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Incremental exercise testing is frequently used as a tool for evaluating determinants of endurance performance. The available reference values for the peak oxygen uptake \((VO_{2peak})\), % of \(VO_{2peak}\) , running speed at the lactate threshold \((v_{LT})\), running economy (RE), and maximal running speed \((v_{peak})\) for different age, gender, and disciplines are not sufficient for the elite athletic population. The key variables of 491 young athletes (age range 12–21 years; 250 males, 241 females) assessed during a running step test protocol \((2.4 m s^{−1} ; increase 0.4 m s^{−1} 5 min^{−1})\) were analysed in five subgroups, which were related to combat-, team-, endurance-, sprint- and power-, and racquet-related disciplines. Compared with female athletes, male athletes achieved a higher \(v_{peak}\) (P = 0.004). The body mass, lean body mass, height, abs. \(VO_{2peak} (ml min^{−1})\), rel. \(VO_{2peak} (ml kg^{−1} min^{−1})\), rel. \(VO_{2peak} (ml min^{−1} kg^{−0.75})\), and RE were higher in the male participants compared with the females (P < 0.01). The % of \(VO_2\) at \(v_{LT}\) was lower in the males compared with the females (P < 0.01). No differences between gender were detected for the \(v_{LT}\) (P = 0.17) and % of \(VO_2\) at \(v_{LT}\) (P = 0.42). This study is one of the first to provide a broad spectrum of data to classify nearly 500 elite athletes aged 12–21 years of both gender and different disciplines.
The purpose of this study was threefold: 1) to assess the eggbeater kick and throwing performance using a number of water polo specific tests, 2) to explore the relation between the eggbeater kick and throwing performance, and 3) to investigate the relation between the eggbeater kick in the water and strength tests performed in a controlled laboratory setting in elite water polo players. Fifteen male water polo players of the German National Team completed dynamic and isometric strength tests for muscle groups (adductor, abductor, abdominal, pectoralis) frequently used during water polo. After these laboratory strength tests, six water polo specific in-water tests were conducted. The eggbeater kick assessed leg endurance and agility, maximal throwing velocity and jump height. A 400 m test and a sprint test examined aerobic and anaerobic performance. The strongest correlation was found between jump height and arm length (p < 0.001, r = 0.89). The laboratory diagnostics of important muscles showed positive correlations with the results of the in-water tests (p < 0.05, r = 0.52-0.70). Muscular strength of the adductor, abdominal and pectoralis muscles was positively related to in-water endurance agility as assessed by the eggbeater kick (p < 0.05; r = 0.53-0.66). Findings from the current study emphasize the need to assess indices of water polo performance both in and out of the water as well as the relation among these parameters to best assess the complex profile of water polo players.
Here, we evaluated the influence of breathing oxygen at different partial pressures during recovery from exercise on performance at sea-level and a simulated altitude of 1800 m, as reflected in activation of different upper body muscles, and oxygenation of the m. triceps brachii. Ten well-trained, male endurance athletes (25.3±4.1 yrs; 179.2±4.5 cm; 74.2±3.4 kg) performed four test trials, each involving three 3-min sessions on a double-poling ergometer with 3-min intervals of recovery. One trial was conducted entirely under normoxic (No) and another under hypoxic conditions \((Ho; F_iO_2 = 0.165)\). In the third and fourth trials, the exercise was performed in normoxia and hypoxia, respectively, with hyperoxic recovery \((HOX; F_iO_2 = 1.00)\) in both cases. Arterial hemoglobin saturation was higher under the two HOX conditions than without HOX (p<0.05). Integrated muscle electrical activity was not influenced by the oxygen content (best d = 0.51). Furthermore, the only difference in tissue saturation index measured via near-infrared spectroscopy observed was between the recovery periods during the NoNo and HoHOX interventions (P<0.05, d = 0.93). In the case of HoHo the athletes’ \(P_{mean}\) declined from the first to the third interval (P < 0.05), whereas Pmean was unaltered under the HoHOX, NoHOX and NoNo conditions. We conclude that the less pronounced decline in \(P_{mean}\) during 3 x 3-min double-poling sprints in normoxia and hypoxia with hyperoxic recovery is not related to changes in muscle activity or oxygenation. Moreover, we conclude that hyperoxia \((F_iO_2 = 1.00)\) used in conjunction with hypoxic or normoxic work intervals may serve as an effective aid when inhaled during the subsequent recovery intervals.
Purpose: Research dealing with ischemic preconditioning (IPC) has primarily focused on variables associated to endurance performance with little research about the acute responses of IPC on repeated multidirectional running sprint performance. Here we aimed to investigate the effects of IPC of the arms and the legs on repeated running sprint performance with changes-of-direction (COD) movements.
Methods: Thirteen moderately-to-well-trained team-sport athletes (7 males; 6 females; age: 24 ± 2 years, size: 175 ± 8 cm, body mass: 67.9 ± 8.1 kg) performed 16 × 30 m all-out sprints (15 s rest) with multidirectional COD movements on a Speedcourt\(^{©}\) with IPC (3 × 5 min) of the legs (IPC\(_{leg}\); 240 mm Hg) or of the arms (remote IPC: IPC\(_{remote}\); 180–190 mm Hg) 45 min before the sprints and a control trial (CON; 20 mm Hg).
Results: The mean (±SD) time for the 16 × 30 m multidirectional COD sprints was similar between IPC\(_{leg}\) (Mean t: 16.0 ± 1.8 s), IPC\(_{remote}\) (16.2 ± 1.7 s), and CON (16.0 ± 1.6 s; p = 0.50). No statistical differences in oxygen uptake (mean difference: 0%), heart rate (1.1%) nor muscle oxygen saturation of the vastus lateralis (4.7%) and biceps brachii (7.8%) between the three conditions were evident (all p > 0.05).
Conclusions: IPC (3 × 5 min) of the legs (220 mm Hg) or arms (180–190 mm Hg; remote IPC) applied 45 min before 16 × 30 m repeated multidirectional running sprint exercise does not improve sprint performance, oxygen uptake, heart rate nor muscle oxygen saturation of the vastus lateralis muscle when compared to a control trial.
Background
Physical activity (PA) guidelines acknowledge the health benefits of regular moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) regardless of bout duration. However, little knowledge exists concerning the type and intensity distribution of structured and incidental lifestyle PA of students and office workers. The present study aimed to i) assess the duration and distribution of intensity of MVPAs during waking hours ≥50% of heart rate reserve (HRR), ii) to identify the type of PA through diary assessment, iii) to assign these activities into structured and lifestyle incidental PA, and iv) to compare this information between students and office workers.
Methods
Twenty-three healthy participants (11 students, 12 office workers) recorded heart rate (HR) with a wrist-worn HR monitor (Polar M600) and filled out a PA diary throughout seven consecutive days (i.e. ≥ 8 waking h/day). Relative HR zones were calculated, and PA diary information was coded using the Compendium of PA. We matched HR data with the reported PA and identified PA bouts during waking time ≥ 50% HRR concerning duration, HRR zone, type of PA, and assigned each activity to incidental and structured PA. Descriptive measures for time spend in different HRR zones and differences between students and office workers were calculated.
Results
In total, we analyzed 276.894 s (76 h 54 min 54 s) of waking time in HRR zones ≥50% and identified 169 different types of PA. The participants spend 31.9 ± 27.1 min/day or 3.9 ± 3.2% of their waking time in zones of ≥50% HRR with no difference between students and office workers (p > 0.01). The proportion of assigned incidental lifestyle PA was 76.9 ± 22.5%.
Conclusions
The present study provides initial insights regarding the type, amount, and distribution of intensity of structured and incidental lifestyle PA ≥ 50% HRR. Findings show a substantial amount of incidental lifestyle PA during waking hours and display the importance of promoting a physically active lifestyle. Future research could employ ambulatory assessments with integrated electronic diaries to detect information on the type and context of MVPA during the day.
The training intensity distribution (TID) of endurance athletes has retrieved substantial scientific interest since it reflects a vital component of training prescription: (i) the intensity of exercise and its distribution over time are essential components for adaptation to endurance training and (ii) the training volume (at least for most endurance disciplines) is already near or at maximum, so optimization of training procedures including TID have become paramount for success. This paper aims to elaborate the polarization-index (PI) which is calculated as log10(Zone 1/Zone 2∗Zone 3∗100), where Zones 1–3 refer to aggregated volume (time or distance) spent with low, mid, or high intensity training. PI allows to distinguish between non-polarized and polarized TID using a cut-off > 2.00 a.U. and to quantify the level of a polarized TID. Within this hypothesis paper, examples from the literature illustrating the usefulness of PI-calculation are discussed as well as its limitations. Further it is elucidated how the PI may contribute to a more precise definition of TID descriptors.
To evaluate the effects of Ramadan observance on dietary intake, body mass and body composition of adolescent athletes (design: systematic review and meta-analysis; data sources: PubMed and Web of Science; eligibility criteria for selecting studies: single-group, pre-post, with or without control-group studies, conducted in athletes aged <19 years, training at least 3 times/week, and published in any language before 12 February 2020). Studies assessing body mass and/or body composition and/or dietary intake were deemed eligible. The methodological quality was assessed using ‘QualSyst’. Of the twelve selected articles evaluating body mass and/or body composition, one was of strong quality and eleven were rated as moderate. Ten articles evaluated dietary intake; four were rated as strong and the remaining moderate in quality. Continuation of training during Ramadan did not change body mass from before to the first week (trivial effect size (ES) = −0.011, p = 0.899) or from before to the fourth week of Ramadan (trivial ES = 0.069, p = 0.277). Additionally, Ramadan observance did not change body fat content from before to the first week (trivial ES = −0.005, p = 0.947) and from before to the fourth week of Ramadan (trivial ES = -0.057, p = 0.947). Lean body mass remained unchanged from before to the fourth week of Ramadan (trivial ES = −0.025, p = 0.876). Dietary data showed the intake of energy (small ES = -0.272, p = 0.182), fat (trivial ES = 0.044, p = 0.842), protein (trivial ES = 0.069, p = 0.720), carbohydrate (trivial ES = 0.075, p = 0.606) and water (trivial ES = −0.115, p = 0.624) remained essentially unchanged during as compared to before Ramadan. Continued training of adolescent athletes at least three times/week during Ramadan observance has no effect on body mass, body composition or dietary intake.
Endurance athletes integrate four conditioning concepts in their training programs: high-volume training (HVT), “threshold-training” (THR), high-intensity interval training (HIIT) and a combination of these aforementioned concepts known as polarized training (POL). The purpose of this study was to explore which of these four training concepts provides the greatest response on key components of endurance performance in well-trained endurance athletes.
Methods: Forty eight runners, cyclists, triathletes, and cross-country skiers (peak oxygen uptake: (VO2peak): 62.6 ± 7.1 mL·min−1·kg−1) were randomly assigned to one of four groups performing over 9 weeks. An incremental test, work economy and a VO2peak tests were performed. Training intensity was heart rate controlled.
Results: POL demonstrated the greatest increase in VO2peak (+6.8 ml·min·kg−1 or 11.7%, P < 0.001), time to exhaustion during the ramp protocol (+17.4%, P < 0.001) and peak velocity/power (+5.1%, P < 0.01). Velocity/power at 4 mmol·L−1 increased after POL (+8.1%, P < 0.01) and HIIT (+5.6%, P < 0.05). No differences in pre- to post-changes of work economy were found between the groups. Body mass was reduced by 3.7% (P < 0.001) following HIIT, with no changes in the other groups. With the exception of slight improvements in work economy in THR, both HVT and THR had no further effects on measured variables of endurance performance (P > 0.05).
Conclusion: POL resulted in the greatest improvements in most key variables of endurance performance in well-trained endurance athletes. THR or HVT did not lead to further improvements in performance related variables.
Researchers have retrospectively analyzed the training intensity distribution (TID) of nationally and internationally competitive athletes in different endurance disciplines to determine the optimal volume and intensity for maximal adaptation. The majority of studies present a "pyramidal" TID with a high proportion of high volume, low intensity training (HVLIT). Some world-class athletes appear to adopt a so-called "polarized" TID (i.e., significant % of HVLIT and high intensity training) during certain phases of the season. However, emerging prospective randomized controlled studies have demonstrated superior responses of variables related to endurance when applying a polarized TID in well-trained and recreational individuals when compared with a TID that emphasizes HVLIT or threshold training. The aims of the present review are to: (1) summarize the main responses of retrospective and prospective studies exploring TID; (2) provide a systematic overview on TIDs during preparation, pre-competition, and competition phases in different endurance disciplines and performance levels; (3) address whether one TID has demonstrated greater efficacy than another; and (4) highlight research gaps in an effort to direct future scientific studies.
The purpose of this study was to determine whether an individually designed incremental exercise protocol results in greater rates of oxygen uptake VO\(_{2max}\) than standardized testing. Fourteen well-trained, male runners performed five incremental protocols in randomized order to measure their VO\(_{2max}\): i) an incremental test (INC\(_{S+I}\)) with pre-defined increases in speed (2 min at 8.64 km.h\(^{-1}\), then a rise of 1.44 km.h\(^{-1}\) every 30 s up to 14.4 km.h\(^{-1}\)) and thereafter inclination (0.5.every 30 s); ii) an incremental test (INC\(_{I}\)) at constant speed (14.4 km.h\(^{-1}\)) and increasing inclination (2 degrees every 2 min from the initial 0 degrees); iii) an incremental test (INC\(_{S}\)) at constant inclination (0 degrees) and increasing speed (0.5 km.h\(^{-1}\) every 30 s from the initial 12.0 km.h\(^{-1}\)); iv) a graded exercise protocol (GXP) at a 1 degrees incline with increasing speed (initially 8.64 km.h\(^{-1}\) + 1.44 km.h\(^{-1}\) every 5 min); v) an individual exercise protocol (INDXP) in which the runner chose the inclination and speed. VO\(_{2max}\) was lowest (-4.2%) during the GXP (p = 0.01; d = 0.06 - 0.61) compared to all other tests. The highest rating of perceived exertion, heart rate, ventilation and end-exercise blood lactate concentration were similar between the different protocols (p < 0.05). The time to exhaustion ranged from 7 min 18 sec (INC\(_{S}\)) to 25 min 30 sec (GXP) (p = 0.01). The VO\(_{2max}\) attained by employing an individual treadmill protocol does not differ from the values derived from various standardized incremental protocols.
The effects of circuit-like functional high-intensity training (Circuit\(_{HIIT}\)) alone or in combination with high-volume low-intensity exercise (Circuit\(_{combined}\)) on selected cardio-respiratory and metabolic parameters, body composition, functional strength and the quality of life of overweight women were compared. In this single-center, two-armed randomized, controlled study, overweight women performed 9-weeks (3 sessions·wk\(^{−1}\)) of either Circuit\(_{HIIT}\) (n = 11), or Circuit\(_{combined}\) (n = 8). Peak oxygen uptake and perception of physical pain were increased to a greater extent (p < 0.05) by Circuit\(_{HIIT}\), whereas Circuit\(_{combined}\) improved perception of general health more (p < 0.05). Both interventions lowered body mass, body-mass-index, waist-to-hip ratio, fat mass, and enhanced fat-free mass; decreased ratings of perceived exertion during submaximal treadmill running; improved the numbers of push-ups, burpees, one-legged squats, and 30-s skipping performed, as well as the height of counter-movement jumps; and improved physical and social functioning, role of physical limitations, vitality, role of emotional limitations, and mental health to a similar extent (all p < 0.05). Either forms of these multi-stimulating, circuit-like, multiple-joint training can be employed to improve body composition, selected variables of functional strength, and certain dimensions of quality of life in overweight women. However, Circuit\(_{HIIT}\) improves peak oxygen uptake to a greater extent, but with more perception of pain, whereas Circuit\(_{Combined}\) results in better perception of general health.
The present review examines retrospective analyses of training intensity distribution (TID), i.e., the proportion of training at moderate (Zone 1, Z1), heavy (Z2) and severe (Z3) intensity by elite-to-world-class endurance athletes during different phases of the season. In addition, we discuss potential implications of our findings for research in this field, as well as for training by these athletes. Altogether, we included 175 TIDs, of which 120 quantified exercise intensity on the basis of heart rate and measured time-in-zone or employed variations of the session goal approach, with demarcation of zones of exercise intensity based on physiological parameters. Notably, 49% of the TIDs were single-case studies, predominantly concerning cross-country skiing and/or the biathlon. Eighty-nine TIDs were pyramidal (Z1 > Z2 > Z3), 65 polarized (Z1 > Z3 > Z2) and 8 “threshold” (Z2 > Z1 = Z3). However, these relative numbers varied between sports and the particular phases of the season. In 91% (n = 160) of the TIDs >60% of the endurance exercise was of low intensity. Regardless of the approach to quantification or phase of the season, cyclists and swimmers were found to perform a lower proportion of exercise in Z1 (<72%) and higher proportion in Z2 (>16%) than athletes involved in the triathlon, speed skating, rowing, running, cross-country skiing or biathlon (>80% in Z1 and <12% in Z2 in all these cases). For most of the athletes their proportion of heavy-to-severe exercise was higher during the period of competition than during the preparatory phase, although with considerable variability between sports. In conclusion, the existing literature in this area does not allow general conclusions to be drawn. The methods utilized for quantification vary widely and, moreover, contextual information concerning the mode of exercise, environmental conditions, and biomechanical aspects of the exercise is often lacking. Therefore, we recommend a more comprehensive approach in connection with future investigations on the TIDs of athletes involved in different endurance sports.
The present study was designed to assess the psycho-physiological responses of physically untrained individuals to mobile-based multi-stimulating, circuit-like, multiple-joint conditioning (Circuit\(_{HIIT}\)) performed either once (1xCircuitHIIT) or twice (2xCircuit\(_{HIIT}\)) daily for 4 weeks. In this single-center, two-arm randomized, controlled study, 24 men and women (age: 25 ± 5 years) first received no training instructions for 4 weeks and then performed 4 weeks of either 1xCircuitHIIT or 2xCircuit\(_{HIIT}\) (5 men and 7 women in each group) daily. The 1xCircuitHIIT and 2xCircuit\(_{HIIT}\) participants carried out 90.7 and 85.7% of all planned training sessions, respectively, with average heart rates during the 6-min sessions of 74.3 and 70.8% of maximal heart rate. Body, fat and fat-free mass, and metabolic rate at rest did not differ between the groups or between time-points of measurement. Heart rate while running at 6 km⋅h\(^{-1}\) declined after the intervention in both groups. Submaximal and peak oxygen uptake, the respiratory exchange ratio and heart rate recovery were not altered by either intervention. The maximal numbers of push-ups, leg-levers, burpees, 45°-one-legged squats and 30-s skipping, as well as perception of general health improved in both groups. Our 1xCircuit\(_{HIIT}\) or 2xCircuit\(_{HIIT}\) interventions improved certain parameters of functional strength and certain dimensions of quality of life in young untrained individuals. However, they were not sufficient to enhance cardio-respiratory fitness, in particular peak oxygen uptake.
Here, we performed a non-systematic analysis of the strength, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (SWOT) associated with the application of artificial intelligence to sports research, coaching and optimization of athletic performance. The strength of AI with regards to applied sports research, coaching and athletic performance involve the automation of time-consuming tasks, processing and analysis of large amounts of data, and recognition of complex patterns and relationships. However, it is also essential to be aware of the weaknesses associated with the integration of AI into this field. For instance, it is imperative that the data employed to train the AI system be both diverse and complete, in addition to as unbiased as possible with respect to factors such as the gender, level of performance, and experience of an athlete. Other challenges include e.g., limited adaptability to novel situations and the cost and other resources required. Opportunities include the possibility to monitor athletes both long-term and in real-time, the potential discovery of novel indicators of performance, and prediction of risk for future injury. Leveraging these opportunities can transform athletic development and the practice of sports science in general. Threats include over-dependence on technology, less involvement of human expertise, risks with respect to data privacy, breaching of the integrity and manipulation of data, and resistance to adopting such new technology. Understanding and addressing these SWOT factors is essential for maximizing the benefits of AI while mitigating its risks, thereby paving the way for its successful integration into sport science research, coaching, and optimization of athletic performance.
The aim was to examine certain aspects of circulatory, metabolic, hormonal, thermoregulatory, cognitive, and perceptual responses while sitting following a brief session of high-intensity interval exercise. Twelve students (five men; age, 22 ± 2 years) performed two trials involving either simply sitting for 180 min (SIT) or sitting for this same period with a 6-min session of high-intensity exercise after 60 min (SIT+HIIT). At T\(_0\) (after 30 min of resting), T\(_1\) (after a 20-min breakfast), T\(_2\) (after sitting for 1 h), T\(_3\) (immediately after the HIIT), T\(_4\), T\(_5\), T\(_6\), and T\(_7\) (30, 60, 90, and 120 min after the HIIT), circulatory, metabolic, hormonal, thermoregulatory, cognitive, and perceptual responses were assessed. The blood lactate concentration (at T\(_3\)–T\(_5\)), heart rate (at T\(_3\)–T\(_6\)), oxygen uptake (at T\(_3\)–T\(_7\)), respiratory exchange ratio, and sensations of heat (T\(_3\)–T\(_5\)), sweating (T\(_3\), T\(_4\)) and odor (T\(_3\)), as well as perception of vigor (T\(_3\)–T\(_6\)), were higher and the respiratory exchange ratio (T\(_4\)–T\(_7\)) and mean body and skin temperatures (T\(_3\)) lower in the SIT+HIIT than the SIT trial. Levels of blood glucose and salivary cortisol, cerebral oxygenation, and feelings of anxiety/depression, fatigue or hostility, as well as the variables of cognitive function assessed by the Stroop test did not differ between SIT and SIT+HIIT. In conclusion, interruption of prolonged sitting with a 6-min session of HIIT induced more pronounced circulatory and metabolic responses and improved certain aspects of perception, without affecting selected hormonal, thermoregulatory or cognitive functions.
The aim of this pilot study was to analyze the off-training physical activity (PA) profile in national elite German U23 rowers during 31 days of their preparation period. The hours spent in each PA category (i.e., sedentary: <1.5 metabolic equivalents (MET); light physical activity: 1.5–3 MET; moderate physical activity: 3–6 MET and vigorous intense physical activity: >6 MET) were calculated for every valid day (i.e., >480 min of wear time). The off-training PA during 21 weekdays and 10 weekend days of the final 11-week preparation period was assessed by the wrist-worn multisensory device Microsoft Band II (MSBII). A total of 11 rowers provided valid data (i.e., >480 min/day) for 11.6 week days and 4.8 weekend days during the 31 days observation period. The average sedentary time was 11.63 ± 1.25 h per day during the week and 12.49 ± 1.10 h per day on the weekend, with a tendency to be higher on the weekend compared to weekdays (p = 0.06; d = 0.73). The average time in light, moderate and vigorous PA during the weekdays was 1.27 ± 1.15, 0.76 ± 0.37, 0.51 ± 0.44 h per day, and 0.67 ± 0.43, 0.59 ± 0.37, 0.53 ± 0.32 h per weekend day. Light physical activity was higher during weekdays compared to the weekend (p = 0.04; d = 0.69). Based on our pilot study of 11 national elite rowers we conclude that rowers display a considerable sedentary off-training behavior of more than 11.5 h/day.
There is a debate on the optimal way of monitoring training loads in elite endurance athletes especially during altitude training camps. In this case report, including nine members of the German national middle distance running team, we describe a practical approach to monitor the psychobiological stress markers during 21 days of altitude training (~2100 m above sea‐level) to estimate the training load and to control muscle damage, fatigue, and/or chronic overreaching. Daily examination included: oxygen saturation of hemoglobin, resting heart rate, body mass, body and sleep perception, capillary blood concentration of creatine kinase. Every other day, venous serum concentration of blood urea nitrogen, venous blood concentration of hemoglobin, hematocrit, red and white blood cell were measured. If two or more of the above‐mentioned stress markers were beyond or beneath the athlete's normal individual range, the training load of the subsequent training session was reduced. Running speed at 3 mmol L\(^{−1}\) blood lactate (V\(_{3}\)) improved and no athlete showed any signs of underperformance, chronic muscle damage, decrease body and sleep perception as well as activated inflammatory process during the 21 days. The dense screening of biomarkers in the present case study may stimulate further research to identify candidate markers for load monitoring in elite middle‐ and long‐distance runners during a training camp at altitude.
Speckle tracking-derived bi-atrial strain before and after eleven weeks of training in elite rowers
(2018)
The left (LA) and right (RA) atria undergo adaptive remodeling in response to hemodynamic stress not only induced by endurance exercise but also as part of several cardiovascular diseases thereby confounding differential diagnosis. Echocardiographic assessment of the atria with novel speckle tracking (STE)-derived variables broadens the diagnostic spectrum compared to conventional analyses and has the potential to differentiate physiologic from pathologic changes. The purpose of this study was to assess and categorize baseline values of bi-atrial structure and function in elite rowers according to recommended cutoffs, and to assess the cardiac changes occurring with endurance training. Therefore, fifteen elite rowers underwent 2D-echocardiographic analysis of established variables of cardiac structure and function as well as STE-derived variables of bi-atrial function. Measurements were performed at baseline and after eleven weeks of extensive training. 40% of athletes displayed mildly enlarged LA and 47% mildly enlarged RA at baseline, whereas no athlete fell below the lower reference values of LA and RA reservoir strain. Average power during a 2000 m ergometer rowing test (P2000 m) improved from 426 +/- 39 W to 442 +/- 34 W (p = 0.010) but there were no changes of echocardiographic variables following training. In elite rowers, longitudinal bi-atrial strain assessment indicates normal resting function of structurally enlarged atria and thereby may assist to differentiate between exercise-induced versus disease-associated structural cardiac changes in which function is commonly impaired.