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Summary Using the facultative root hemiparasite Rhinanthus minor and Hordeum vulgare as a host, several aspects of water relations, the flows and partitioning of mineral nutrients, the flows, depositions and metabolism of abscisic acid (ABA) and zeatin type cytokinins (zeatin Z, zeatin riboside ZR, zeatin nucleotide ZN) within the host, the parasite and between host and parasite and the flows and partitioning of the transport metabolites mannitol in the parasite, and of sucrose in the host, have been studied during the study period 41 to 54 days after planting, i.e about 30 to 43 days after successful attachment of the parasite to the host. Water relations Extraction of xylem sap by the parasite from the host’s roots is facilitated by considerably higher transpiration per leaf area in the parasite than in the host and by the fact that stomata of attached Rhinanthus were wide open all day and night despite extremely high ABA concentrations in the leaves. By comparison, another related root hemiparasite, Melampyrum arvense, parasitising on various grasses in the field (botanic garden), showed normal diurnal stomatal behaviour. The abnormal behaviour of Rhinanthus stomata was not due to anatomical reasons as closure could be induced by applying high external ABA concentrations. Remarkable differences have been detected between the hydraulic conductance of barley seminal roots showing relatively low values, and that of Rhinanthus the seminal root showing very high values. The latter could be related to the observed high ABA concentrations in these roots. Whole plant water uptake, transpirational losses, growth-dependent deposition and the flows of water within the plants have been measured in singly growing Rhinanthus and Hordeum plants and in the parasitic association between the two. Water uptake, deposition and transpiration in Rhinanthus were dramatically increased after attachment to the barley host; most of the water used by the parasite was extracted as xylem sap from the host, thereby scavenging 20% of the total water taken up by the host’s roots. This water uptake by the parasitised host, however, due to a parasite induced reduction in the hosts growth, was decreased by 22% as compared to non- parasitised barley. The overall changes in growth-related water deposition in host and parasite pointed to decreased shoot and relatively favoured root growth in the host and to strongly favoured shoot growth and less strongly increased root growth only in the parasite. These changes in the host became more severe, when more than one Rhinanthus was parasitising one barley plant. Mineral nutrients relations 5 mM NO3- supply In parasitising Rhinanthus shoot growth was 12-fold, but root growth only twofold increased compared to the non-parasitising (very small) plants. On the other hand, in the Hordeum host, shoot dry matter growth was clearly reduced, by 33% in leaf laminae and by 52% in leaf sheaths, whereas root growth was only slightly reduced as a consequence of parasitism. Growth-dependent increments of total N and P and of K, Ca and Mg in parasitising Rhinanthus shoot were strongly increased, particularly increments of total N and P, which were 18 and 42 times, respectively, higher than in the small solitary Rhinanthus. On the other hand, increments of the above mineral nutrients in leaf sheaths of parasitised Hordeum vulgare were more strongly decreased than in leaf laminae in response to parasitic attack. Estimation of the flows of nutrients revealed that Rhinanthus withdrew from the host xylem sap about the same percentage of each nutrients: 18% of total N, 22% of P and 20% of K. Within the host almost all net flows of nutrient ions were decreased due to parasitism, but retranslocation from shoot to root-as related to xylem flow-was somewhat increased for all nutrients. Quantitative information is provided to show that the substantially increased growth in the shoot of attached Rhinanthus and the observed decrease in Hordeum shoot growth after infection were related to strongly elevated supply of nitrogen and phosphorus in the parasite and to incipient deficiency of these nutrients in the parasitised host. The flows of nutrients between host and parasite are discussed in terms of low selectivity of nutrient abstraction from the host xylem by the hemiparasite Rhinanthus minor. 1 mM NO3- or 1 mM NH4+ supply Rhinanthus shoot growth as measured by dry matter increase, was 19-fold (1 mM NO3-) and 15-fold (1 mM NH4+), but root growth only twofold (1 mM NO3-) and 2.9-fold (1 mM NH4+) increased-relative to singly growing Rhinanthus-when parasitising on host barley. In the Hordeum host, shoot dry matter growth was clearly reduced, whereas root growth was only slightly affected. Growth-dependent increments of total N and P and of K, Ca and Mg in parasitising Rhinanthus shoot were strongly increased, particularly increments of total N or of P, which were 20 or 53 times (1 mM NO3-) and 18 or 51 times (1 mM NH4+) , respectively, higher than those in solitary Rhinanthus. Within the host almost all net flows of nutrient ions were decreased due to parasitism. Flows of mannitol in parasite and sucrose flows in host barley When the plants were supplied with 5 mM NO3-, the biosynthesis of mannitol in Rhinanthus shoots increased 16-fold by parasitism, resulting in a 15-fold higher mannitol flow in the phloem and a 10-fold higher deposition in the shoot. Also the backward transport of mannitol in the xylem were increased 10-fold after attachment. Lower level nitrogen supply increased the deposition of mannitol in both single and attached Rhinanthus shoot and root. No mannitol was found in barley roots even in the direct vicinity of the haustoria. This indicates there are no backward transport of xylem sap from parasite to host. Compared to unparasitised barley, the net biosynthesis and deposition of sucrose in the shoot and the phloem flow was decreased substantially when plants were supplied with 5 mM NO3- or 1 mM NO3-. No sucrose has been detected in barley xylem sap and consequently there was no indication of a sucrose transfer from the host to the parasite. A possible involvement of mannitol in the abscisic acid relations of the parasite is discussed. ABA relations When the plants were supplied with 5 mM NO3-, there were weak or no effects of parasitism on ABA flows, biosynthesis and ABA degradation in barley. However, ABA growth-dependent deposition was significantly increased in the leaf laminae (3 fold) and in leaf sheath (2.4 fold), but not in roots. Dramatic changes in ABA flows, metabolism and deposition on a per plant basis, however, have been observed in Rhinanthus. Biosynthesis in the roots was 12-fold higher after attachment resulting in 14-fold higher ABA flows in the xylem. A large portion of this ABA was metabolised, a small portion was deposited. Phloem flows of ABA were increased 13-fold after attachment. The concentrations of ABA in tissues and xylem sap were higher in attached Rhinanthus by an order of magnitude than in host tissues and xylem sap. Similar dramatic difference existed when comparing the high concentrations in the xylem sap of single Rhinanthus with unparasitised barley. As compared to 5 mM NO3-, lower NO3- or 1 mM NH4+ supply doubled the ABA concentrations in barley leaf laminae, while having only small or no significant effects in the other organs. The possible special functions of ABA for the parasite are discussed. Zeatin type cytokinins relations Parasitism decreased, in the case of zeatin (Z), the synthesis (by 57%) in the root, xylem flows (by 56%) and metabolism (by 71%) in leaf laminae, however, increased the phloem flows of zeatin massively (3-fold) in host barley. The deposition of zeatin in the root of Rhinanthus and the flowing in xylem and phloem were 24, 12, 29-fold, respectively, increased after successfully attaching to the host barley. However, net biosynthesis of zeatin in Rhinanthus roots decreased by 39% after attachment. This indicates that a large portion (70%) of xylem flow of zeatin in attached Rhinanthus was extracted from the host. In singly growing Rhinanthus plants, the balance of zeatin deposition in the shoot was negative, i.e. zeatin was metabolised and exported back to root in the phloem. The xylem flows of zeatin riboside (ZR) in barley decreased by 39% after infected by Rhinanthus; phloem flow, which was 117% relative to xylem flow was less decreased (by 13%) after infection. Deposition of ZR has not been significantly affected in the leaf laminae, in leaf sheaths and roots. After parasitising on the host barley depositions in root, xylem flow and phloem flow increased 12, 18, 88–fold respectively in Rhinanthus. A large portion (57%) of xylem flow of ZR in attached Rhinanthus was extracted from the host. In single Rhinanthus increament of shoot zeatin riboside was negative and a substantial portion was degraded in shoot and the rest was retranslocated back to the root in the phloem. A significant depositions of Z and ZR were detected in the haustoria of the Rhinanthus/barley association. Flows and deposition of zeatin nucleotides also have been investigated. The possible physiological functions of the large quantities of Z and ZR derived from the host barley, for the improved growth and the stomatal opening in the parasitising Rhinanthus are discussed.
Almost all life forms on earth have adapted to the most impactful and most predictable recurring change in environmental condition, the cycle of day and night, caused by the axial rotation of the planet. As a result many animals have evolved intricate endogenous clocks, which adapt and synchronize the organisms’ physiology, metabolism and behaviour to the daily change in environmental conditions. The scientific field researching these endogenous clocks is called chronobiology and has steadily grown in size, scope and relevance since the works of the earliest pioneers in the 1960s.
The number one model organism for the research of circadian clocks is the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, whose clock serves as the entry point to understanding the basic inner workings of such an intricately constructed endogenous timekeeping system. In this thesis it was attempted to combine the research on the circadian clock with the techniques of optogenetics, a fairly new scientific field, launched by the discovery of Channelrhodopsin 2 just over 15 years ago. Channelrhodopsin 2 is a light-gated ion channel found in the green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. In optogenetics, researches use these light-gated ion channels like Channelrhodopsin 2 by heterologously expressing them in cells and tissues of other organisms, which can then be stimulated by the application of light. This is most useful when studying neurons, as these channels provide an almost non-invasive tool to depolarize the neuronal plasma membranes at will. The goal of this thesis was to develop an optogenetic tool, which would be able to influence and phase shift the circadian clock of Drosophila melanogaster upon illumination. A phase shift is the adaptive response of the circadian clock to an outside stimulus that signals a change in the environmental light cycle. An optogenetic tool, able to influence and phase shift the circadian clock predictably and reliably, would open up many new ways and methods of researching the neuronal network of the clock and which neurons communicate to what extent, ultimately synchronizing the network.
The first optogenetic tool to be tested in the circadian clock of Drosophila melanogaster was ChR2-XXL, a channelrhodopsin variant with dramatically increased expression levels and photocurrents combined with a prolonged open state. The specific expression of ChR2-XXL and of later constructs was facilitated by deploying the three different clock-specific GAL4-driver lines, clk856-gal4, pdf-gal4 and mai179-gal4. Although ChR2-XXL was shown to be highly effective at depolarizing neurons, these stimulations proved to be unable to significantly phase shift the circadian clock of Drosophila. The second series of experiments was conducted with the conceptually novel optogenetic tools Olf-bPAC and SthK-bPAC, which respectively combine a cyclic nucleotide-gated ion channel (Olf and SthK) with the light-activated adenylyl-cyclase bPAC. These tools proved to be quite useful when expressed in the motor neurons of instar-3 larvae of Drosophila, paralyzing the larvae upon illumination, as well as affecting body length. This way, these new tools could be precisely characterized, spawning a successfully published research paper, centered around their electrophysiological characterization and their applicability in model organisms like Drosophila. In the circadian clock however, these tools caused substantial damage, producing severe arrhythmicity and anomalies in neuronal development. Using a temperature-sensitive GAL80-line to delay the expression until after the flies had eclosed, yielded no positive results either. The last series of experiments saw the use of another new series of optogenetic tools, modelled after the Olf-bPAC, with bPAC swapped out for CyclOp, a membrane-bound guanylyl-cyclase, coupled with less potent versions of the Olf. This final attempt however also ended up being unsuccessful. While these tools could efficiently depolarize neuronal membranes upon illumination, they were ultimately unable to stimulate the circadian clock in way that would cause it to phase shift.
Taken together, these mostly negative results indicate that an optogenetic manipulation of the circadian clock of Drosophila melanogaster is an extremely challenging subject. As light already constitutes the most impactful environmental factor on the circadian clock, the combination of chronobiology with optogenetics demands the parameters of the conducted experiments to be tuned with an extremely high degree of precision, if one hopes to receive positive results from these types of experiments at all.
The transcription factor NFATc1 has been shown to regulate the activation and differentiation of T-cells and B-cells, of DCs and megakaryocytes. Dysregulation of NFAT signaling was shown to be associated with the generation of autoimmune diseases, malignant transformation and the development of cancer [71]. The primary goal of this work was to gain insights on Nfatc1 induction and regulation in lymphocytes and to find new direct NFATc1 target genes. Three new BAC -transgenic reporter mouse strains (tgNfatc1/Egfp, tgNfatc1/DE1 and tgNfatc1/DE2) were applied to analyze Nfatc1 induction and regulation in primary murine B- and T-cells. As a result, we were able to show the persistent requirement of immunoreceptor-signaling for constant Nfatc1 induction, particularly, for NFATc1/αA expression. Furthermore, we showed that NF-κB inducing agents, such as LPS, CpG or CD40 receptor engagement, in combination with primary receptor-signals, positively contributed to Nfact1 induction in B-cells [137]. We sought to establish a new system which could help to identify direct NFATc1 target genes by means of ChIP and NGS in genom-wide approaches. We were able to successfully generate a new BAC-transgene encoding a biotinylatable short isoform of NFATc1, which is currently injected into mice oocyte at the TFM in Mainz. In addition, in vivo biotinylatable NFATc1–isoforms were cloned and stably expressed in the murine B-cell lymphoma line WEHI-231. The successful use of these cells stably overexpressing either the short NFATc1/αA or the long NFATc1/βC isoform along with the bacterial BirA biotin ligase was confirmed by intracellular stainings, FACS analysis, confocal microscopy and protein IP. By NGS, we detected 2185 genes which are specifically controlled by NFATc1/αA, and 1306 genes which are exclusively controlled by NFATc1/βC. This shows that the Nfatc1 locus encodes “two genes” which exhibit alternate, in part opposite functions. Studies on the induction of apoptosis and cell-death revealed opposed roles for the highly inducible short isoform NFATc1/αA and the constantly expressed long isoform NFATc1/βC. These findings were confirmed by whole transcriptome-sequencing performed with cells overexpressing NFATc1/αA and NFATc1/βC. Several thousand genes were found to be significantly altered in their expression profile, preferentially genes involved in apoptosis and PCD for NFATc1/βC or genes involved in transcriptional regulation and cell-cycle processes for NFATc1/αA. In addition we were able to perform ChIP-seq for NFATc1/αA and NFATc1/βC in an ab-independent approach. We found potential new target-sites, but further studies will have to address this ambitious goal in the future. In individual ChIP assays, we showed direct binding of NFATc1/αA and NFATc1/βC to the Prdm1 and Aicda promoter regions which are individually controlled by the NFATc1 isoforms.
Ants belong to the most successful insects living on our planet earth. One criterion of their tremendous success is the division of labor among workers that can be related to age (age¬– or temporal polyethism) and/ or body size (size–related polymorphism). Young ants care for the queen and brood in the nest interior and switch to foraging tasks in the outside environment with ongoing age. This highly flexible interior–exterior transition probably allows the ant workers to properly match the colony needs and is one of the most impressive behaviors a single worker undergoes during its life. As environmental stimuli are changing with this transition, workers are required to perform a new behavioral repertoire. This requires significant adaptions in sensory and higher¬–order integration centers in the brain, like the mushroom bodies. Furthermore, foragers need proper time measuring mechanisms to cope with daily environmental changes and to adapt their own mode of life. Therefore, they possess a functional endogenous clock that generates rhythms with a period length of approximately 24 hours. The species–rich genus of Camponotus ants constitute a rewarding model to study how behavioral duties of division of labor were performed and modulated within the colony and how synaptic plasticity in the brain is processed, as they can divide their labor to both, age and body size, simultaneously.
In my PhD thesis, I started to investigate the behavioral repertoire (like foraging and locomotor activity) of two sympatric Camponotus species, C. mus and C. rufipes workers under natural and under controlled conditions. Furthermore, I focused on the division of labor in C. rufipes workers and started to examine structural and ultrastructural changes of neuronal architectures in the brain that are accompanied by the interior–exterior transition of C. rufipes ants.
In the first part of my thesis, I started to analyze the temporal organization of task allocation throughout the life of single C. rufipes workers. Constant video–tracking of individually labeled workers for up to 11 weeks, revealed an age–related division of labor of interior and exterior workers. After emergence, young individuals are tended to by older ones within the first 48 hours of their lives before they themselves start nurturing larvae and pupae. Around 52% switch to foraging duties at an age of 14–20 days. The workers that switched to foraging
tasks are mainly media–sized workers and seem to be more specialized than nurses. Variations in proportion and the age of switching workers between and within different subcolonies indicate how highly flexible and plastic the age–related division of labor occurs in this ant species. Most of the observed workers were engaged in foraging tasks exclusively during nighttime. As the experiments were conducted in the laboratory, they are completely lacking environmental stimuli of the ants´ natural habitat.
I therefore asked in a second study, how workers of the two closely related Camponotus species, C. rufipes and C. mus, adapt their daily activity patterns (foraging and locomotor activity) under natural (in Uruguay, South America) and controlled (in the laboratory) conditions to changing thermal conditions. Monitoring the foraging activity of both Camponotus species in a field experiment revealed, that C. mus workers are exclusively diurnal, whereas C. rufipes foragers are predominantly nocturnal. However, some nests showed an elevated daytime activity, which could be an adaption to seasonally cold night temperatures. To further investigate the impact of temperature and light on the differing foraging activity patterns in the field, workers of both Camponotus species were artificially exposed to different thermal regimes in the laboratory, simulating local winter and summer conditions. Here again, C. mus workers display solely diurnal locomotor activity, whereas workers of C. rufipes shifted their locomotor activity from diurnal under thermal winter conditions to nocturnal under thermal summer conditions. Hence, the combination of both, field work and laboratory studies, shows that daily activity is mostly shaped by thermal conditions and that temperature cycles are not just limiting foraging activity but can be used as zeitgeber to schedule the outside activities of the nests.
Once an individual worker switches from indoor duties to exterior foraging tasks, it is confronted with an entirely new set of sensory information. To cope with changes of the environmental conditions and to facilitate the behavioral switch, workers need a highly flexible and plastic neuronal system. Hence, my thesis further focuses on the underlying neuronal adaptations of the visual system, including the optic lobes as the primary visual neuropil and the mushroom bodies as secondary visual brain neuropil, that are accompanied with the behavioral switch from nursing to foraging. The optic lobes as well as the mushroom bodies of light–deprived workers show an `experience–independent´ volume increase during the first two weeks of adulthood. An additional light exposure for 4 days induces an `experience–dependent´ decrease of synaptic complexes in the mushroom body collar,
followed by an increase after extended light exposure for 14 days. I therefore conclude, that the plasticity of the central visual system represents important components for the optimal timing of the interior–exterior transitions and flexibility of the age–related division of labor. These remarkable structural changes of synaptic complexes suggest an active involvement of the mushroom body neuropil in the lifetime plasticity that promotes the interior–exterior transition of Camponotus rufipes ants. Beside these investigations of neuronal plasticity of synaptic complexes in the mushroom bodies on a structural level, I further started to examine mushroom body synaptic structures at the ultrastructural level. Until recently, the detection of synaptic components in projection neuron axonal boutons were below resolution using classical Transmission Electron Microscopy. Therefore, I started to implement Electron Tomography to increase the synaptic resolution to understand architectural changes in neuronal plasticity process. By acquiring double tilt series and consecutive computation of the acquired tilt information, I am now able to resolve individual clear–core and dense–core vesicles within the projection neuron cytoplasm of C. rufipes ants. I additionally was able to reveal single postsynaptic Kenyon cell dendritic spines (~62) that surround one individual projection neuron bouton. With this, I could reveal first insights into the complex neuronal architecture of single projection neuron boutons in the olfactory mushroom body lip region. The high resolution images of synaptic architectures at the ultrastructural level, received with Electron Tomography would promote the understanding of architectural changes in neuronal plasticity.
In my PhD thesis, I demonstrate that the temporal organization within Camponotus colonies involves the perfect timing of different tasks. Temperature seems to be the most scheduling abiotic factors of foraging and locomotor activity. The ants do not only need to adapt their behavioral repertoire in accordance to the interior–exterior switch, also the parts in the peripheral and central that process visual information need to adapt to the new sensory environment.
A part of the plant kingdom consists of a variety of carnivorous plants. Some trap their prey
using sticky leaves, others have pitfall traps where prey cannot escape once it has fallen inside.
A rare trap type is the snap-trap: it appears only twice in the plant kingdom, in the genera
Aldrovanda and Dionaea. Even Charles Darwin himself described Dionaea muscipula, the
Venus flytrap, with the following words “This plant, commonly called Venus' fly-trap, from the
rapidity and force of its movements, is one of the most wonderful in the world”. For a long
time now, the mechanisms of Dionaea’s prey recognition, capture and utilization are of
interest for scientists and have been studied intensively.
Dionaea presents itself with traps wide-open, ready to catch insects upon contact. For this,
the insect has to touch the trigger hairs of the opened trap twice within about 20-30 seconds.
Once the prey is trapped, the trap lobes close tight, forming a hermetically sealed “green
stomach”.
Until lately, there was only limited knowledge about the molecular and hormonal mechanisms
which lead to prey capture and excretion of digestive fluids. It is known that the digestion
process is very water-consuming; therefore, the interplay of digestion-inducing and digestion inhibiting
substances was to be analyzed in this work, to elucidate the fine-tuning of the
digestive pathway. Special attention was given to the impact of phytohormones on mRNA
transcript levels of digestion-related proteins after various stimuli as well as their effect on
Dionaea’s physiological responses.
Jasmonic acid (JA) and its isoleucine-conjugated form, JA-Ile, are an important signal in the
jasmonate pathway. In the majority of non-carnivorous plants, jasmonates are critical for the
defense against herbivory and pathogens. In Dionaea, this defense mechanism has been
restructured towards offensive prey catching. One question in this work was how the
frequency of trigger hair bendings is related to the formation of jasmonates and the induction
of the digestion process. Upon contact of a prey with the trigger hairs in the inside of the trap,
the trap closes and jasmonates are produced biosynthetically. JA-Ile interacts with the COI1-
receptor, thereby activating the digestion pathway which leads to the secretion of digestive
fluid and production of transporters needed to take up prey-derived nutrients. In this work it
could be shown that the number of trigger hair bendings is positively correlated with the level
and duration of transcriptional induction of several digestive enzymes/hydrolases.
Abscisic acid (ABA) acts, along with many other functions, as the plant “drought stress
hormone”. It is synthesized either by roots as the primary sensor for water shortage or by
guard cells in the leaves. ABA affects a network of several thousand genes whose regulation
prepares the plant for drought and initiates protective measurements. It was known from
previous work that the application of ABA for 48 hours increased the required amount of
trigger hair bendings to achieve trap closure. As the digestion process is very water-intensive,
the question arose how exactly the interplay between the jasmonate- and the ABA-pathway
is organized, and if ABA could stop the running digestion process once it had been activated.
In the present work it could be shown that the application of ABA on intact traps prior to
mechanically stimulating the trigger hairs (mechanostimulation) already significantly reduced
the transcription of digestive enzymes for an incubation time as short as 4 h, showing that
already short-term exposure to ABA counteracts the effects of jasmonates when it comes to
initiating the digestion process, but does not inhibit trap closure. Incubation for 24 and 48
hours with 100 μM active ABA had no effect on trap reopening, only very high levels of 200
μM of active ABA inhibited trap reopening but also led to tissue necrosis. As the application
of ABA could reduce the transcription of digestive hydrolases, it is likely that Dionaea can stop
the digestion process, if corresponding external stimuli are received.
Another factor, which only emerged later, was the effect of the wounding-induced systemic
jasmonate burst. As efficient as ABA was in inhibiting marker hydrolase expression after
mechanostimulation in intact plants, the application of ABA on truncated traps was not able
to inhibit mechanostimulation-induced marker hydrolase expression. One reason might be
that the ABA-signal is perceived in the roots, and therefore truncated traps were not able to
react to it. Another reason might be that the wounding desensitized the tissue for the ABAsignal.
Further research is required at this point.
Inhibitors of the jasmonate pathway were also used to assess their effect on the regulation of
Dionaea´s hunting cycle. Coronatine-O-methyloxime proved to be a potent inhibitor of
mechanostimulation-induced expression of digestive enzymes, thus confirming the key
regulatory role of jasmonates for Dionaea´s prey consumption mechanism.
In a parallel project, the generation of in vitro cultures from sterilized seeds and single plant
parts proved successful, which may be important for stock-keeping of future transgenic lines.
Protoplasts were generated from leaf blade tissue and transiently transformed, expressing the
reporter protein YFP after 24 h of incubation. In the future this might be the starting point for
the generation of transgenic lines or the functional testing of DNA constructs.
The slowly activating vacuolar SV/TPC1 channel is ubiquitously expressed in plants and provides a large cation conductance in the vacuolar membrane. Thereby, monovalent (K+, Na+) and in principle also divalent cations, such as Ca2+, can pass through the channel. The SV/TPC1 channel is activated upon membrane depolarization and cytosolic Ca2+ but inhibited by luminal calcium. With respect to the latter, two luminal Ca2+ binding sites (site 1 Asp240/Asp454/Glu528, site 2 Glu239/Asp240/Glu457) were identified to coordinate luminal Ca2+. In this work, the characteristics of the SV/TPC1 channels in terms of regulation and function were further elucidated, focusing on the TPC1s of Arabidopsis thaliana and Vicia faba. For electrophysiological analysis of the role of distinct pore residues for channel gating and luminal Ca2+ sensing, TPC1 channel variants were generated by site-directed mutagenesis and transiently expressed as eGFP/eYFP-fusion constructs in Arabidopsis thaliana mesophyll protoplasts of the TPC1 loss-of-function mutant attpc1-2.
1. As visualized by confocal fluorescence laser-scanning microscopy, all AtTPC1 (WT, E605A/Q, D606N, D607N, E605A/D606N, E605Q/D606N/D607N, E457N/E605A/D606N) and VfTPC1 channel variants (WT, N458E/A607E/ N608D) were correctly targeted to the vacuole membrane.
2. Patch-clamp studies revealed that removal of one of the negative charges at position Glu605 or Asp606 was already sufficient to promote voltage-dependent channel activation with higher voltage sensitivity. The combined neutralization of these residues (E605A/D606N), however, was required to additionally reduce the luminal Ca2+ sensitivity of the AtTPC1 channel, leading to hyperactive AtTPC1 channels. Thus, the residues Glu605/Asp606 are functionally coupled with the voltage sensor of AtTPC1 channel, thereby modulating channel gating, and form a novel luminal Ca2+ sensing site 3 in AtTPC1 at the luminal entrance of the ion transport pathway.
3. Interestingly, this novel luminal Ca2+ sensing site 3 (Glu605/Asp606) and Glu457 from the luminal Ca2+ sensing site 2 of the luminal Ca2+-sensitive AtTPC1 channel were neutralized by either asparagine or alanine in the TPC1 channel from Vicia faba and many other Fabaceae. Moreover, the VfTPC1 was validated to be a hyperactive TPC1 channel with higher tolerance to luminal Ca2+ loads which was in contrast to the AtTPC1 channel features. As a result, VfTPC1 but not AtTPC1 conferred the hyperexcitability of vacuoles. When AtTPC1 was mutated for the three VfTPC1-homologous polymorphic site residues, the AtTPC1 triple mutant (E457N/E605A/D606N) gained VfTPC1-like characteristics. However, when VfTPC1 was mutated for the three AtTPC1-homologous polymorphic site residues, the VfTPC1 triple mutant (N458E/A607E/N608D) still sustained VfTPC1-WT-like features. These findings indicate that the hyperactivity of VfTPC1 is achieved in part by the loss of negatively charged amino acids at positions that - as part of the luminal Ca2+ sensing sites 2 and 3 – are homologous to AtTPC1-Glu457/Glu605/Asp606 and are likely stabilized by other unknown residues or domains.
4.The luminal polymorphic pore residues (Glu605/Asp606 in AtTPC1) apparently do not contribute to the unitary conductance of TPC1. Under symmetrical K+ conditions, a single channel conductance of about 80 pS was determined for AtTPC1 wild type and the AtTPC1 double mutant E605A/D606A. This is in line with the three-fold higher unitary conductance of VfTPC1 (232 pS), which harbors neutral luminal pore residues at the homologous sites to AtTPC1.
In conclusion, by studying TPC1 channel from Arabidopsis thaliana and Vicia faba, the present thesis provides evidence that the natural TPC1 channel variants exhibit differences in voltage gating, luminal Ca2+ sensitivity and luminal Ca2+ binding sites.
The control of energy homeostasis is of pivotal importance for all living organisms. In the last years emerged the idea that many stress responses that are apparently unrelated, are actually united by a common increase of the cellular energy demand. Therefore, the so called energy signaling is activated by many kind of stresses and is responsible for the activation of the general stress response. In Arabidopsis thaliana the protein family SnF1- related protein kinases (SnRK1) is involved in the regulation of many physiological processes but is more known for its involvement in the regulation of the energy homeostasis in response to various stresses. To the SnRK1 protein family belong SnRK1.1 (also known as KIN10), SnRK1.2 (KIN11), and SnRK1.3 (KIN12). SnRK1 exerts its function regulating directly the activity of metabolic enzymes or those of key transcription factors (TFs). The only TFs regulated by SnRK1 identified so far is the basic leucine zipper (bZIP) 63. bZIP63 belongs to the C group of bZIPs (C-bZIPs) protein family together with bZIP9, bZIP10, and bZIP25. SnRK1.1 phosphorylates bZIP63 on three amino acids residues, serine (S) 29, S294, and S300. The phosphorylation of tbZIP63 is strongly related to the energy status of the plant, shifting from almost absent during the normal growth to strongly phosphorylated when the plant is exposed to extended dark. bZIPs normally bind the DNA as dimer in order to regulate the expression of their target genes. C-bZIPs preferentially form dimers with S1-bZIPs, constituting the so called C/S1- bZIPs network. The SnRk1 dependent phosphorylation of bZIP63 regulates its activation potential and its dimerization properties. In particular bZIP63 shift its dimerization preferences according to its phosphorylation status. The non-phosphorylated form of bZIP63 dimerize bZIP1, the phosphorylates ones, instead, forms dimer with bZIP1, bZIP11, and bZIP63 its self. Together with bZIP63, S1-bZIPs are important mediator of part of the huge transcriptional reprogramming induced by SnRK1 in response to extended dark. S1-bZIPs regulate, indeed, the expression of 4'000 of the 10'000 SnRK1-regulated genes in response to energy deprivation. In particular S1-bZIPs are very important for the regulation of many genes encoding for enzymes involved in the amino acid metabolism and for their use as alternative energy source. After the exposition for some hours to extended dark, indeed, the plant make use of every energy substrate and amino acids are considered an important energy source together with lipids and proteins. Interestingly, S1- bZIPs regulate the expression of ETFQO. ETFQO is a unique protein that convoglia the electrons provenienti from the branch chain amino acids catabolism into the mitochondrial electron transport chain. The dimer formed between bZIP63 and bZIP2 recruits SnRK1.1 directly on the chromatin of ETFQO promoter. The recruitment of SnRK1 on ETFQO promoter is associated with its acetylation on the lysine 14 of the histone protein 3 (K14H3). This chromatin modification is normally asociated with an euchromatic status of the DNA and therefore with its transcriptional activation. Beside the particular case of the regulation of ETFQO gene, S1-bZIPs are involved in the regulation of many other genes activated in response of different stresses. bZIP1 is for example an important mediator of the salt stress response. In particular bZIP1 regulates the primary C- and N-metabolism. The expression of bZIP1, in response of both salt ans energy stress seems to be regulated by SnRK1, as it is the expression of bZIP53 and bZIP63.
Beside its involvement in the regulation of the energy stress response and salt response, SnRK1 is the primary activators of the lipids metabolism during see germination. SnRK1, indeed, controls the expression of CALEOSINs and OLEOSINs. Those proteins are very important for lipids remobilization from oil droplets. Without their expression seed germination and subsequent establishment do not take place because of the absence of fuel to sustain these highly energy costly processes, which entirely depend on the catabolism of seed storages.
Brassicaceae and a few related plant families are characterized by possession of the glucosinolate-myrosinase system. Glucosinolates are amino-acid derived allelochemicals which are hydrolysed upon tissue damage by myrosinase enzymes to produce various degradation products which can be toxic for generalist insects. The larvae of the crucifer-specialist Athalia rosae, the turnip sawfly, sequester glucosinolates into their haemolymph. The role of the glucosinolate-myrosinase system for the interaction of the turnip sawfly with Brassicaceae was examined in this study from two different perspectives: variation within individual plants and between plant species. The plant responses to the feeding by herbivores and the short-term effects this induction had on insect behaviour were investigated in white mustard. Furthermore, plants can use multiple defences. Hence correlations of glucosinolates and myrosinase activities with other defences and nutritional quality and their long-term effects on the development of the insects were investigated in seven different plant species.
The role of lipid transfer proteins (LTPs) during the fertilization process in Arabidopsis thaliana
(2021)
Double fertilization is a defining characteristic of flowering plants (angiosperms). As the sperm cells of higher plants are non-motile, they need to be transported to the female gametophyte via the growing pollen tube. The pollen-tube journey through the female tissues represents a highly complex process. To provide for successful reproduction it demands intricate communication between the cells of the two haploid gametophytes - the polar growing pollen tube (carrying the two non-motile sperm cells) and the ovule (hosting the egg cell/synergid cells). The polar growth of the pollen tube towards the female gamete is guided by different signaling molecules, including sugars, amino acids and peptides. Some of these belong to the family of lipid transfer proteins (LTPs), which are secreted cysteine-rich peptides. Depending on the plant species several lines of evidence have also suggested potential roles for LTPs during pollen germination or pollen-tube guidance. Although Arabidopsis thaliana has 49 annotated genes for LTPs, several of which are involved in plant immunity and cell-to-cell communication, the role of most members of this family during fertilization is unknown.
The aim of this project was therefore to systematically identify LTPs which play a role in the fertilization process in A. thaliana, particularly during pollen tube guidance. To identify candidate proteins, the expression profile of LTPs in reproductive tissue was investigated. This was accomplished by in-silico bioinformatic analysis using different expression databases. Following confirmion of these results by qRT-PCR analysis, seven Type-I nsLTPs (LTP1, LTP2, LTP3, LTP4, LTP5, LTP6 and LTP12) were found to be exclusively expressed in pistils. Except for LTP12, all other pistil expressed LTPs were transcriptionally induced upon pollination. Using reporter-based transcriptional and translational fusions the temporal and spatial expression patterns together with protein localizations for LTP2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 12 were determined in planta. Stable transgenic plants carrying PromLTP::GUS constructs of the six different LTP candidates showed that most of LTPs were expressed in the stigma/stylar region and were induced upon pollination. With respect to protein localization on the cellular level, they split into two categories: LTP2, LTP5 and LTP6 were localized in the cell wall, while LTP3, LTP4 and LTP12 were specifically targeted to the plasma membrane.
For the functional characterization of the candidate LTPs, several T-DNA insertion mutant plant lines were investigated for phenotypes affecting the fertilization process. Pollen development and quality as well as their in-vitro germination rate did not differ between the different single ltp mutant lines and wildtype plants. Moreover, in-vivo cross pollination experiments revealed that tube growth and fertilization rate of the mutant plants were similar to wildtype plants. Altogether, no discernible phenotype was evident in other floral and vegetative parts between different single ltp mutant lines and wildtype plants. As there was no distinguishable phenotype observed for single ltp-ko plants, double knock out plants of the two highly homologous genes LTP2 (expressed in the female stigma, style and transmitting tract) and LTP5 (expressed in the stigma, style, pollen pollen-tube and transmitting tract) were generated using the EPCCRISPR-Cas9 genome editing technique. Two ltp2ltp5 mutant transgenic-lines (#P31-P2 and #P31-P3) with frameshift mutations in both the genes could be established. Further experiments showed, that the CRISPR/Cas9-mediated knock-out of LTP2/LTP5 resulted in significantly reduced fertilization success. Cell biological analyses revealed that the ltp2ltp5 double mutant was impaired in pollen tube guidance towards the ovules and that this phenotype correlated with aberrant callose depositions in the micropylar region during ovule development. Detailed analysis of in-vivo pollen-tube growth and reciprocal cross pollination assay suggested that, the severely compromised fertility was not caused by any defect in development of the pollen grains, but was due to the abnormal callose deposition in the embryo sac primarily concentrated at the synergid cell near the micropylar end. Aberrant callose deposition in ltp2ltp5 ovules pose a complete blockage for the growing pollen tube to change its polarity to enter the funiculus indicating funicular and micropylar defects in pollen tube guidance causing fertilization failure.
Our finding suggests that female gametophyte expressed LTP2 and LTP5 play a crucial role in mediating pollen tube guidance process and ultimately having an effect on the fertilization success. In line with the existence of a N-terminal signal peptide, secreted LTPs might represent a well-suited mobile signal carrier in the plant’s extracellular matrix. Previous reports suggested that, LTPs could act as chemoattractant peptide, imparting competence to the growing pollen tube, but the molecular mechanism is still obscure. The results obtained in this thesis further provide strong evidence, that LTP2/5 together regulate callose homeostasis and testable models are discussed. Future work is now required to elucidate the detailed molecular link between these LTPs and their potential interacting partners or receptors expressed in pollen and synergid cells, which should provide deeper insight into their functional role as regulatory molecules in the pollen tube guidance mechanism.
Bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) are involved in various aspects of cell-cell communication in complex life forms. They act as morphogens, help differentiate different cell types from different progenitor cells in development, and are involved in many instances of intercellular communication, from forming a body axis to healing bone fractures, from sugar metabolism to angiogenesis. If the same protein or protein family carries out many functions, there is a demand to regulate and fine-tune their biological activities, and BMPs are highly regulated to generate cell- and context-dependent outcomes.
Not all such instances can be explained yet. Growth/differentiation factor (GDF)5 (or BMP14) synergizes with BMP2 on chondrogenic ATDC5 cells, but antagonizes BMP2 on myoblastic C2C12 cells. Known regulators of BMP2/GDF5 signal transduction failed to explain this context-dependent difference, so a microarray was performed to identify new, cell-specific regulatory components. One identified candidate, the fibroblast growth factor receptor (FGFR)2, was analyzed as a potential new co-receptor to BMP ligands such as GDF5: It was shown that FGFR2 directly binds BMP2, GDF5, and other BMP ligands in vitro, and FGFR2 was able to positively influence BMP2/GDF5-mediated signaling outcome in cell-based assays. This effect was independent of FGFR2s kinase activity, and independent of the downstream mediators SMAD1/5/8, p42/p44, Akt, and p38. The elevated colocalization of BMP receptor type IA and FGFR2 in the presence of BMP2 or GDF5 suggests a signaling complex containing both receptors, akin to other known co-receptors of BMP ligands such as repulsive guidance molecules.
This unexpected direct interaction between FGF receptor and BMP ligands potentially opens a new category of BMP signal transduction regulation, as FGFR2 is the second receptor tyrosine kinase to be identified as BMP co-receptor, and more may follow. The integration of cell surface interactions between members of the FGF and BMP family especially may widen the knowledge of such cellular communication mechanisms which involve both growth factor families, including morphogen gradients and osteogenesis, and may in consequence help to improve treatment options in osteochodnral diseases.
The role of cuticular waxes in the prepenetration processes of Blumeria graminis f.sp. hordei
(2012)
The obligate biotrophic fungus Blumeria graminis f.sp. hordei is the causative agent of barley powdery mildew, a destructive foliar disease. The fungus infests barley (Hordeum vulgare), an important crop plant, which causes remarkable yield losses. Leaf cuticular wax of barley consists mainly of primary alcohols (80%), alkyl esters (10%) and minor constituents such as fatty acids (2%), alkanes (2%) and aldehydes (1%). The asexual airborne conidia have an initial contact to the leaf surface, in an environment dominated by cuticular waxes, which trigger germination and differentiation. The conidia undergo a sequential morphogenesis during that phase, the so-called prepenetration processes. The conidium initially forms a short primary germ tube, followed by a secondary elongated germ tube, which swells and finally forms a septate appressorium. The fungal appressorium infests the epidermal cell of the host plant and establishes an initial haustorium, the feeding structure of the fungus. In order to assess the effects of single host plant wax constituents on the prepenetration processes a novel in vitro assay based on Formvar® resin was established. This system permits the setting up of homogeneous surfaces as substrata, at which the adsorbed amounts and the surface hydrophobicity are highly reproducible, independently of the tested substance classes and chain lengths of the molecules. In this system, very-long-chain aldehydes promoted germination and differentiation of B. graminis f.sp. hordei conidia. The appressorium formation rates were decreasing in a concentration and chain-length dependent manner compared to n-hexacosanal (C26), which was the most effective aldehyde (C22<<C24<C26>C28>>C30). The tested alkanes with even and odd numbers (C24-C33), fatty acids (C20-C28), alkyl esters (C40-C44) and primary alcohols (C20-C30) did not induce germination and appressorium formation. The primary alcohol n-hexacosanol (C26) was an exception, as it was capable of significantly stimulating conidial germination and appressorial germ tube formation. To elucidate the impact of very-long-chain aldehydes on an intact plant surface in vivo, B. graminis f.sp. hordei conidia were inoculated on glossy11 mutant leaves of the non-host plant maize (Zea mays), which are - unlike the wildtype - completely devoid of very-long-chain aldehydes. On glossy11 leaves 60% of B. graminis f.sp. hordei conidia remained ungerminated and 10% developed a mature appressorium, which is three times less than on wildtype plants. Spraying of synthetic n-hexacosanal or wildtype leaf wax on glossy11 leaves fully restored the fungal prepenetration processes. In contrast, spraying of non-inducing n-alkanes, primary alcohols or very-long-chain fatty acids on wildtype leaves of maize mimicked the aldehyde deficient phenotype of glossy11. During the prepenetration processes an appressorium is formed, which is a newly formed specialized cell. Germination and subsequent morphogenesis are linked to the cell cycle in certain phytopathogenic fungi. It was investigated to what extent the prepenetration processes of B. graminis f.sp. hordei are synchronized with cell cycle progression. Hence, a distinct staining procedure of nuclei for fixed samples of B. graminis f.sp. hordei conidia based on DAPI (4,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole) was developed. In combination with a pharmacological approach it was possible to trace mitosis in dependency of conidial germination and differentiation in vivo and in vitro. The uninucleate conidium germinated and after formation of the appressorial germ tube, a single mitosis occurred in the primordial conidium six hours after inoculation. The inhibition of S-phase with hydroxyurea or M-phase with benomyl prevented appressorium formation, but not the development of the appressorial germ tube. These results indicate that mitosis and a successful cytokinesis are necessary prerequisites for the appressorium formation but not for conidial morphogenesis. In order to identify genes that are expressed in response to certain host plant wax constituents, which may be critical for the prepenetration phase, cDNA clone libraries were constructed by suppression subtractive hybridization (SSH) after inoculation. The Formvar® resin based in vitro system provided a stable platform to enrich cDNA sequences that were expressed in B.graminis f.sp. hordei conidia incubated on n-hexacosanal coated surfaces for 22 minutes. Among various candidates, a cDNA sequence was identified, which was upregulated on barley leaves and on surfaces coated with n-hexacosanal or extracted barley leaf wax. The hexacosanal responsive transcript was cloned by 3’ and 5’ RACE. The cDNA sequence showed no homologies to genes of known function in fungal development and fungal pathogenicity in plants.
In order to test the effects of environmental factors on different characteristics of plant leaf waxes, barley plants (Hordeum vulgare) were abiotically stress treated (exposure to darkness, heavy metal, high salt concentrations and drought), and biotically stressed by the infection with powdery mildew (Blumeria graminis f.sp. hordei; Bgh). Different wax parameters like amount, chemical composition, and micromorphology of epicuticular wax crystals, were investigated. Etiolated leaves of barley showed distinctly reduced wax amounts and modifications in their relative composition. The alterations of these wax parameters might be a result of a developmental delay, which could have been caused by a decreased availability of energy for cellular processes, due to lack of light. Cadmium exposure led to a 1.5-fold increase of wax amount, while chemical composition was unaffected. In drought- and salt-stressed plants, all investigated leaf wax parameters remained unaltered. In each of the abiotic treatments, the microstructure of epicuticular wax crystals, formed as typical platelets, was not modified. Even after 6d infection with powdery mildew (Bgh), neither locally nor systemically enforced modifications of wax features were revealed.
The analyzed leave surfaces, resulting from these four abiotic and the biotic treatment (phenotypic approach), were compared to altered leaf surfaces’ characteristics of 18 analyzed eceriferum (cer-) wax mutants (genotypic approach). Within the screening, 5 mutants were selected which distinctly differed from the wild-type in wax amount, portions of epi- and intracuticular wax fraction, relative chemical composition, crystal morphology, and surface wettability (hydrophobicity).
Apart from quantitative and qualitative effects on the leaf waxes, environmentally enforced modifications in cuticular waxes might be reflected in molecular processes of wax biogenesis. Therefore, a barley wax-microarray was established. 254 genes were selected, which are putatively involved in processes of de novo fatty acid biosynthesis, fatty acid elongation, and modification, and which are supposed to take part in lipid-trafficking between cell compartments, and transport of wax components to the outer cell surface. The regulations within the expression pattern evoked by the respective treatments were correlated with the corresponding analytical wax data, and the observed molecular effects of a 3d powdery mildew infection were compared with succeeding fungal morphogenesis. Etiolation and cadmium exposition pointed to transcriptional modifications in the de novo fatty acid synthesis, and in the screened, transport-related mechanisms, which correlate with respective alterations in surface wax characteristics. Moderate changes in the gene expression pattern, evoked by drought- and salinity-stress, might give hints for evolved adaptations in barley to such common habitat stresses. Theinvasion of powdery mildew into the epidermal host cells was reflected in the regulation of several genes. Beside other functions, these genes take part in pathogen defense, and intracellular component transport, or they encode transcription factors. The different modifications within the molecular responses evoked by the investigated abiotic treatments, and the effects of powdery mildew infection representing a biotic stressor, were compared between the different treatments.
In order to test the potential impact of different wax parameters on Bgh, conidia germination and differentiation was comparably investigated on leaf surfaces of abiotically stressed wild-type and cer-mutants, isolated cuticles, and further artificial surfaces. The rates of conidial development were similar on each of the leaf surfaces resulting from the abiotic treatments, while a significant reduction of the germination and differentiation success was revealed for the wax mutant cer-yp.949. Compared to the wild-type, developmental rates on isolated cuticles and extracted leaf waxes of the mutant cer-yp.949 indicated a modified embedding of cuticular waxes, and a possibly changed three-dimensional structure of the cer-yp.949 cuticle, which might explain the reduced conidial developmental rates on leaf surfaces of this particular mutant.
Experiments with Bgh conidia on mechanically de-waxed leaf surfaces (selective mechanical removal of the epicuticular leaf waxes with glue-like gum arabic, followed by an extraction of the intracuticular wax portion with chloroform) demonstrated the importance of the wax coverage for the germination and differentiation of the fungal conidia. On all dewaxed leaf surfaces, except those of cer-yp.949, the differentiation success of the germlings was significantly reduced, by about 20% (“wax-effect”). This result was verified through an artificial system with increased conidia developmental rates on glass slides covered with extracted leaf waxes. Further comparative tests with the major components of barley leaf wax, hexacosanol and hexacosanal, showed that the germination and differentiation of powdery mildew conidia not only depends on the different chemistry, but is also influenced by the respective surface hydrophobicity. Compared to hexacosanol, on hexacosanal coated glass surfaces, higher germination and differentiation rates were achieved, which correlated with increased levels of surface hydrophobicity. Developmental rates of conidia on hydrophobic foils demonstrated that hydrophobicity, as a sole surface factor, may stimulate the conidial germination and differentiation processes. Moreover, the survival of conidia on artificial surfaces is determined by additional surface derived factors, e.g. the availability of water, and a pervadable matrix.
Plants must respond to multiple stimuli in a natural environment. Therefore they need the ability to rapidly reorganise and specifically build up appropriate metabolites to adapt to their environment. Abiotic cues, such as ambient solar radiation, influence the next trophic level directly, but also an altered plant composition triggered by these environmental cues can have an effect on the behaviour of herbivores. The aim of this study was to test effects of the important ultraviolet (UV) radiation on plants and on plant-insect interactions using multi-level investigations. The focus was on the conduction of controlled experiments with broccoli plants in highly engineered greenhouses covered with innovative materials, which only differed in their UV-B transmission. For the first time in this controlled environment the plant-mediated UV-B effects on phloem-feeding aphids were studied. Broccoli plants (Brassica oleracea L. convar. botrytis, Brassicaceae) were under filter tents either exposed to (inclusion, +UV) or not exposed to (exclusion, -UV) UV-A / UV-B radiation. In greenhouses covered with new, innovative materials transmitting high (80%), medium (23%) or low (4%) levels of ambient solar UV-B radiation, in particular the influence of UV-B radiation on broccoli was examined. Plants respond highly specific to environmental stimuli such as UV-B radiation and herbivory. UV-B radiation has a strong impact on the plants’ architecture and flavonoid contents, which can in turn influence plant-insect interactions. Phloem-feeding aphids can be negatively affected by UV-B mediated plant changes. However, a direct effect of UV radiation on the behaviour of herbivores is also evident. Mainly the number, composition and quality of herbivorous species as well as an exceeding of a certain infestation threshold determine the mode of plant changes. In conclusion, UV-B radiation has the potential to harden plants against herbivores and simultaneously increases the concentrations of valuable secondary metabolites for human nutrition in important crop species such as broccoli.
The understanding of the mechanisms underlying the establishment and maintenance of the extraordinary biodiversity in tropical forests is a major challenge for modern biology. In this context, epiphytes are presumed to play an important role. To investigate the biological reality of this persistent yet insufficiently investigated notion, I conducted the present study. The main questions I intended to clarify were: (1) do epiphytes affect arthropod abundance and diversity in tropical tree crowns? and (2) what might be the driving forces behind this potential influence? I studied the arthropod fauna of 25 tree crowns bearing different epiphyte assemblages, and the resident fauna of 90 individual epiphytes. I also quantified the mitigating influence of epiphytes on the microclimate in tree crowns. In total, more than 277,000 arthropods were collected and about 700 morphospecies determined. Epiphytes had a significant moderating influence on canopy microclimate (Chapter 3), both at various microsites within a tree crown and among tree crowns with different epiphyte growth. On hot dry season days, they provided microsites with lower temperatures and reduced evaporative water loss compared to epiphyte-free spaces within the same tree crown. Quantitative sampling of the arthropods inhabiting three different epiphyte species provided compelling evidence for the specificity of epiphyte-associated faunas (Chapter 4). Epiphytes proved to be microhabitats for a diverse and numerous arthropod fauna, and different epiphyte species fostered both taxonomically and ecologically very distinct arthropod assemblages: among epiphyte hosts, the inhabitant faunas showed remarkably little species overlap, and guild composition differed strongly. In the subsequent chapters I investigated if this pronounced effect scaled up to the level of entire tree crowns. Arthropods were captured with three different trap types to obtain an ample spectrum of the canopy fauna (Chapter 2). Four tree categories were classified, three of which were dominated by a different species of epiphyte, and an epiphyte-free control group. On a higher taxonomic level, there were no detectable effects of epiphytes on the fauna: the ordinal composition was similar among tree categories and indifferent of the amount of epiphytes in a tree crown (Chapter 5). I examined three focal groups (ants, beetles and spiders) on species level. The diversity and abundance of ants was not influenced by the epiphyte load of the study trees (Chapter 6). Although many species readily used the epiphytes as nesting site and shelter, they seemed to be highly opportunistic with respect to their host plants. Likewise, the species richness and abundance of beetles, as well as their guild composition were entirely unaffected by the presence of epiphytes in the study trees (Chapter 7). Focusing on herbivorous beetles did not alter these results. Spiders, however, were strongly influenced by the epiphyte assemblages of the host trees (Chapter 8). Overall spider abundance and species richness did not differ among trees, but particular families and guilds exhibited marked differences in abundance between the tree categories. Most remarkable were the substantial differences in spider species composition across trees with different epiphyte assemblages. Conclusion Thus, the prevalent notion that epiphytes positively influence arthropod diversity in tropical canopies seems justified, but not without reservation. Whether an influence of epiphytes on the fauna was discernible depended greatly on (1) the scale of the investigated system: clear faunal distinctions at the microhabitat level were absent or much more subtle at the level of tree crowns. (2) the focal taxa: different arthropod orders allowed for completely different statements concerning the importance of epiphytes for canopy fauna. I therefore recommend a multitaxon approach for the investigation of large-scale ecological questions. In conclusion, I resume that epiphytes are associated with a species-specific inhabiting fauna,and that epiphytes impose an influence on certain, but not all, taxa even at the level of entire tree crowns. Although I could only hypothesize about the potential causes for this influence, this study provided the first comprehensive investigation of the role of epiphytes in determining arthropod abundance and diversity in tropical tree crowns.
The discovery, heterologous expression, and characterization of channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2) – a light-sensitive cation channel found in the green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii – led to the success of optogenetics as a powerful technology, first in neuroscience. ChR2 was employed to induce action potentials by blue light in genetically modified nerve cells. In optogenetics, exogenous photoreceptors are expressed in cells to manipulate cellular activity. These photoreceptors were in the beginning mainly microbial opsins. During nearly two decades, many microbial opsins and their mutants were explored for their application in neuroscience. Until now, however, the application of optogenetics to plant studies is limited to very few reports. Several optogenetic strategies for plant research were demonstrated, in which most attempts are based on non-opsin optogenetic tools. Opsins need retinal (vitamin A) as a cofactor to generate the functional protein, the rhodopsin. As most animals have eyes that contain animal rhodopsins, they also have the enzyme - a 15, 15'-Dioxygenase - for retinal production from food-supplied provitamin A (beta-carotene). However, higher plants lack a similar enzyme, making it difficult to express functional rhodopsins successfully in plants. But plant chloroplasts contain plenty of beta-carotene. I introduced a gene, coding for a 15, 15'-Dioxygenase with a chloroplast target peptide, to tobacco plants. This enzyme converts a molecule of β-carotene into two of all-trans-retinal. After expressing this enzyme in plants, the concentration of all-trans-retinal was increased greatly. The increased retinal concentration led to increased expression of several microbial opsins, tested in model higher plants. Unfortunately, most opsins were observed intracellularly and not in the plasma membrane. To improve their localization in the plasma membrane, some reported signal peptides were fused to the N- or C-terminal end of opsins. Finally, I helped to identify three microbial opsins -- GtACR1 (a light-gated anion channel), ChR2 (a light-gated cation channel), PPR (a light-gated proton pump) which express and work well in the plasma membrane of plants. The transgene plants were grown under red light to prevent activation of the expressed opsins. Upon illumination with blue or green light, the activation of these opsins then induced the expected change of the membrane potential, dramatically changing the phenotype of plants with activated rhodopsins.
This study is the first which shows the potential of microbial opsins for optogenetic research in higher plants, using the ubq10 promoter for ubiquitous expression. I expect this to be just the beginning, as many different opsins and tissue-specific promoters for selective expression now can be tested for their usefulness. It is further to be expected that the here established method will help investigators to exploit more optogenetic tools and explore the secrets, kept in the plant kingdom.
Two isoforms of human CD23 (CD23a and CD23b) have been described. They differ by only 6-7 residues in the N-terminal cytoplasmic tail. CD23a is restrictively expressed on B-cells while CD23b is inducible on B-cells, as well as monocytes, eosinophils, macrophages and a variety of other cell types, after IL-4 stimulation. The two isoforms seems to have different functions. CD23a appears to be the isoform associated with endocytosis of IgE immune complexes and mediating antigen presentation on B-cells. CD23b has a phagocytosis motif and seems to be involved in the phagocytosis of IgE-coated particles, cytokine release and the generation of superoxides. Previous studies indicate that the two isoforms connect to different signal transduction pathways. Comparing the cells that express only one or both CD23 isoforms suggests that CD23b is involved in upregulating cAMP and iNOS, whereas CD23a mediates an increase in intracellular calcium. In the main part of the study we investigated how the CD23a B-cell specific expression is regulated. Pax-5 is a B-cell restricted transcription factor with an essential role in early and late B-cell development. Putative Pax-5 binding sites have been predicted in the CD23a proximal promoter. Analyses of the CD23a promoter revealed three putative Pax-5 binding sites with more than 50% homology to the consensus sequence. One of these sites, named CD23-1 can compete a high affinity Pax-5 binding site or can directly bind Pax-5 protein in electrophoretic mobility shift assays. Introducing mutations into this site abrogates the binding. A different approach, in which overlapping peptides covering the length of the CD23a promoter were tested in competition assays against a high affinity binding site, also revealed CD23-1 as the only site that directly binds Pax-5 protein. Expression of Pax-5 in 293 cells resulted in a 7-fold activation of a CD23a core promoter construct. Co-transfection together with STAT6 showed that Pax-5 cooperates with this transcription factor in enhancing the level of transcription of a CD23a extended promoter construct. Most importantly, ectopic expression of Pax-5 in the monocytic cell line U-937 that regularly expresses only the CD23b isoform enabled a significant CD23a expression after stimulation with IL-4 and PMA. Our results suggest that Pax-5 is a key regulator of the B-cell restricted expression of the CD23a isoform. In the second part of the project, we used a yeast two-hybrid system (CytoTrapTM from Stratagene) in order to look for cytoplasmic interaction partners for the CD23 receptor. The system was established in order to reach a high efficiency of transformation and different bait vector constructs were made. The screening was performed using a human spleen library cloned in the target vector of the system. The first bait constructs used (pSosCD23a and pSosCD23b) expressed the very short (22 amino acids) cytoplasmic tails of the isoforms at the C-terminal end of the fusion protein (human SOS). Improved bait constructs, (pSosCD23a+Linker and pSos CD23b+Linker) expressed the cytoplasmic tail of CD23a/b at the N-terminal side of the human SOS and had in consequence the N-terminal part free as a bait, as it occurs in vivo. A flexible linker region separated the fusion proteins in order to make the small amino acid bait chain more obvious. Approximately three million library clones were screened with these various constructs. No “true positive” interaction was detected. A relatively high number of “false positive” clones were obtained and checked in another two-hybrid system. A new bait construct, in which the tyrosine residue in the cytoplasmic tail of CD23a was replaced by a glutamic acid residue will be used for future screening. The system was also used in order to test the interaction between CD23 and p59fyn, a member of the Src family of protein kinases that was mentioned to associate with CD23a. No interaction was detected by using the CytoTrap two-hybrid system. In conclusion, the key result of the study demonstrates that Pax-5 is a main regulator of the B-cell specific expression of the CD23a isoform. In addition, a two-hybrid system was established and employed in order to look for cytoplasmic interaction partners for CD23.
Land plants must control the transpiration water stream and balance it with carbon dioxide uptake for optimal photosynthesis. A highly specialized type of plant cell called guard cells have evolutionary appeared which are suited for this complicated purpose. Guard cells are located by pairs on aerated plant surface and form stomata – structural units, which represent highly regulated “watergate” (Roelfsema and Hedrich, 2005). Guard cells sense many environmental and internal plant-derived stimuli and by changing degree of their swelling tightly regulate diffusion of water vapor and other gases. Cell processes taking place in stomata during their movements had been a subject of intensive investigation for more than three decades (Schroeder et al., 2001; Assmann and Shimazaki, 1999). With use of electrophysiological technique the basic processes underlying stomatal movements were described (Thiel et al., 1992; Dietrich et. al., 2001; Roelfsema and Hedrich, 2005). Another set of questions arised between plant biologists is how the signals affecting stomatal aperture are transduced in guard cells starting from perception by receptor structures and ending on the osmodynamic motor components. Introduction of fluorescent microspectroscopy technique allowed to characterize some Ca2+ and H+-based signaling events, taking place in the cytoplasm during stomata function. Most of the processes, taking place in stomata were characterized in guard cell preparations, such as strips of isolated leaf epidermis or guard cell protoplasts, - cells with enzymaticaly digested cell walls. Some experimental observations although point that reactions of guard cells located in their natural environment, leaves of intact plants can differ from those could be registered in preparations. These deviations might be explained by the modulation of guard cell function by apoplastic factors originating from surrounding tissues like mesophyll or leaf epidermis (Roelfsema and Hedrich, 2002). On the other hand registration of physiological responses in prepared tissues may also contain possible artifacts, related to the preparation procedures. The aim of the experimental work presented here was to investigate the cell signaling events, taking place in guard cells upon plant stress hormone abscisic acid (ABA) and some other stimuli action. Abscisic acid is a compound that synthesized in plant roots upon drought and closes stomata in the leaf to prevent the plant organism from excessive water loss. Previous studies on guard cell of isolated epidermis and guard cell protoplasts showed, that ABA induces stomatal closure via activation of plasma membrane anion channels (Grabov et al., 1997; Pei et al, 1997). Anion channels are known to be activated by elevated 2 concentrations of cytoplasmic Ca2+ [Ca2+]cyt (Schroeder and Hagiwara, 1989; Hedrich et al., 1990). Application of Ca2+-sensitive fluorescent probes revealed [Ca2+]cyt increases in guard cells upon ABA action (McAinsh et al., 1990). This observation led to suggestion that [Ca2+]cyt directly participate in the transduction of ABA signal in guard cells. Although no direct evidences for co-occurrence of [Ca2+]cyt rises and following activation of anion channels upon ABA action was not presented until yet. Results of experimental work performed on intact Vicia faba, Commelina communis and Nicotiana plumbagnifolia plants showed that guard cells of intact plant leaves respond with transient activation of plasma membrane anion channels upon perception of ABA. Kinetics of the response is highly reproducible and seemed to be conserved between species. Although despite clear generation of anion current transients, no [Ca2+]cyt increases could be recorded with using fluorescent probe Fura-2 microinjected into the cytoplasm. Together with results of later study on intact Nicotiana tabacum guard cells, reported obligatory [Ca2+]cyt increases which were desynchronized with anion current transients (Marten et al., 2007b) this, may indicate that [Ca2+]cyt increases are not necessary component of ABA signal transduction pathway. Together with absence of the effect of cytoplasm-delivered Ca2+- mobilizing agents IP3, IP6 and NAADP on anion currents these data may suppose that role of [Ca2+]cyt in ABA signaling must be reassessed. Further interest represented characterization of [Ca2+]cyt signaling and homeostasis in intact guard cells comparing with those in prepared cells. Experiments revealed strong deviations in [Ca2+]cyt behavior between different measuring systems. While guard cells of intact plants were able to strictly maintain [Ca2+]cyt level upon experimental shifting of [Ca2+]cyt level in either direction of elevation or decrease, cells of isolated epidermis showed complete absence of such ability. Guard cell protoplasts showed even weaker [Ca2+]cyt regulation ability and were capable of low physiological [Ca2+]cyt levels maintaining only at depolarized membrane potentials. Apart to these differences, prepared guard cells showed also for-time less activation of anion currents by experimentally imposed [Ca2+]cyt increases. These data strongly suggest that registered in guard cell preparations [Ca2+]cyt signals may contain significant part of artifacts and must be carefully used for the building of models of guard cells signaling. Further experimental investigations are strongly required for understanding guard cell functioning, especially with relation of vacuoles participation. The experimental work was done by the author in the period from october 2001 until november 2004 under supervision of Professor Dr. Rainer Hedrich in laboratory of molecular plant physiology and biophysics at Julius-Maximillians University of Würzburg, Würz3 burg, Federal Republic of Germany. Scientific coordinator of the Ph. D. project is Dr. Max Robert Gustaaf Roelfsema, University of Würzburg. Most of experimental results, presented here (chapter III) are also published elsewhere (Roelfsema et al., 2004; Langer et al., 2004; Levchenko et al., 2005, 2008). Chapter I intend to shortly introduce the reader into the field of guard cell research and point out the current level of understanding regarding this branch of plant research. Special attention is given to description of guard cell ion channels, their function and regulation, including the mechanisms of Ca2+-, H+- and phosphorylation-based signaling. This section is preceded by a short history of guard cell research and explains the actuality of presented work. In chapter II experimental techniques, methods and data processing approaches, used in the presented work are described. Technique used for electrophysiological registrations on intact plant leaves were used before and described in more details by Roelfsema et al. (2001). Fluorescent microspectroscopy technique was for the first time applied to intact plant leaves in this work and described in more details including calibration of Fura-2 based measurements. Chapter III presents the major results of the experimental work. In chapter IV the experimental results are discussed and put into context with current knowledge of guard cell function knowledge. Finally, remarks on perspectives of guard cell signaling research are drawn.
Marine sponges are the most ancient metazoans and of large ecological importance as drivers of water and nutrient flows in benthic habitats. Furthermore marine sponges are well known for their association with highly abundant and diverse microbial consortia. Microorganisms inhabit the extracellular matrix of marine sponges where they can make up to 35% of the sponge’s biomass. Many microbial symbionts of marine sponges are highly host specific and cannot, or only in very rare abundances, be found outside of their host environment. Of special interest is the candidate phylum Poribacteria that was first discovered in marine sponges and still remains almost exclusive to their hosts. Phylogenetically Poribacteria were placed into the Planctomycetes, Verrucomicrobia, Chlamydiae superphylum and similarly to many members of this superphylum cell compartmentation has been proposed to occur in members of the Poribacteria. The status as a candidate phylum implies that no member of Poribacteria has been obtained in culture yet. This restricts the investigations of Poribacteria and their interactions with marine sponges to culture independent methods and makes functional characterisation a difficult task.
In this PhD thesis I used the novel method of single-cell genomics to investigate the genomic potential of the candidate phylum Poribacteria. Single-cell genomics enables whole genome sequencing of uncultivated microorganisms by singularising cells from the environment, subsequent cell lysis and multiple displacement amplification of the total genomic DNA. This process yields sufficient amounts of DNA for whole genome sequencing and genome analysis. This technique and its relevance for symbiosis studies are discussed in this PhD thesis.
Through the application of single-cell genomics it was possible to increase the number of single-amplified genomes of the candidate phylum Poribacteria from initially one to a total of six. Analyses of these datasets made it possible to enhance our understanding of the metabolism, taxonomy, and phylum diversity of Poribacteria and thus made these one of the best-characterised sponge symbionts today. The poribacterial genomes represented three phylotypes within the candidate phylum of which one appeared dominant. Phylogenetic and phylogenomic analyses revealed a novel phylogenetic positioning of Poribacteria distinctly outside of the Planctomycete, Verrucomicorbia, Chlamydiae superphylum. The occurrence of cell compartmentation in Poribacteria was also revisited based on the obtained genome sequences and revealed evidence for bacterial microcompartments instead of the previously suggested nucleotide-like structures. An extensive genomic repertoire of glycoside hydrolases, glycotransferases, and other carbohydrate active enzymes was found to be the central shared feature between all poribacterial genomes and showed that Poribacteria are among those marine bacteria with the largest genomic repertoire for carbohydrate degradation. Detailed analysis of the carbohydrate metabolism revealed that Poribacteria have the genomic potential for degradation of a variety of polymers, di- and monosaccharaides that allow these symbionts to feed various nutrient sources accessible through the filter-feeding activities of the sponge host. Furthermore the poribacterial glycobiome appeared to enable degradation of glycosaminoglycan chains, one of the main building blocks of extracellular matrix of marine sponges. Different lifestyles resulting from the poribacterial carbohydrate degradation potential are discussed including the influence of nutrient cycling in sponges, nutrient recycling and scavenging. The findings of this thesis emphasise the long overlooked importance of heterotrophic symbionts such as Poribacteria for the interactions with marine sponges and represent a solid basis for future studies of the influence heterotrophic symbionts have on their sponge hosts.
Plants have evolved an elaborate system to cope with a variety of biotic and abiotic stresses. Typically, under stress conditions an appropriate defense response is invoked which is accompanied by changes in the metabolic status of the plant. Photosynthesis is downregulated and sucrose is imported into the tissue, which provides a faster and more constant flux of energy and carbon skeletons to perform the defense response. Interestingly, these processes are co-ordinately regulated and the signal transduction chains underlying these cellular programs appear to share at least some common elements. Both the induction of sink metabolism and defense response is dependent on signal transduction pathways involving protein phosphorylation. Furthermore, regulation of extracellular invertase (INV) and phenylalanine ammonia lyase (PAL) which are markers for sink metabolism and defense response is preceded by the transient activation of MAP kinases. In depth analysis of MAP kinase activation by partial purification led to the discovery that, depending on the stimulus, different subsets of MAP kinases are activated. This differential MAPK activation is likely to possess a signal encoding function. In addition, the partial purification of MAP kinases was found to be suitable to address specific cellular functions to individual MAP kinase isoenzymes. By this way, LpWIPK was identified as the major MAP kinase activity induced after stimulation of tomato cells with different elicitors. LpWIPK is thus considered as a key regulator of defense response together with sink induction in tomato. A study using nonmetabolisable sucrose analogs revealed that the regulation of photosynthesis is not directly coupled to this signal transduction pathway since it is independent of MAP kinase activation. Nonetheless, downregulation is induced by the same stimuli that induce the defense response and sink metabolism and it will therefore be interesting to uncover the branch points of this signalling network in the future. MAP kinases are not only central components regulating the response to biotic stresses. In addition to e.g. pathogens, MAP kinases are as well involved in signal transduction events invoked by abiotic stresses like cold and drought. In a recent study, we could show that a MAP kinase is activated by heat stress, under conditions a plant will encounter in nature. This previously unknown MAP kinase is able to specifically recognise the heat stress transcription factor HsfA3 as a substrate, which supports a role of this MAP kinase in the regulation of the heat stress response. Moreover, the observation that HsfA3 is phosphorylated by the heat activated MAP kinase in vitro provides a promising basis to identify HsfA3 as the first physiological substrate of a plant MAP kinase. Intracellular protons have been implicated in the signal transduction of defense related signals. In a study using Chenopodium rubrum cells, we could show that cytosolic changes in pH values do not precede the regulation of the marker genes INV and PAL. Depending on the stimulus applied, cytosolic acidification or alkalinisation can be observed, which excludes a role for protons as signals in this pathway. Together with the concomitant changes of the pH value of the extracellular space, these variations can thus be considered as terminal part of the defense response itself rather than as a second messenger. WRKY transcription factors have only recently been identified as indirect targets of a central plant MAP kinase cascade. In addition, the identification of cognate binding sites in the promoters of INV and PAL supports a role for these proteins in the co-ordinate regulation of defense response and sink induction. A novel elicitor responsive WRKY transcription factor, LpWRKY1, was cloned from tomato and characterised with respect to its posttranslational modification. This immediate early transcription factor is transiently induced upon pathogen attack and the induction is dependent on phosphorylation. Furthermore, it was shown for the first time with respect to WRKY transcription factors, that LpWRKY1 is phosphorylated in vivo. Analysis of the role of this phosphorylation by in gel assays using recombinant WRKY protein as the substrate revealed two protein kinases that are transiently activated during the defense response to phosphorylate LpWRKY1. This data demonstrates that WRKY proteins require phosphorylation to modulate their DNA binding or transactivating activity.