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- Klinik für Psychiatrie und Psychotherapie, Universität Würzburg (1)
- Opel Automobile GmbH (1)
Spontaneous brain activity builds the foundation for human cognitive processing during external demands. Neuroimaging studies based on functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) identified specific characteristics of spontaneous (intrinsic) brain dynamics to be associated with individual differences in general cognitive ability, i.e., intelligence. However, fMRI research is inherently limited by low temporal resolution, thus, preventing conclusions about neural fluctuations within the range of milliseconds. Here, we used resting-state electroencephalographical (EEG) recordings from 144 healthy adults to test whether individual differences in intelligence (Raven’s Advanced Progressive Matrices scores) can be predicted from the complexity of temporally highly resolved intrinsic brain signals. We compared different operationalizations of brain signal complexity (multiscale entropy, Shannon entropy, Fuzzy entropy, and specific characteristics of microstates) regarding their relation to intelligence. The results indicate that associations between brain signal complexity measures and intelligence are of small effect sizes (r ∼ 0.20) and vary across different spatial and temporal scales. Specifically, higher intelligence scores were associated with lower complexity in local aspects of neural processing, and less activity in task-negative brain regions belonging to the default-mode network. Finally, we combined multiple measures of brain signal complexity to show that individual intelligence scores can be significantly predicted with a multimodal model within the sample (10-fold cross-validation) as well as in an independent sample (external replication, N = 57). In sum, our results highlight the temporal and spatial dependency of associations between intelligence and intrinsic brain dynamics, proposing multimodal approaches as promising means for future neuroscientific research on complex human traits.
Facing Enemies. Modulation of Revenge Interactions based on Opponent State Indicators of Suffering
(2023)
Research on revenge often treats vengeful acts as singular one-way experiences, an approach which fails to account for the social nature and functions of revenge. This dissertation aims to integrate emotional punishment reactions into dynamic revenge sequences to investigate the affective and cognitive consequences of revenge within a social interaction.
Exacting revenge can evoke intense affective consequences, from feelings of guilt to the genuine enjoyment of the suffering of others. In Chapter 2, affective responses towards suffering opponents and the regulation of aggression based on the appraisal of distinct suffering indicators were investigated. Results indicate that the observation of opponent pain evokes positive affect (measured via facial muscle contractions during the observation), which is followed by a downregulation of subsequent punishment. Both, positive affective reactions and the downregulation of punishment, were only observed following pain and not sadness expressions. Empathic distress, indexed by negative affective reactions, was only present following the observation of pain in non-provoking opponents. Showcasing the modulation of empathy related processes due to provocation and competition.
In Chapter 3, a significant escalation of punishment, when being confronted with Schadenfreude, was observed. Results are interpreted as supporting the assumption that opponent monitoring processes inform subsequent action selection. The observation of opponent smiles led to imitation behavior (facial mimicry), which was partially attenuated due to previous provocation. The different functions of smile mimicry in the context of the aggressive competitive setting are discussed as containing simulation aspects (to aid in opponent understanding) and as a potential mirroring of dominance gestures, to avoid submission.
In an additional series of studies, which are presented in Chapter 4, changes in memory of opponent faces following vengeful encounters were measured. Based on provocation, and punishment outcomes (pain & anger), face memory was distorted, resulting in more positive representations of opponents that expressed pain. These results are discussed as evidence of the impact of outcome appraisals in the formation of opponent representations and are theorized to aid empathy avoidance in future interactions.
The comparison of desired and observed opponent states, is theorized to result in appraisals of the punishment outcomes, which evoke affective states, inform the action selection of subsequent punishments, and are integrated into the representation of the opponent in memory.
Overall, the results indicate that suffering cues that are congruent with the chosen punishment action are appraised as positive, evoking an increase in positive affect. The emergence of positive affect during the observation of successful aggressive actions supports recent theories about the chronification of aggressive behavior based on reinforcement learning. To allow positive affect to emerge, affective empathic responses, such as distress, are theorized to be suppressed to facilitate the goal attainment process. The suffering of the opponent constitutes the proximate goal during revenge taking, which highlights the importance of a theoretical differentiation of proximate and ultimate goals in revenge to allow for a deeper understanding of the underlying motives of complex revenge behavior.
Im Zuge des technischen Fortschritts ist das hochautomatisierte Fahren nach SAE Level 3 (SAE, 2018) in
den vergangenen Jahren in greifbare Nähe gerückt. Es ist damit zu rechnen, dass Fahrzeuge in naher Zukunft zumindest bei Vorliegen einer Reihe strikter Rahmenbedingungen den Fahrer phasenweise von der Fahraufgabe entbinden können. Letzterer muss die Fahrzeugautomation während dieser Phasen nicht überwa
chen und kann sich anderen Tätigkeiten zuwenden. An Systemgrenzen oder bei Systemfehlern (Gold,
Naujoks, Radlmayr, Bellem & Jarosch, 2017) stellt er jedoch die Rückfallebene dar und muss die Fahrzeugkontrolle innerhalb eines angemessenen Zeitraumes übernehmen, sobald ihn das Fahrzeug dazu auffordert. Diese Rückübertragung der Fahraufgabe an den Fahrer stellt ein kritisches Nadelöhr für die Sicherheit und Akzeptanz automatisierter Fahrsysteme dar. Aus psychologischer Perspektive handelt es sich hierbei um Aufgabenwechsel. Diese gehen in Experimenten der kognitiven und angewandten Psychologie zuverlässig mit Kosten einher, welche sich in verlängerten Reaktionszeiten und erhöhten Fehlerraten bei der Aufgabenbearbeitung niederschlagen. Insbesondere im Bereich des automatisierten Fahrens liegen zahlreiche Belege vor, dass der Wechsel zwischen automatisiertem und manuellem Fahren zu einer Verschlechterung der Fahrleistungen gegenüber dem manuellen Fahren führen kann.
Die vorliegende Arbeit beschäftigt sich mit diesen Übergängen und fokussiert dabei die Tätigkeiten, denen Fahrer während der hochautomatisierten Fahrabschnitte nachgehen können. Vier Experimente im Fahrsimulator betrachten die Auswirkungen unterschiedlicher Aspekte fahrfremder Tätigkeiten (FFT) in Übernahmesituationen sowie deren Zusammenwirken mit unterschiedlichen Übernahmeaufforderungen.
Im ersten Experiment wird zunächst der Frage nachgegangen, inwiefern sich die Vielzahl denkbarer und zu erwartender FFT durch übergeordnete und damit systematisch untersuchbare Merkmale auszeichnet und
welche dies gegebenenfalls sind. Im zweiten Experiment werden anschließend die relevantesten Merkmale,
Unterbrechungsaufwand und Anreiz zur Weiterbearbeitung der Aufgabe daraufhin untersucht, welchen Ein-
fluss sie auf Fahrerleistungen in Übernahmesituationen ausüben. Im dritten Experiment wird der Frage nachgegangen, welches Potenzial solche Übernahmeaufforderungen besitzen, deren Dringlichkeit adaptiv
ist hinsichtlich des jeweiligen Aufwandes der Aufgabenunterbrechung sowie des jeweiligen Anreizes zur
Weiterbearbeitung der Aufgabe. Im vierten Experiment wird ein Übernahmekonzept untersucht, bei dem der Zeitpunkt der Übernahmeaufforderung adaptiv ist hinsichtlich des jeweiligen Aufwandes der Aufgaben-
unterbrechung. Die vorliegende Arbeit kann mit dem Unterbrechungsaufwand und dem Bearbeitungsanreiz zwei in L3-Übernahmesituationen wesentliche Merkmale fahrfremder Tätigkeiten identifizieren (Studien 1 und 2). Darüber hinaus wird eine experimentelle Variation des Unterbrechungsaufwandes erbracht und deren Effekte abgebildet (Studie 2). Durch den Vergleich adaptiver und nicht adaptiver Transitionskonzepte werden die Vorteile von Adaptivität im Rahmen von L3-Übernahmesituationen experimentell herausgearbeitet (Studien 3 und 4).
Hintergrund: An der Universität Würzburg wurde bereits im Wintersemester 2018/19 eine 90-minütige Lehrveranstaltung zur Nikotinentwöhnung als Präsenz- oder E-Learning-Seminar im 6. Semester implementiert. In 2020 wurden weitere Bausteine ergänzt: eine Kurzinfo zur Raucherberatung im 9. Semester und die Beratung realer Patienten im 10. Semester im Blockpraktikum-Allgemeinmedizin (BPA).
Fragestellung: Wie wirkt sich der Besuch des Seminars langfristig auf das Beratungs-Wissen aus? Ist eine Nikotinentwöhnungsberatung im Rahmen des BPA machbar? Erhöht sich dadurch die subjektive Sicherheit der Studierenden?
Methoden: Im Sommersemester 2020 wurden Studierende des 9. Semesters, die regulär das Seminar zur Raucherberatung im Wintersemester 2018/19 besucht haben sollten, online bzgl. Wissen zur Nikotinentwöhnungsberatung befragt. Es folgten vertonte PowerPoint-Folien zur Raucherberatung (Kurzinfo).
Im Wintersemester 2020/21 im BPA sollten die Studierenden ein Nikotinentwöhnungsgespräch mit einem Patienten in der Lehrpraxis durchführen und ihre Erfahrungen und subjektive Sicherheit mittels Online-Befragung retrospektiv evaluieren.
Ergebnisse: In der Befragung des 9. Semesters (n=54, Rücklauf: 35%) schätzten Teilnehmende der Ursprungskohorte (n=35 von ursprünglich 130) im Vergleich zu Nicht-Teilnehmenden (n=19) ihr Wissen deutlich höher ein (p=0,016). Dabei spielte die zuvor besuchte Lehrform keine Rolle (p=0,963).
Im BPA führten 50% (n=57) der 114 Befragten (Rücklauf: 74%) eine Nikotinberatung mit einem Patienten durch, dabei stieg die Sicherheit, ein solches Gespräch zu führen, signifikant (p<0,001). Beratende Studierende beurteilten den Zugewinn an Fertigkeiten durch das BPA höher (p<0,001) und hielten es für wichtiger, Patienten zu ihrem Rauchverhalten zu beraten (p=0,048).
Diskussion: Unabhängig von der Lehrform scheint sich ein Seminar zur Raucherberatung langfristig positiv auf das Wissen auszuwirken. Für 50% war eine Nikotinentwöhnungsberatung im BPA machbar. Als Hinderungsgründe wurden fehlende Gelegenheiten und ungeeignete Patienten angegeben. Die Beratung eines Patienten in einer realen Situation erhöht die Beratungssicherheit.
Although the concept of wealth is a topic that ancient philosophers have dealt with, relatively little attention is paid to it in psychology. This work sheds light on cognitive processes on how individuals derive a judgment about whether someone is rich and whether certain cues serve as subjective indicators of wealth. Based on three chapters that describe K = 11 observational and experimental studies (N = 2,315), three research questions shall be answered: First, to what extent do individuals differ when defining wealth? Secondly, are there universal cues of wealth that individuals use to identify rich people? And if yes, in what sense do these cues depend on the situation or context? Furthermore, it will be asked whether there are situational boundaries under which those cues do not apply. The present research shows that individuals differ in defining wealth and that they take their personal life circumstances and situational cues into account to define wealth. Moreover, evidence for a coherent wealth cue model was found that describes cues that are used by individuals to identify the rich (i.e., particularly wealthy people), whereby the validity of these cues depends on several contextual (e.g., cultural) factors. Lastly, it was found that by isolating individual wealth cues and looking at core mental representations of these cues, they may not be perceived as indicative for rich people anymore. The conclusions reported here set a foundation for further research on the perceptions of wealth which may be particularly relevant for the political discourse
Depressive disorders represent one of the main sources for the loss of healthy years of life. One of the reasons for this circumstance is the recurrent course of these disorders, which can be interrupted by current therapeutic approaches, especially in the shortterm, but seem to be maintained at least in part in the long-term. Subsequently, on one hand, this thesis deals with methodological measurement issues in the longitudinal prediction of depressive courses. On the other hand, it addresses two currently discussed neuroscience-based treatment approaches, which are investigated experimentally in a basic-psychological manner and reviewed in the light of their potential to translate results to the application in patient care. These two approaches each address potential mechanisms that may negatively impact long-term disease trajectories: First, stable endophenotypes for vulnerability factors that could regain control over the organism and reactivate maladaptive experiences, or behaviors with increasing temporal distance from therapeutic methods are focused on. In the studies presented, these were influenced by a recently rediscovered method of neuromodulation (transcranial low-intensity focused ultrasound) which is discussed in light of its unique capability to address even deepest, subcortical regions at a high spatial resolution. Lastly, as a second approach, an experimental design for the use of reconsolidation interference is presented, which could provide a first insight into the applicability of corresponding protocols in the field of depressive disorders and thus contribute to the modification, instead of inhibition, of already mentioned endophenotypes. In sum, methodological considerations for monitoring and predicting long-term courses of depression are deducted before two approaches are discussed that could potentially exert positive influences on the recurrent nature of depressive symptoms on their own, in combination with each other, or as augmentation for existing therapeutic procedures.
One of the features that defines humans as extraordinarily social beings is their striking susceptibility to the gaze of others. The research reported in this dissertation was undertaken to advance our understanding of the role of gaze cues in low-level attentional and higher-order cognitive processes. In particular, effects of gaze were examined with regard to three aspects of human cognition: (1) social attention, (2) social interaction and (3) social understanding. Chapter 1 consists of three manuscripts that investigate the boundary conditions of attention capture by direct gaze and how gaze direction is integrated with facial context information. Manuscript 1 and 2 suggest two necessary requirements for attention capture by direct gaze: a meaningful holistic facial context and sharp foveal vision, respectively. Manuscript 3 shows approach/avoidance-congruency effects between gaze direction and emotion expression on attention. Chapter 2 of this dissertation explores the role of gaze in more naturalistic social scenarios. Manuscript 4 demonstrates that gaze behavior during a conversation shapes our perception of another person. Manuscript 5 builds on these findings by showing that these perceptions define our willingness to act in a prosocial way towards our interaction partner. Finally, chapter 3 adopts a broader perspective on social cognition research with a special focus on methodological aspects. Manuscript 6 is a review highlighting the significance of methodological aspects in social cognition research and stressing the importance of sophisticated decisions on task and stimulus materials. Manuscript 7 introduces a new instrument for the assessment of social understanding in adolescents. Initial application in a young sample group indicates that an understanding of another person’s mental states is a capacity that is still developing throughout adolescence. Both manuscripts of this final chapter include eye tracking data that suggest a relationship between gaze behavior and social understanding, a finding that further emphasizes the complex and multifaceted nature of social cognition. I conclude from the findings of this dissertation that research can benefit from adopting a broad view in terms of methodological as well as temporal aspects in order to capture human social cognition in its entirety.
Conspiracy theories and fake news are receiving wide media coverage and their proliferation has motivated academic research on the driving factors irrational cognition and behavior. This dissertation focuses on individuals' beliefs about knowledge and knowing, which are commonly referred to as epistemic beliefs. The term post-truth epistemic beliefs is proposed and defined as a strong trust in one’s intuition, a low need to align opinions with evidence, and the strong conviction that truth is a matter of power. Across six online studies, a mediation model is proposed and tested. It includes the core of all dark traits, the Dark Factor of Personality (D), as an antecedent of post-truth epistemic beliefs, and irrational cognition and behavior as consequences. Manuscript #1 comprises four studies showing that post-truth epistemic beliefs are rooted in D and predict increased endorsement of COVID-19 conspiracy theories as well as less engagement in health-protective behavior against COVID-19. Manuscript #2 includes a US nationally representative study suggesting that post-truth epistemic beliefs and D predict a lower probability of having been vaccinated against COVID-19. Manuscript #3 presents a repeated measures experiment indicating that the nexus of D and post-truth epistemic beliefs also predicts less discernment between fake and accurate news. These findings highlight a major insight and a serious challenge for rational communication: Some individuals deliberately disregard (scientific) evidence and rational decision-making. Against this background, the need to foster the epistemological development of students and educators is emphasized.
Humans spontaneously blink several times a minute. These blinks are strongly modulated during various cognitive task. However, the precise function of blinking and the reason for their modulation has not been fully understood. In the present work, I investigated the function of spontaneous blinks through various perceptual and cognitive tasks. Previous research has revealed that blinks rates decrease during some tasks but increase during others. When trying to understand these seemingly contradictory results, I observed that blink reduction occurs when one engages with an external input. For instance, a decrease has been observed due to the onset of a stimulus, sensory input processing and attention towards sensory input. However, for activities that do not involve such an engagement, e.g. imagination, daydreaming or creativity, the blink rate has been shown to increase. To follow up on the proposed hypothesis, I distinguished tasks that involve the processing of an external stimulus and tasks that involve disengagement.
In the first part of the project, I explored blinking during stimulus engagement. If the probability of blinking is low when engaging with the stimulus, then one should find a reduction in blinks specifically during the time period of processing but not during sensory input per se. To this end, in study 1, I tested the influence of task-relevant information duration on blink timing and additionally manipulated the overall sensory input using a visual and an auditory temporal simultaneity judgement task. The results showed that blinks were suppressed longer for longer periods of relevant information or in other words, blinks occurred at the end of relevant information processing for both the visual and the auditory modality. Since relevance is mediated through top-down processes, I argue that the reduction in blinks is a top-down driven suppression. In studies 2 and 3, I again investigated stimulus processing, but in this case, processing was triggered internally and not based on specific changes in the external input. To this end, I used bistable stimuli, in which the actual physical stimulus remains constant but their perception switches between different interpretations. Studies on the involvement of attention in such bistable perceptual changes indicate that the sensory input is reprocessed before the perceptual switch. The results revealed a reduction in eye blink rates before the report of perceptual switches. Importantly, I was able to decipher that the decrease was not caused by the perceptual switch or the behavioral response but likely started before the internal switch. Additionally, periods between a blink and a switch were longer than interblink intervals, indicating that blinks were followed by a period of stable percept. To conclude, the first part of the project revealed that there is a top-down driven blink suppression during the processing of an external stimulus.
In the second part of the project, I extended the idea of blinks marking the disengagement from external processing and tested if blinking is associated with better performance during internally directed processes. Specifically, I investigated divergent thinking, an aspect of creativity, and the link between performance and blink rates as well as the effect of motor restriction. While I could show that motor restriction was the main factor influencing divergent thinking, the relationship between eye blink rates and creative output also depended on restriction. Results showed that higher blink rates were associated with better performance during free movement, but only between subjects. In other words, subjects who had overall higher blink rates scored better in the task, but when they were allowed to sit or walk freely. Within a single subject, trial with higher blink rates were not associated with better performance. Therefore, possibly, people who are able to disengage easily, as indicated by an overall high blink rate, perform better in divergent thinking tasks. However, the link between blink rate and internal tasks is not clear at this point. Indeed, a more complex measurement of blink behavior might be necessary to understand the relationship.
In the final part of the project, I aimed to further understand the function of blinks through their neural correlates. I extracted the blink-related neural activity in the primary visual cortex (V1) of existing recordings of three rhesus monkeys during different sensory processing states. I analyzed spike related multi-unit responses, frequency dependent power changes, local field potentials and laminar distribution of activity while the animal watched a movie compared to when it was shown a blank screen. The results showed a difference in blink-related neural activity dependent on the processing state. This difference suggests a state dependent function of blinks.
Taken altogether, the work presented in this thesis suggests that eye blinks have an important function during cognitive and perceptual processes. Blinks seem to facilitate a disengagement from the external world and are therefore suppressed during intended processing of external stimuli.
From simply ringing a bell to preparing a five-course menu, human behavior commonly causes changes in the environment. Such episodes where an agent acts, thereby causing changes in their environment constitute the sense of agency. In this thesis four series of experi-ments elucidate how the sense of agency is represented in complex action-event sequences, thereby bridging a gap between basic cognitive research and real-life practice. It builds upon extensive research on the sense of agency in unequivocal sequences consisting of single ac-tions and distinct, predominantly auditory, outcomes. Employing implicit as well as explicit measures, the scope is opened up to multi-step sequences.
The experiments show that it is worthwhile devoting more research to complex action-event sequences. With a newly introduced auditory measure (Chapter II), common phenomena such as temporal binding and a decrease in agency ratings following distorted feedback were replicated in multi-step sequences. However, diverging results between traditional implicit and explicit measures call for further inspection. Multisensory integration appears to gain more weight when multiple actions have to be performed to attain a goal leading to more accurate representations of the own actions (Chapter III). Additionally, freedom of choice (Chapter III) as well as early spatial ambiguity altered the perceived timing of outcomes, while late spatial ambi-guity (Chapter IV) and the outcome’s self-relevance did not (Chapter V). The data suggests that the cognitive system is capable of representing multi-step action-event sequences implicitly and explicitly. Actions and sensory events show a temporal attraction stemming from a bias in the perception of outcomes. Explicit knowledge about causing an event-sequence facilitates neither feelings of control nor taking authorship. The results corroborate current theorizing on the un-derpinnings of temporal binding and the divergence between traditional implicit and explicit measures of the sense of agency. Promising avenues for further research include structured analyses of how much inferred causality contributes to implicit and explicit measures of agency as well as finding alternative measures to capture conceptual as well as non-conceptual facets of the agency experience with one method.
This thesis consists of three studies investigating the influence media literacy has on political variables, cognitive variables, and learning. Adolescents from 13 years of age and young adults are included in the studies. This thesis is divided into three chapters. Study I and II are one comprehensive study, but will be presented separately for better readability. Chapter I provides the reader with background knowledge for the original studies presented in chapter II includes information about media use, different conceptualizations of media literacy and its development over the lifetime, as well as media literacy’s impact on cognitive and political variables. Additionally, current literature on the comparison of the learning outcomes of different kinds of texts (written, auditory, and audiovisual) is presented, with a differentiation between text-based information and inferences. In chapter II, the original studies are placed in the current state of research and presented in detail. In chapter III, a critical discussion of the studies is conducted, and a general model of the influence media literacy has on the investigated cognitive and political factors is presented, followed by a conclusion of the research.
The theoretical foundation of this thesis is three models of media literacy proposed by Groeben (2002, 2004), Hobbs (1997), and Potter (1998, 2016). These three models are similar in that they define media literacy as a multifactorial construct with skills that develop further in the course of life. Their ideas are integrated and developed further, leading to our own model of media literacy. It encompasses five scales: media sign literacy, distinction between reality and fiction, knowledge of media law, knowledge of media effects, and production skills. Thereupon, the assessment tool Würzburg Media Literacy Test (WMK; Würzburger Medienkompetenztest) is designed.
There is evidence that media use and media literacy influence socio-political factors. Young adults name the internet as the main source of information on political topics (see Pasek et al., 2006), and knowledge demonstrably fosters political participation (Delli Carpini & Keeter, 1996). However, the kind of participation activity regarded is important (Quintelier & Vissers, 2008), as sometimes real-life participation is supplemented by online activities (Quan-Haase & Wellman, 2002). Media literacy is the key to evaluating the quality of information from media. Whether or not a direct link between media literacy and political interest exists has, as far as I know, not yet been investigated. Several studies have shown that precursors and subcomponents of media literacy have the capacity to influence cognitive variables. For instance, children with higher media sign literacy possess better reading proficiency (Nieding et al., 2017) and are better at collecting information and drawing inferences from hypermedia and films (Diergarten et al., 2017) as compared to children with low literacy. These precursors and subcomponents are more efficient in processing medial sign systems, reducing cognitive load, and consequently, liberating cognitive capacity for other mental tasks (Sweller, 1988). Paino and Renzulli (2012) showed that highly computer-proficient adolescents exhibit better mathematics and reading abilities. Different types of media influence the learning process differently, and the learning process can be enhanced by combining these different types of media, if the material is prepared according to the research findings and Mayer’s (2002) cognitive theory of multimedia learning. Similarly, a reduction in cognitive load takes place and more resources can be invested in the learning process itself (Mayer & Moreno, 2003; Sweller, 1988). It is not easy to answer the question of whether one medium is superior for learning to another. Generally, adults learn best from written texts (e.g., Byrne & Curtis, 2000), and audiovisual and auditory texts are comparable (e.g., Hayes et al., 1986); however, there is little research regarding the comparison of the latter two.
Study I examined whether media literacy has a positive impact on interest in politics and the political self-concept. A sample of 101 13-to 20-year-olds was drawn. The control variables were intelligence, socio-economic status (SES), openness to experiences, perspective-taking, age, and sex. Additionally, an evaluation of the WMK was conducted, which indicated good construct validity and excellent overall reliability. Media literacy was positively associated with interest in politics, political self-concept, and perspective-taking but not with openness. In hierarchical regressions and path analysis, a direct influence of media literacy and openness on interest in politics could be found. Political self-concept was solely influenced by interest in politics. Although media literacy had no direct influence on political self-concept, it influenced its precursor interest in politics and was thus expected to have distal influence. The results of the first study confirm previous findings (e.g., Vecchione & Caprara, 2009), where political self-concept is regarded as a precursor of political participation. In conclusion, the findings of study I suggested that by stimulating political interest, media literacy could, mediated through political self-concept, foster political participation.
Study II (which was conducted on the same sample as study I) was concerned with the question of whether highly media-literate adolescent and young adult participants exhibit better academic skills (mathematics; reading) and academic achievement (grades) compared to less media-literate participants. Additionally, to obtain information about potential development during adolescence, a group of 50 13-year-olds was compared with a group of 51 19-year-olds in terms of their media literacy. The control variables were intelligence, SES, sex, and age. The results showed that a significant development of media literacy took place during adolescence (∆M = .17), agreeing with Potter’s (1998, 2013) development theory of media literacy. Media literacy was significantly correlated with reading skills and school grades. Regarding adults, media literacy was also significantly correlated with mathematical skills; the association was greater than that with reading skills. However, no connection with mathematical skills was found for adolescents. To control for the influence of age and intelligence, which were both associated with media literacy, hierarchical regressions and path analyses were conducted. The results revealed that media literacy had a greater impact on grades and academic abilities than intelligence. These results are in line with those obtained by Paino and Renzulli (2012).
Study III investigated whether media literacy helps young adults to better learn from three kinds of media, a written, an auditory, and an audio-visual text, and which medium achieves the best learning results. Three groups of 91 young adults were compared (written, auditory, and audio-visual text) in terms of their learning outcomes. These outcomes were conceptualized as directly stated information in the text (assessed by text-based questions) and inferential learning (inference questions). A computer-based short version of the WMK was applied to assess media literacy, which should be optimized in the future. The control variables were intelligence, verbal ability, media usage, prior knowledge, and SES. In hierarchical regression, media literacy turned out to be a significant predictor of text inferences, even when other relevant variables, such as intelligence, were controlled for. Inferences foster the building of the situation model, which is believed by many authors to be true comprehension of a text (Zwaan & Radvansky, 1998). The outcomes of study III support Ohler’s (1994) assumption that media literacy fosters the creation of a more elaborated situational model. Text-based questions were only influenced by prior knowledge. As assumed by Potter (1998, 2016), the media literacy of young adults in the Western world suffices to extract relevant facts from educational learning material. Both subjects were best in the written text condition for text-based and inference question results. Audiovisual and auditory texts showed no significant differences. The written text condition did not excel in the auditory text condition for inferences. The results accord with those obtained by, for instance, Byrne and Curtis (2000).
Taken together, these studies show that media literacy can influence several cognitive and political variables. It stimulates political interest, reading comprehension, school grades, and mathematical abilities in young adults, as well as drawing inferences from different kinds of texts. Additionally, media literacy develops further during adolescence.
What is left after an error? Towards a comprehensive account of goal-based binding and retrieval
(2023)
The cognitive system readily detects and corrects erroneous actions by establishing episodic bindings between representations of the acted upon stimuli and the intended correct response. If these stimuli are encountered again, they trigger the retrieval of the correct response. Thus, binding and retrieval efficiently pave the way for future success. The current study set out to define the role of the erroneous response itself and explicit feedback for the error during these processes of goal-based binding and retrieval. Two experiments showed robust and similar binding and retrieval effects with and without feedback and pointed towards sustained activation of the unbound, erroneous response. The third experiment confirmed that the erroneous response is more readily available than a neutral alternative. Together, the results demonstrate that episodic binding biases future actions toward success, guided primarily through internal feedback processes, while the erroneous response still leaves detectable traces in human action control.
These pre-registered studies shed light on the cues that individuals use to identify rich people. In two studies (N = 598), we first developed a factor-analytical model that describes the content and the mental structure of 24 wealth cues. A third within-subject study (N = 89) then assessed the perception of rich subgroups based on this model of wealth cues. Participants evaluated the extent to which the wealth cues applied to two distinct subgroups of rich people. The results show: German and US-American participants think that one can identify rich people based on the same set of cues which can be grouped along the following dimensions: luxury consumption, expensive hobbies, spontaneous spending, greedy behavior, charismatic behavior, self-presentation, and specific possessions. However, Germans and US-Americans relied on these cues to different degrees to diagnose wealth in others. Moreover, we found evidence for subgroup-specific wealth cue profiles insofar as target individuals who acquired their wealth via internal (e.g., hard work) compared to external means (e.g., lottery winners) were evaluated differently on these wealth cues, presumably because of their perceived differences in valence and competence. Together, this research provides new insights in the cognitive representation of the latent construct of wealth. Practical implications for research on the perception of affluence, and implications for political decision makers, are discussed in the last section.
In the last years, it has become general consensus that actions change our time perception. Performing an action to elicit a specific event seems to lead to a systematic underestimation of the interval between action and effect, a phenomenon termed temporal (or previously intentional) binding. Temporal binding has been closely associated with sense of agency, our perceived control over our actions and our environment, and because of its robust behavioral effects has indeed been widely utilized as an implicit correlate of sense of agency. The most robust and clear temporal binding effects are typically found via Libet clock paradigms. In the present study, we investigate a crucial methodological confound in these paradigms that provides an alternative explanation for temporal binding effects: a redirection of attentional resources in two-event sequences (as in classical operant conditions) versus singular events (as in classical baseline conditions). Our results indicate that binding effects in Libet clock paradigms may be based to a large degree on such attentional processes, irrespective of intention or action-effect sequences. Thus, these findings challenge many of the previously drawn conclusions and interpretations with regard to actions and time perception.
In three experiments, we examined the cognitive underpinnings of self-serving dishonesty by manipulating cognitive load under different incentive structures. Participants could increase a financial bonus by misreporting outcomes of private die rolls without any risk of detection. At the same time, they had to remember letter strings of varying length. If honesty is the automatic response tendency and dishonesty is cognitively demanding, lying behavior should be less evident under high cognitive load. This hypothesis was supported by the outcome of two out of three experiments. We further manipulated whether all trials or only one random trial determined payoff to modulate reward adaptation over time (Experiment 2) and whether payoff was framed as a financial gain or loss (Experiment 3). The payoff scheme of one random or all trials did not affect lying behavior and, discordant to earlier research, facing losses instead of gains did not increase lying behavior. Finally, cognitive load and incentive frame interacted significantly, but contrary to our assumption gains increased lying under low cognitive load. While the impact of cognitive load on dishonesty appears to be comparably robust, motivational influences seem to be more elusive than commonly assumed in current theorizing.
Previous research has shown that the simultaneous execution of two actions (instead of only one) is not necessarily more difficult but can actually be easier (less error-prone), in particular when executing one action requires the simultaneous inhibition of another action. Corresponding inhibitory demands are particularly challenging when the to-be-inhibited action is highly prepotent (i.e., characterized by a strong urge to be executed). Here, we study a range of important potential sources of such prepotency. Building on a previously established paradigm to elicit dual-action benefits, participants responded to stimuli with single actions (either manual button press or saccade) or dual actions (button press and saccade). Crucially, we compared blocks in which these response demands were randomly intermixed (mixed blocks) with pure blocks involving only one type of response demand. The results highlight the impact of global (action-inherent) sources of action prepotency, as reflected in more pronounced inhibitory failures in saccade vs. manual control, but also more local (transient) sources of influence, as reflected in a greater probability of inhibition failures following trials that required the to-be-inhibited type of action. In addition, sequential analyses revealed that inhibitory control (including its failure) is exerted at the level of response modality representations, not at the level of fully specified response representations. In sum, the study highlights important preconditions and mechanisms underlying the observation of dual-action benefits.
When telling a lie, humans might engage in stronger monitoring of their behavior than when telling the truth. Initial evidence has indeed pointed towards a stronger recruitment of capacity-limited monitoring processes in dishonest than honest responding, conceivably resulting from the necessity to overcome automatic tendencies to respond honestly. Previous results suggested monitoring to be confined to response execution, however, whereas the current study goes beyond these findings by specifically probing for post-execution monitoring. Participants responded (dis)honestly to simple yes/no questions in a first task and switched to an unrelated second task after a response–stimulus interval of 0 ms or 1000 ms. Dishonest responses did not only prolong response times in Task 1, but also in Task 2 with a short response–stimulus interval. These findings support the assumption that increased monitoring for dishonest responses extends beyond mere response execution, a mechanism that is possibly tuned to assess the successful completion of a dishonest act.
Making judgments of learning (JOLs) after studying can directly improve learning. This JOL reactivity has been shown for simple materials but has scarcely been investigated with educationally relevant materials such as expository texts. The few existing studies have not yet reported any consistent gains in text comprehension due to providing JOLs. In the present study, we hypothesized that increasing the chances of covert retrieval attempts when making JOLs after each of five to-be-studied text passages would produce comprehension benefits at 1 week compared to restudy. In a between-subjects design, we manipulated both whether participants (N = 210) were instructed to covertly retrieve the texts, and whether they made delayed target-absent JOLs. The results indicated that delayed, target-absent JOLs did not improve text comprehension after 1 week, regardless of whether prior instructions to engage in covert retrieval were provided. Based on the two-stage model of JOLs, we reasoned that participants’ retrieval attempts during metacomprehension judgments were either insufficient (i.e., due to a quick familiarity assessment) or were ineffective (e.g., due to low retrieval success).
Pain-associated approach and avoidance behaviours are critically involved in the development and maintenance of chronic pain. Empirical research suggests a key role of operant learning mechanisms, and first experimental paradigms were developed for their investigation within a controlled laboratory setting. We introduce a new Virtual Reality paradigm to the study of pain-related behaviour and investigate pain experiences on multiple dimensions. The paradigm evaluates the effects of three-tiered heat-pain stimuli applied contingent versus non-contingent with three types of arm movements in naturalistic virtual sceneries. Behaviour, self-reported pain-related fear, pain expectancy and electrodermal activity were assessed in 42 healthy participants during an acquisition phase (contingent movement-pain association) and a modification phase (no contingent movement-pain association). Pain-associated approach behaviour, as measured by arm movements followed by a severe heat stimulus, quickly decreased in-line with the arm movement-pain contingency. Slower effects were observed in fear of movement-related pain and pain expectancy ratings. During the subsequent modification phase, the removal of the pain contingencies modified all three indices. In both phases, skin conductance responses resemble the pattern observed for approach behaviour, while skin conductance levels equal the pattern observed for the self-ratings. Our findings highlight a fast reduction in approach behaviour in the face of acute pain and inform about accompanying psychological and physiological processes. We discuss strength and limitations of our paradigm for future investigations with the ultimate goal of gaining a comprehensive understanding of the mechanisms involved in chronic pain development, maintenance, and its therapy.
The question of how behavior is represented in the mind lies at the core of psychology as the science of mind and behavior. While a long-standing research tradition has established two opposing fundamental views of perceptual representation, Structuralism and Gestalt psychology, we test both accounts with respect to action representation: Are multiple actions (characterizing human behavior in general) represented as the sum of their component actions (Structuralist view) or holistically (Gestalt view)? Using a single-/dual-response switch paradigm, we analyzed switches between dual ([A + B]) and single ([A], [B]) responses across different effector systems and revealed comparable performance in partial repetitions and full switches of behavioral requirements (e.g., in [A + B] → [A] vs. [B] → [A], or [A] → [A + B] vs. [B] → [A + B]), but only when the presence of dimensional overlap between responses allows for Gestalt formation. This evidence for a Gestalt view of behavior in our paradigm challenges some fundamental assumptions in current (tacitly Structuralist) action control theories (in particular the idea that all actions are represented compositionally with reference to their components), provides a novel explanatory angle for understanding complex, highly synchronized human behavior (e.g., dance), and delimitates the degree to which complex behavior can be analyzed in terms of its basic components.