phenomenon called induced indirect defense (IID). In this process, the de novo production and emission of volatile organic compounds (VOC) by the affected plant is activated via a jasmonic acid (JA) dependent signaling cascade. VOC can be very specific for the inducing herbivore as well as for the emitting plant. Carnivores as predatory mites and parasitoid wasps use these substances as prey- or host-finding cues. If the herbivore is parasitized successfully, its development is slowed and thus the damage of the plant is decreased. Additional abiotic stress may modulate the plant’s ability to produce and/or emit herbivore induced VOC. Ultraviolet (UV) radiation can have multiple physiological effects on plants, amongst others the activation of the expression of genes that are also activated during anti-herbivore defense. To investigate UV effects, foils with different UV transmittance were used to manipulate ambient solar radiation. One foil was permeable for the whole solar spectrum including UV radiation whereas the other excluded radiation below a wavelength of 400 nm. Soybean exposed to UV increased concentrations of isorhamnetin- and quercetin-based flavonoids as effective photo-protective compounds in the leaves and showed a reduced growth compared to plants exposed to ambient radiation lacking UV. The altered chemical composition of the leaves had no effect on food choice and performance of herbivorous Spodoptera frugiperda larvae. Photo-protection by flavonoids seems to be efficient to prevent further UV effects on IID as plants of both treatments emitted the same blend of induced VOC and hence females of the parasitoid Cotesia marginiventris did not prefer plants from on of the treatments in the olfactometer. Nitrogen is one important macronutrient for all trophic levels and thus deficiency of this nutrient was expected to affect IID of soybean profoundly. To manipulate N availability for soybean plants hydroponic culture was used. One treatment was cultured in a standard hydroponic solution whereas in the N deficiency treatment in the solution all salts containing N were replaced with N-free salts. In N deficient plants root biomass was increased to allow the plant to forage more efficiently for the nutrient. Despite this morphological adaptation, photosynthetic efficiency as well as leaf N and soluble protein content were reduced significantly in N deficient soybean. The N deficiency was passed on to the third trophic level as herbivores fed with the affected leaves had a reduced body N content on her part and showed a decreased growth but no feeding preference for the superior food. Parasitoids reared in such N deficient herbivores had significant lower pupal weight compared to parasitoids reared in hosts fed with fully fertilized soybean. N deficient plants emitted a quantitatively altered herbivore induced blend. The two terpenes β-Bergamotene and (E,E)-α-Farnesene were emitted in higher amounts whereas (Z)-3-Hexenyl-α-methylbutyrate was emitted in significantly lower amount. Despite this quantitatively modified VOC blend the parasitoids host-searching behavior was not affected. Heavy metals (HM) are proposed to affect various biochemical pathways in plants including defense pathways by production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the tissue. The ROS on its part may affect production and release of endogenous JA, an important messenger in defense signaling. In this study maize plants were grown hydroponically and exposed to different increased concentrations of copper and cadmium. Maize seems to be able to exclude the excess HM from the leaves because the HM were found mainly in the roots and only to a minor degree in the shoots of the plants. Despite this exclusion the HM significantly affected uptake of other metal ions into the plant. The excess of the HM in combination with the attenuated uptake of other ions led to a reduced growth of roots and shoots as well as to reduced photosynthetic efficiency. Thus the nutritional value of the plants for the herbivore was lowered either by direct toxic effects of the HM or indirectly by altering plant chemical composition. S. frugiperda larvae fed with leaves exposed to high HM concentrations showed a significantly reduced growth but they did prefer neither control nor HM treated plants in a food-choice assay. Cu had a transient priming effect on JA as pre-exposure to a high excess of Cu led to higher amounts of herbivore induced JA compared to control plants exposed only to standard concentration of Cu. As anticipated the increased JA was followed by an increase in herbivore induced VOC in high-Cu treated plants caused by a increase of the green leaf volatiles (E)-3-Hexenal, (Z)-3-Hexenol and (Z)-3-Hexenylacetat and the terpenes Linalool, (E)-α-Bergamotene, (E)-β-Farnesene, and β-Sesquiphellandrene. Despite these profound changes in herbivore induced VOC the parasitoids host searching behavior was not affected. As described, the abiotic stresses UV, N deficiency and excess HM affected the morphology and physiology of soybean and maize, the performance of the herbivore S. frugiperda and even the performance of the parasitoid C. marginiventris. However the host searching behavior of the parasitoid was not affected even if the herbivore induced VOC blend was altered. Thus parasitoids seem to be a very reliable defender for plants and IID a very robust way of herbivore defense.
In der inkompatiblen Interaktion von Lycopersicon esculentum und Cuscuta reflexa wird die Ausbildung von Haustorien, spezieller Organe, die der Nahrungsaufnahme durch den Parasiten dienen,bereits in einem sehr frühen Stadium der Infektion gehemmt. Um einen Einblick in die Regulationsmechanismen der Tomatenreaktion zu gewinnen, wurde eine Subtraktive Hybridisierung durchgeführt und es konnten 20 Gene identifiziert werden, deren Transkripte nach Cuscuta-Befall im Wirtsgewebe akkumulieren. Entsprechend ihrer möglichen Proteinfunktion lassen sich die mRNAs verschiedenen Bereichen der Tomatenreaktion im Infektionsprozess zuordnen: (a) Abwehr-assoziierte Proteine, (b) Signaltransduktionsassoziierte Proteine, (c) Zellstreckungsassoziierte Proteine und (d) Proteine mit bislang vollständig unbekannter Funktion. Einige der identifizierten mRNAs wurden durch Northern Analysen näher charakterisiert. Da eine der mRNAs eine mögliche Xyloglucanendotransglycosylase (XET) kodiert, wurde die XET-Aktivität im Tomatengewebe nach Infektion bestimmt. Außerdem wurde der Einfluß des Phytohormons Auxin auf die Akkumulation der Xyloglucanendotransglycosylase LeEXT1 sowie des Aquaporins LeAqp2 untersucht. Trotz auxinregulierter Transkription nach Cuscuta-Befall zeigte die auxininsensitive Tomatenmutante diageotropica im Vergleich zum Wildtyp keine veränderte Kompatibilität.
Xylem embolism resistance has been identified as a key trait with a causal relation to drought-induced tree mortality, but not much is known about its intra-specific trait variability (ITV) in dependence on environmental variation. We measured xylem safety and efficiency in 300 European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) trees across 30 sites in Central Europe, covering a precipitation reduction from 886 to 522 mm year−1. A broad range of variables that might affect embolism resistance in mature trees, including climatic and soil water availability, competition, and branch age, were examined. The average P50 value varied by up to 1 MPa between sites. Neither climatic aridity nor structural variables had a significant influence on P50. However, P50 was less negative for trees with a higher soil water storage capacity, and positively related to branch age, while specific conductivity (Ks) was not significantly associated with either of these variables. The greatest part of the ITV for xylem safety and efficiency was attributed to random variability within populations. We conclude that the influence of site water availability on P50 and Ks is low in European beech, and that the high degree of within-population variability for P50, partly due to variation in branch age, hampers the identification of a clear environmental signal.
Plants have to tightly control their energy homeostasis to ensure survival and fitness under constantly changing environmental conditions. Thus, it is stringently required that energy-consuming stress-adaptation and growth-related processes are dynamically tuned according to the prevailing energy availability. The evolutionary conserved SUCROSE NON-FERMENTING1 RELATED KINASES1 (SnRK1) and the downstream group C/S\(_{1}\) basic leucine zipper (bZIP) transcription factors (TFs) are well-characterised central players in plants’ low-energy management. Nevertheless, mechanistic insights into plant growth control under energy deprived conditions remains largely elusive. In this work, we disclose the novel function of the low-energy activated group S\(_{1}\) bZIP11-related TFs as regulators of auxin-mediated primary root growth. Whereas transgenic gain-of-function approaches of these bZIPs interfere with the activity of the root apical meristem and result in root growth repression, root growth of loss-of-function plants show a pronounced insensitivity to low-energy conditions. Based on ensuing molecular and biochemical analyses, we propose a mechanistic model, in which bZIP11-related TFs gain control over the root meristem by directly activating IAA3/SHY2 transcription. IAA3/SHY2 is a pivotal negative regulator of root growth, which has been demonstrated to efficiently repress transcription of major auxin transport facilitators of the PIN-FORMED (PIN) gene family, thereby restricting polar auxin transport to the root tip and in consequence auxin-driven primary root growth. Taken together, our results disclose the central low-energy activated SnRK1-C/S\(_{1}\)-bZIP signalling module as gateway to integrate information on the plant’s energy status into root meristem control, thereby balancing plant growth and cellular energy resources.