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Institute
- Physikalisches Institut (781) (remove)
Sonstige beteiligte Institutionen
- Wilhelm-Conrad-Röntgen-Forschungszentrum für komplexe Materialsysteme (4)
- Universitätsklinikum Würzburg (3)
- Röntgen Center for Complex Material Systems (RCCM), Am Hubland, 97074 W¨urzburg, Germany (2)
- ATLAS Collaboration (1)
- Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, USA (1)
- Bavarian Center for Applied Energy Research (ZAE Bayern), 97074 Würzburg, Germany (1)
- Bavarian Center for Applied Energy Research e.V. (ZAE Bayern) (1)
- Bayerisches Zentrum für Angewandte Energieforschung e.V. (1)
- Biomedizinische NMR Forschungs GmbH am Max-Planck-Institut fuer biophysikalische Chemie (1)
- CERN (1)
ResearcherID
- D-1250-2010 (1)
- N-7500-2014 (1)
This thesis focuses on various aspects and techniques of 19F magnetic resonance (MR). The first chapters provide an overview of the basic physical properties, 19F MR and MR sequences related to this work. Chapter 5 focuses on the application of 19F MR to visualize biological processes in vivo using two different animal models. The dissimilar models underlined the wide applicability of 19F MR in preclinical research. A subsection of Chapter 6 shows the application of compressed sensing (CS) to 19F turbo-spin-echo chemical shift imaging (TSE-CSI), which leads to reduced measurement time. CS, however, can only be successfully applied when a sufficient signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) is available. When the SNR is low, so-called spike artifacts occur with the CS algorithm used in the present work. However, it was shown in an additional subsection that these artifacts can be reduced using a CS-based post processing algorithm. Thus, CS might help overcome limitations with time consuming 19F CSI experiments. Chapter 7 deals with a novel technique to quantify the B+1 profile of an MR coil. It was shown that, using a specific application scheme of off resonant pulses, Bloch-Siegert (BS)-based B+1 mapping can be enabled using a Carr Purcell Meiboom Gill (CPMG)-based TSE sequence. A fast acquisition of the data necessary for B+1 mapping was thus enabled. In the future, the application of BS-CPMG-TSE B+1 mapping to improve quantification using 19F MR could therefore be possible.
Die Arbeit beschäftigt sich mit der Herstellung und Charakterisierung von AlGaInP Quantenpunkten auf GaP und GaAs-Substrat. Auf Basis dieser Quantenpunkte wurden Halbleiterlaser auf GaAs hergestellt, welche bei Raumtemperatur zwischen 660 nm und 730 nm emittierten. Die Untersuchung von Breitstreifenlasern, welche aus diesen Strukturen gefertigt wurden, legen nahe, dass man mithilfe eines höheren Aluminiumanteils in größeren Quantenpunkten bei vergleichbarer Wellenlänge Laser mit besseren Eigenschaften realisieren kann. Weiterhin wurden in dieser Arbeit Quantenpunkten auf GaP-Substrat untersucht, welche in AlGaP eingebettet wurden. Da diese Quantenpunkte in Barrieren eingebettet sind, welche eine indirekte Bandlücke besitzen, ergibt sich ein nicht-trivialer Bandverlauf innerhalb dieser Strukturen. In dieser Arbeit wurden numerische 3D-Simulationen verwendet, um den Bandverlauf zu berechnen, wobei Verspannung und interne Felder berücksichtigt wurden und auch die Grundzustandswellenfunktionen ermittelt wurden. Ein eingehender Vergleich mit dem Experiment setzt die gemessenen Emissionswellenlängen und -intensitäten mit berechneten Übergangsenergien und Überlappintegralen in Verbindung.
The outcomes of measurements on entangled quantum systems can be nonlocally correlated. However, while it is easy to write down toy theories allowing arbitrary nonlocal correlations, those allowed in quantum mechanics are limited. Quantum correlations cannot, for example, violate a principle known as macroscopic locality, which implies that they cannot violate Tsirelson’s bound. This paper shows that there is a connection between the strength of nonlocal correlations in a physical theory and the structure of the state spaces of individual systems. This is illustrated by a family of models in which local state spaces are regular polygons, where a natural analogue of a maximally entangled state of two systems exists. We characterize the nonlocal correlations obtainable from such states. The family allows us to study the transition between classical, quantum and super-quantum correlations by varying only the local state space. We show that the strength of nonlocal correlations—in particular whether the maximally entangled state violates Tsirelson’s bound or not— depends crucially on a simple geometric property of the local state space, known as strong self-duality. This result is seen to be a special case of a general theorem, which states that a broad class of entangled states in probabilistic theories—including, by extension, all bipartite classical and quantum states— cannot violate macroscopic locality. Finally, our results show that models exist that are locally almost indistinguishable from quantum mechanics, but can nevertheless generate maximally nonlocal correlations.
Background: During the last years, 19F-MRI and perfluorocarbon nanoemulsion (PFC) emerged as a powerful contrast agent based MRI methodology to track cells and to visualize inflammation. We applied this new modality to visualize deep tissue abscesses during acute and chronic phase of inflammation caused by Staphylococcus aureus infection. Methodology and Principal Findings: In this study, a murine thigh infection model was used to induce abscess formation and PFC or CLIO (cross linked ironoxides) was administered during acute or chronic phase of inflammation. 24 h after inoculation, the contrast agent accumulation was imaged at the site of infection by MRI. Measurements revealed a strong accumulation of PFC at the abscess rim at acute and chronic phase of infection. The pattern was similar to CLIO accumulation at chronic phase and formed a hollow sphere around the edema area. Histology revealed strong influx of neutrophils at the site of infection and to a smaller extend macrophages during acute phase and strong influx of macrophages at chronic phase of inflammation. Conclusion and Significance: We introduce 19F-MRI in combination with PFC nanoemulsions as a new platform to visualize abscess formation in a murine thigh infection model of S. aureus. The possibility to track immune cells in vivo by this modality offers new opportunities to investigate host immune response, the efficacy of antibacterial therapies and the influence of virulence factors for pathogenesis.
A primary focus of the semiconductor industry is the miniaturisation of active devices. This work shows an experimental approach to fabricate small three-terminal devices suitable for the characterisation of single molecules. The nanoelectrodes are fabricated by high resolution electron-beam lithography and electromigration. First measurements on buckyball and pentaphenylene molecules are presented.
Die vorliegende Arbeit beschäftigt sich mit optischen Untersuchungen an niederdimensionalen III/V-Halbleiterstrukturen. Dabei werden zunächst im ersten Teil selbst-organisiert gewachsene Nanodrähte aus InP und GaN bezüglich ihrer Oberflächen- und Kristallqualität charakterisiert. Dies ist besonders im Hinblick auf zukünftige opto- und nanoelektronische Bauteile von Interesse. Der zweite, grundlagenorientierte Teil der Arbeit ist im Bereich der Quantenoptik angesiedelt und widmet sich magneto-optischen Studien zur Licht-Materie Wechselwirkung in Quantenpunkt-Mikroresonator-Systemen im Regime der starken Kopplung. Oberflächen-Untersuchungen an Halbleiter-Nanodrähten Bei diesem Teilaspekt der vorliegenden Arbeit stehen Untersuchungen von Halbleiter-Nanodrähten mittels zeitintegrierter und zeitaufgelöster Photolumineszenz (PL)-Spektroskopie im Vordergrund. Diese eindimensionalen Nanostrukturen bieten eine vielversprechende Perspektive für die weitere Miniaturisierung in der Mikroelektronik. Da konventionelle Strukturierungsverfahren wie die optische Lithographie zunehmend an physikalische und technologische Grenzen stoßen, sind selbstorganisierte Wachstumsprozesse hierbei von besonderem Interesse. Bei Nanodrähten besteht darüber hinaus konkret noch die Möglichkeit, über ein gezieltes axiales und radiales Wachstum von Heterostrukturen bereits bei der Herstellung komplexere Funktionalitäten einzubauen. Auf Grund ihres großen Oberfläche-zu-Volumen Verhältnisses sind die elektronischen und optischen Eigenschaften der Nanodrähte extrem oberflächensensitiv, was vor allem im Hinblick auf zukünftige Anwendungen im Bereich der Mikro- oder Optoelektronik sowie der Sensorik von essentieller Bedeutung ist. Zur näheren Untersuchung der Oberflächeneigenschaften von Nanodrähten eignet sich die optische Spektroskopie besonders, da sie als nicht-invasive Messmethode ohne aufwändige Probenpräparation schnell nützliche Informationen liefert, die zum Beispiel in der Optimierung des Herstellungsprozesses eingesetzt werden können. Quantenoptik an Halbleiter-Mikrokavitäten Der zweite Teil dieser Arbeit widmet sich der Licht-Materie-Wechselwirkung in Quantenpunkt-Mikroresonator-Systemen. Dabei ist das Regime der starken Kopplung zwischen Emitter und Resonator, auch im Hinblick auf mögliche zukünftige Anwendungen in der Quanteninformationsverarbeitung, von besonderem Interesse. Diese Mikroresonator-Türmchen, die auf planaren AlAs/GaAs-Mikroresonatoren mit InGaAs Quantenpunkten in der aktiven Schicht basieren, wurden mittels zeitintegrierter und zeitaufgelöster Mikro-PL-Spektroskopie in einem äußeren magnetischen Feld in Faraday-Konfiguration untersucht. Grundlegende Untersuchungen von Quantenpunkten im Magnetfeld Zunächst wurden InxGa(1−x)As-Quantenpunkte mit unterschiedlichem In-Gehalt (x=30%, 45% und 60%) magneto-optisch untersucht. Aufgrund der größeren Abmessungen weisen die Quantenpunkte mit 30% In-Anteil auch hohe Oszillatorstärken auf, was sie besonders für Experimente zur starken Kopplung auszeichnet. Unter dem Einfluss des Magnetfeldes zeigte sich ein direkter Zusammenhang zwischen der lateralen Ausdehnung der Quantenpunkte und ihrer diamagnetischen Verschiebung. Starke Kopplung im magnetischen Feld Neben der Möglichkeit, das Resonanzverhalten über das externe Magnetfeld zu kontrollieren, zeigte sich eine Korrelation zwischen der Kopplungsstärke und dem magnetischen Feld, was auf eine Verringerung der Oszillatorstärke im Magnetfeld zurückgeführt werden konnte. Diese steht wiederum im Zusammenhang mit einer Einschnürung der Wellenfunktion des Exzitons durch das angelegte Feld. Dieser direkte Einfluss des Magnetfeldes auf die Oszillatorstärke erlaubt eine in situ Variation der Kopplungsstärke. Photon-Photon-Wechselwirkung bei der starken Kopplung im Magnetfeld Nach der Demonstration der starken Kopplung zwischen entarteten Exziton- und Resonatormoden im Magnetfeld, wurden im weiteren Verlauf Spin-bezogene Kopplungseffekte im Regime der starken Kopplung untersucht. Es ergaben sich im Magnetfeld unter Variation der Temperatur zwei Bereiche der Wechselwirkung zwischen den einzelnen Komponenten von Resonator- und Exzitonenmode. Von besonderem Interesse ist dabei eine beobachtete indirekte Wechselwirkung zwischen den beiden photonischen Moden im Moment der Resonanz, die durch die exzitonische Mode vermittelt wird. Diese sogenannte Spin-vermittelte Photon-Photon-Kopplung stellt ein Bindeglied zwischen eigentlich unabhängigen photonischen Moden über den Spinzustand eines Exzitons dar.
A quite new approach to low-cost mass production of flexible solar cells are organic photovoltaics. Even though the device efficiencies increased rapidly during the last years, further imporvements are essential for a successful market launch. One important factor influencing the device efficiency is the photocurrent of a solar cell, which is defined as the difference between the current under illumination and in the dark. In case of organic bulk heterojunction (BHJ) solar cells it is — in contrast to inorganic devices — dependent on the applied bias voltage. The voltage dependence results in a reduced fill factor and thus an even more pronounced influence of the photocurrent on the device efficiency. It is therefore crucial to understand the underlying processes determining the photocurrent in order to be able to further improve the solar cell performance. In a first step the photocurrent of P3HT:PC61BM devices was investigated by a pulsed measurement technique in order to prevent disturbing influences due to device heating under continous illumination. The resulting photocurrent was hyperbolic tangent like and featured a point symmetry, whose origin and meaning were discussed. In addition, the photocurrent was described by a combined model of Braun–Onsager and Sokel–Hughes theory for field dependent polaron pair dissociation and charge extraction, respectively. After this macroscopic view on the photocurrent, the focus of this work moves to the more basic processes determining the photocurrent: charge photogeneration and recombination. In a comparative study the field-dependence of these was investigated by time-delayed collection field (TDCF) measurements for two well-known reference systems, namely P3HT:PC61BM and MDMO-PPV:PC61BM. It was possible to identify two different dominating scenarios for the generation of free charge carriers. The first one — via a thermalized charge transfer state (CTS) — is clearly influenced by geminate recombination and therefore less efficient. In the second scenario, the free charge carriers are either generated directly or via an excited, “hot” CTS. In addition, clear differences in the nongeminate recombination dynamics of both material systems were found. Similar studies were also be presented with two modern low bandgap polymers which only differ by the bridging atom in the cyclopentadithiophene (PCPDTBT:PC71BM vs. Si-PCPDTBT:PC71BM). Such small changes in the chemical structure were already sufficient to affect the charge photogeneration as well as the morphology of the blend. These findings were set into relation to current–voltage characteristics in order to discuss the origin of the clear differences in the solar cell performance of both materials. Another crucial parameter limiting the solar cell efficiency is the builtin potential of a device. Within the range of semiconducting pn-junctions, Mott–Schottky analysis is an established method to determine the built-in potential. As it was originally derived for abrupt pn-junctions, its validity for organic BHJ solar cells — a bipolar, effective medium — was discussed. Experimental findings as well as the contradictions to Mott–Schottky theory indicated, that a direct transfer of this method to organic photovoltaics is not appropriate. Finally, the results obtained in the framework of the MOPS-project (Massengedruckte Organische Papier-Solarzellen) will be presented, in which the first completely roll-to-roll printed paper solar cells were realized.
The analysis presented in this paper applies to experimental situations where observers or objects to be studied, all at stationary positions, are located in environments the optical thickness of which is strongly different. Non-transparent media comprise thin metallic films, packed or fluidised beds, superconductors, the Earth’s crust, and even dark clouds and other cosmological objects. The analysis applies mapping functions that correlate physical events, e, in non-transparent media, with their images, f(e), tentatively located on standard physical time scale. The analysis demonstrates, however, that physical time, in its rigorous sense, does not exist under non-transparency conditions. A proof of this conclusion is attempted in three steps: i) the theorem “there is no time without space and events” is accepted, (ii) images f[e(s,t)] do not constitute a dense, uncountably infinite set, and (iii) sets of images that are not uncountably infinite do not create physical time but only time-like sequences. As a consequence, mapping f[e(s,t)] in non-transparent space does not create physical analogues to the mathematical structure of the ordered, dense half-set R+ of real numbers, and reverse mapping, f-1f[e(s,t)], the mathematical inverse problem, would not allow unique identification and reconstruction of original events from their images. In these cases, causality as well as invariance of physical processes under time reversal, might be violated. An interesting problem is whether temporal cloaking (a time hole) in a transparent medium, as very recently reported in the literature, can be explained by the present analysis. Existence of time holes could perhaps be possible, not in transparent but in non-transparent media, as follows from the sequence of images, f[e(s,t)], that is not uncountably infinite, in contrast to R+. Impacts are expected for understanding physical diffusion-like, radiative transfer processes and stability models to protect superconductors against quenchs. There might be impacts also in relativity, quantum mechanics, nuclear decay, or in systems close to their phase transitions. The analysis is not restricted to objects of laboratory dimensions.
Understanding the mechanisms of fragmentation within silicate melts is of great interest not only for material science, but also for volcanology, particularly regarding molten fuel coolant-interactions (MFCIs). Therefore edge-on hammer impact experiments (HIEs) have been carried out in order to analyze the fracture dynamics in well defined targets by applying a Cranz-Schardin highspeed camera technique. This thesis presents the corresponding results and provides a thorough insight into the dynamics of fragmentation, particularly focussing on the processes of energy dissipation. In HIEs two main classes of cracks can be identified, characterized by completely different fracture mechanisms: Shock wave induced “damage cracks” and “normal cracks”, which are exclusively caused by shear-stresses. This dual fracture situation is taken into account by introducing a new concept, according to which the crack class-specific fracture energies are linearly correlated with the corresponding fracture areas. The respective proportionality constants - denoted “fracture surface energy densities” (FSEDs) - have been quantified for all studied targets under various constraints. By analyzing the corresponding high speed image sequences and introducing useful dynamic parameters it has been possible to specify and describe in detail the evolution of fractures and, moreover, to quantify the energy dissipation rates during the fragmentation. Additionally, comprehensive multivariate statistical analyses have been carried out which have revealed general dependencies of all relevant fracture parameters as well as characteristics of the resulting particles. As a result, an important principle of fracture dynamics has been found, referred to as the “local anisotropy effect”: According to this principle, the fracture dynamics in a material is significantly affected by the location of directed stresses. High local stress gradients cause a more stable crack propagation and consequently a reduction of the energy dissipation rates. As a final step, this thesis focusses on the volcanological conclusions which can be drawn on the basis of the presented HIE results. Therefore fragments stemming from HIEs have been compared with natural and experimental volcanic ash particles of basaltic Grimsvötn and rhyolitic Tepexitl melts. The results of these comparative particle analyses substantiate HIEs to be a very suitable method for reproducing the MFCI loading conditions in silicate melts and prove the FSED concept to be a model which is well transferable to volcanic fragmentation processes.
The material system of interest in this thesis are II-VI-semiconductors. The first part of this thesis focuses on the formation of self-assembled CdSe-based quantum dots (QD) on ZnSe. The lattice constants of ZnSe and CdSe differ as much as about 7\% and therefore a CdSe layer grown on top of ZnSe experiences a huge strain. The aspired strain relief constitutes in the self-assembly of QDs (i.e. a roughened layer structure). Additionally, this QD layer is intermixed with Zn as this is also a possibility to decrease the strain in the layer. For CdSe on ZnSe, in Molecular Beam Epitaxy (MBE), various QD growth procedures were analysed with respect to the resulting Cd-content of the non-stoichiometric ternary (Zn,Cd)Se. The evaluation was performed by Raman Spectroscopy as the phonon frequency depends on the Cd-content. The second part of the thesis emphasis on the interface properties of n-ZnSe on n-GaAs. Different growth start procedures of the ZnSe epilayer may lead to different interface configurations with characteristic band-offsets and carrier depletion layer widths. The analysis is mainly focused on the individual depletion layer widths in the GaAs and ZnSe. This non-destructive analysis is performed by evaluating the Raman signal which comprises of phonon scattering from the depleted regions and coupled plasmon-phonon scattering from regions with free carriers.
Konzepte zur skalierbaren Realisierung von effizienten, halbleiterbasierten Einzelphotonenquellen
(2011)
Dem Einsatz niederdimensionaler Nanostrukturen als optisch aktives Medium wird enormes Potential vorausgesagt sowohl in den klassischen optoelektronischen Bauteilen (wie z.B. Halbleiterlasern) als auch in optischen Bauteilen der näachsten Generation (z.B. Einzelphotonenquellen oder Quellen verschränkter Photonenpaare). Dennoch konnten sich quantenpunktbasierte Halbleiterlaser, abgesehen von einigen wenigen Ausnahmen (QDLaser inc.), im industriellen Maßstab bisher nicht gegen Bauelemente mit höherdimensionalen Quantenfilmen als optisch aktivem Element durchsetzen. Deshalb scheint der Einsatz von Quantenpunkten (QPen) in nichtklassischen Lichtquellen gegenwärtig vielversprechender. Um jedoch solche Bauteile bis zur letztendlichen Marktreife zu bringen, müssen neben der starken Unterdrückung von Multiphotonenemission noch wesentliche Grundvoraussetzungen erfüllt werden: In dieser Arbeit wurden grundlegende Studien durchgeführt, welche insbesondere dem Fortschritt und den Problemen der Effizienz, des elektrischen Betriebs und der Skalierbaren Herstellung der Photonenqullen dienen sollte. Zum Einen wurden hierfür elektrisch betriebene Einzelphotonenquellen basierend auf gekoppelten QP-Mikroresonatoren realisiert und de ren Bauteileffizienz gezielt optimiert, wobei konventionelle selbstorganisierte InAs-QPe als aktives Medium eingesetzt wurden. Für die skalierbare Integration einzelner QPe in Mikroresonatoren wurde des Weiteren das gesteuerte QP-Wachstum auf vorstrukturierten Substraten optimiert und auf diese Art ortskontrollierte QPe in Bauteile integriert. Für die Realisierung hocheffizienter, elektrisch gepumpter inzelphotonenquellen wurde zunächst das Wachstum von binären InAs-QPen im Stranski-Krastanov-Modus optimiert und deren optische Eigenschaften im Detail untersucht. Durch das Einbringen einer Schicht von Siliziumatomen nahe der QP-Schicht konnten die Emitter negativ geladen werden und der helle Trionenzustand der QPe als energetischer Eigenzustand des Systems zur effizienten Extraktion einzelner Photonen ausgenutzt werden. Durch die Integration dieser geladenen QPe in elektrisch kontaktierte, auf Braggspiegel basierte Mikrotürmchen konnten Einzelphotonenquellen realisiert werden, in denen gezielt Licht-Materie- Wechselwirkungseffekte zur Steigerung der Bauteileffizienz ausgenutzt wurden. Basierend auf theoretischen Überlegungen wurde die Schichtstruktur soweit optimiert, dass letztendlich experimentell eine elektrisch gepumpte Einzelphotonenquelle mit einer Photonenemissionsrate von 47 MHz sowie einer zuvor unerreichten Bauteileffizienz von 34 % im Regime der schwachen Licht-Materie-Kopplung demonstriert werden konnte. Da Effekte der Licht-Materie-Wechselwirkung zwischen QP und Resonator neben der spektralen Resonanz ebenfalls von der relativen Position von Resonator und QP zueinander abhängen, ist eine Kombination von positionierten QPen und Bauteilausrichtung nahezu unumg¨anglich für die skalierbare, deterministische Herstellung von Systemen aus perfekt angeordnetem Emitter und Resonator. Deshalb wurden bestehende Konzepte zum geordneten Wachstum von QPen weiterentwickelt: Hierbei wurde geordnetes InAs-QP-Wachstum mit Perioden realisiert, die vergleichbare Abmessungen wie optische Resonatoren aufweisen, also Nukleationsperioden zwischen 500 nm und 4 μm. Durch ein genaues Anpassen der Wachstums- und Prozessbedingungen konnte des Weiteren die Bildung von QP-Molekülen auf den Nukleationsplätzen nahezu unterdrückt beziehungsweise gesteuert werden. Durch eine systematische Optimierung der optischen Eigenschaften der QPe konnten Emitter mit Einzelquantenpunktlinienbreiten um 100 μeV realisiert werden, was eine Grundvoraussetzung zur Studie ausgeprägter Licht-Materie-Wechselwirkungseffekte in Mikroresonatoren darstellt. Letztendlich konnten durch die Integration derartiger QPe in optisch sowie elektrisch betriebene Mikroresonatoren erstmals Bauteile realisiert werden, welche einige der prinzipiellen, an eine Einzelphotonenquelle gestellten Anforderungen erfüllen. Insbesondere konnten deutliche Signaturen der schwachen Licht-Materie-Kopplung einzelner positionierter QPe in photonische Kristallresonatoren, Mikroscheibenresonatoren sowie Mikrotürmchenresonatoren festgestellt werden. Darüberhinaus konnte an einem spektral resonanten System aus einem positionierten QP und der Grundmode eines Mikrotürmchenresonators eindeutig Einzelphotonenemission unter optischer Anregung demonstriert werden. Ebenfalls konnten Mikrotürmchenresonatoren mit integrierten positionierten QPen erstmals elektrisch betrieben werden und somit die Grundvoraussetzung für eine der skalierbaren Herstellung effizienter Einzelphotonenquellen geschaffen werden.
Using k · p theory, we derive an effective four-band model describing the physics of the typical two-dimensional topological insulator (HgTe/CdTe quantum well (QW)) in the presence of an out-of-plane (in the z-direction) inversion breaking potential and an in-plane potential. We find that up to third order in perturbation theory, only the inversion breaking potential generates new elements to the four-band Hamiltonian that are off-diagonal in spin space. When this new effective Hamiltonian is folded into an effective twoband model for the conduction (electron) or valence (heavy hole) bands, two competing terms appear: (i) a Rashba spin–orbit interaction originating from inversion breaking potential in the z-direction and (ii) an in-plane Pauli term as a consequence of the in-plane potential. Spin transport in the conduction band is further analysed within the Landauer–Büttiker formalism. We find that for asymmetrically doped HgTe QWs, the behaviour of the spin-Hall conductance is dominated by the Rashba term.
Ziel der Arbeit war die Entwicklung von lateral gekoppelten DFB-Halbleiterlasern für Hochleistungsanwendungen. Besonderes Augenmerk war dabei auf hohe COD-Schwellen und schmale Fernfeldverteilungen gerichtet. Ausgehend von einem LOC-Design wurden Simulationsrechnungen durchgeführt und ein neues Epitaxiedesign mit einer 2.5 μm dicken LOC, in welcher die aktive Schicht asymmetrisch positioniert ist, entwickelt. Durch die asymmetrische Anordnung der aktiven Schicht kann die im Falle von lateral gekoppelten DFB-Lasern sehr kritische Kopplung der Lichtmode an das modenselektive Gitter gewährleistet werden. Zudem reichen die Ausläufer der Lichtmode in diesem Design weiter in den Wellenleiter hinab als dies bei herkömmlichen Wellenleitern der Fall ist, so dass sich die Fernfeldeigenschaften der Laser verbessern. Die Fernfeldverteilungen solcher Laser weisen Halbwertsbreiten von 14° in lateraler und nur 19° in transversaler Richtung auf. Im Vergleich mit Standardstrukturen konnte die Ausdehnung des transversalen Fernfeldes also um mehr als 50 % reduziert werden. Außerdem ergibt sich eine nahezu runde Abstrahlcharakteristik, was die Einkopplungseffizienz in optische Systeme wie Glasfasern oder Linsen signifikant verbessert. Unter Ausnutzung der entwickelten Epitaxiestruktur mit asymmetrischer LOC wurde ein neues Lateraldesign entwickelt. Es handelt sich hierbei um Wellenleiterstege welche im Bereich der Facetten eine Verjüngung aufweisen. Durch diese wird die optische Mode tief in die 2.5 μm dicke Wellenleiterschicht geführt, welche sie in transversaler Richtung komplett ausfüllt. Durch den größeren Abstand der Lasermode vom Wellenleitersteg ergibt sich zudem eine deutliche schwächere laterale Führung, so dass sich die Mode auch parallel zur aktiven Schicht weiter ausdehnt. Die Lichtmode breitet sich folglich über eine deutlich größere Fläche aus, als dies bei einem gleichbleibend breiten Wellenleitersteg der Fall ist. Die somit signifikant kleinere Leistungsdichte auf der Laserfacette ist gleichbedeutend mit einem Anstieg der COD-Schwelle der Laser der im Einzelnen von den jeweiligen Designparametern von Schicht- und Lateralstruktur abhängig ist. Außerdem bewirkt die in lateraler und transversaler Richtung deutlich schwächere Lokalisation der Mode eine weitere Abnahme der Halbwertsbreiten der Laserfernfelder. Durch die im Vergleich zu herkömmlichen Laserstrukturen schwächere Lokalisation der Lichtmode im Bereich der Facetten ergeben sich äußerst schmale Fernfelder. Ein 1800 μm langer Laser, dessen Stegbreite über 200 μm hinweg auf 0.4 μm verringert wurde, zeigt Halbwertsbreiten von 5.2° in lateraler und 13.0° in transversaler Richtung. Damit sind die Fernfelder dieser Laser bedeutend kleiner als die bislang vorgestellter Laserdioden mit LOC. Die Geometrie der Taperstrukturen bestimmt, wie vollständig sich die Mode in den unteren Wellenleiterbereich ausbreiten kann und nimmt damit Einfluss auf die Laserfernfelder. Im CW-Modus durchgeführte Messungen an Lasern mit Taperstrukturen zeigen maximale Ausgangsleistung von 200 mW bevor die Laser in thermisches Überrollen übergehen. Bei einer Ausgangsleistung von 185 mW beträgt das Seitenmodenunterdrückungsverhältnis 33 dB. Im gepulsten Modus (50 ns Pulsdauer, 1MHz Wiederholungsrate) betriebene Laser zeigen hohe COD-Schwellen von mehreren hundert bis hin zu 1600 mW, die eine deutliche Abhängigkeit von der Endbreite der Taperstrukturen zeigen: Mit abnehmender Taperbreite ergibt sich eine starke Zunahme der COD-Schwelle. An einem 1800 μm langen Laser mit 200 μm langen Taperstrukturen die eine Endbreite von 0.3 μm aufweisen konnte eine COD-Schwelle von 1.6 W nachgewiesen werden. Im Gegensatz zu anderen Ansätzen, die ebenfalls longitudinal und lateral mono-modige DFB-Laser mit hohen Ausgangsleistungen zum Ziel haben, kann jedoch bei dem hier präsentierten Konzept aufgrund des Einsatzes von lateralen DFB-Gittern auf eine Unterbrechung des epitaktischen Wachstums verzichtet werden. Dies vereinfacht die Herstellung der Schichtstrukturen deutlich. Die hier vorgestellten Konzepte sind mit weiteren üblichen Vorgehensweisen zur Herstellung von Hochleistungslaserdioden, wie z.B. speziellen Facettenreinigungs- und Passivierungsverfahren oder Materialdurchmischung im Facettenbereich, kombinierbar. Zudem kann das hier am Beispiel des InGaAs/GaAs Materialsystems entwickelte Konzept auf alle zur Herstellung von Halbleiterlaserdioden üblichen Materialsysteme übertragen werden und eröffnet so eine völlig neue, material- und wellenlängenunabhängige Möglichkeit Abstrahlcharakteristik und Ausgangsleistung von Laserdioden zu optimieren.
Background: Transgenic mouse models are increasingly used to study the pathophysiology of human cardiovascular diseases. The aortic pulse wave velocity (PWV) is an indirect measure for vascular stiffness and a marker for cardiovascular risk. Results: This study presents a cardiovascular magnetic resonance (CMR) transit time (TT) method that allows the determination of the PWV in the descending murine aorta by analyzing blood flow waveforms. Systolic flow pulses were recorded with a temporal resolution of 1 ms applying phase velocity encoding. In a first step, the CMR method was validated by pressure waveform measurements on a pulsatile elastic vessel phantom. In a second step, the CMR method was applied to measure PWVs in a group of five eight-month-old apolipoprotein E deficient (ApoE(-/-)) mice and an age matched group of four C57Bl/6J mice. The ApoE(-/-) group had a higher mean PWV (PWV = 3.0 ± 0.6 m/s) than the C57Bl/6J group (PWV = 2.4 ± 0.4 m/s). The difference was statistically significant (p = 0.014). Conclusions: The findings of this study demonstrate that high field CMR is applicable to non-invasively determine and distinguish PWVs in the arterial system of healthy and diseased groups of mice.
Self-organized nanowires at semiconductor surfaces offer the unique opportunity to study electrons in reduced dimensions. Notably the dimensionality of the system determines it’s electronic properties, beyond the quasiparticle description. In the quasi-one-dimensional (1D) regime with weak lateral coupling between the chains, a Peierls instability can be realized. A nesting condition in the Fermi surface leads to a backfolding of the 1D electron band and thus to an insulating state. It is accompanied by a charge density wave (CDW) in real space that corresponds to the nesting vector. This effect has been claimed to occur in many surface-defined nanowire systems, such as the In chains on Si(111) or the Au reconstructions on the terraced Si(553) and Si(557) surfaces. Therefore a weak coupling between the nanowires in these systems has to be concluded. However theory proposes another state in the perfect 1D limit, which is completely destroyed upon slight coupling to higher dimensions. In this so-called Tomonaga-Luttinger liquid (TLL) state, the quasiparticle description of the Fermi liquid breaks down. Since the interaction between the electrons is enhanced due to the strong confinement, only collective excitations are allowed. This leads to novel effects like spin charge separation, where spin and charge degrees of freedom are decoupled and allowed to travel independently along the 1D-chain. Such rare state has not been realized at a surface until today. This thesis uses a novel approach to realize nanowires with improved confinement by studying the Au reconstructed Ge(001) surface. A new cleaning procedure using piranha solution is presented, in order to prepare a clean and long-range ordered substrate. To ensure optimal growth of the Au nanowires the phase diagram is extensively studied by scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) and low energy electron diffraction (LEED). The structural elements of the chains are revealed and described in high detail. Remarkably a structural phase transition of the delicate wire structure is found to occur above room temperature. Due to the lack of energy gaps a Peierls transition can be excluded as its origin. The transition is rather determined as 3D Ising type and therefore includes the substrate as well. Two hallmark properties of a TLL are found in the Au/Ge(001) wires by spectroscopic studies: Power-law suppression of the density of states (DOS) and universal scaling. This impressively proves the existence of a TLL in these chains and opens up a gateway to an atomic playground. Local studies and manipulations of a TLL state become possible for the first time. These comprise (i) doping by alkaline atoms, (ii) studies on chain ends and (iii) tunable coupling between the chains by additional Au atoms. Most importantly these manipulations offer input and test for theoretical models and predictions, and are thereby ultimately advancing the field of correlated electrons.
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a medical imaging method that involves no ionizing radiation and can be used non-invasively. Another important - if not the most important - reason for the widespread and increasing use of MRI in clinical practice is its interesting and highly flexible image contrast, especially of biological tissue. The main disadvantages of MRI, compared to other widespread imaging modalities like computed tomography (CT), are long measurement times and the directly resulting high costs. In the first part of this work, a new technique for accelerated MRI parameter mapping using a radial IR TrueFISP sequence is presented. IR TrueFISP is a very fast method for the simultaneous quantification of proton density, the longitudinal relaxation time T1, and the transverse relaxation time T2. Chapter 2 presents speed improvements to the original IR TrueFISP method. Using a radial view-sharing technique, it was possible to obtain a full set of relaxometry data in under 6 s per slice. Furthermore, chapter 3 presents the investigation and correction of two major sources of error of the IR TrueFISP method, namely magnetization transfer and imperfect slice profiles. In the second part of this work, a new MRI thermometry method is presented that can be used in MRI-safety investigations of medical implants, e.g. cardiac pacemakers and implantable cardioverter-defibrillators (ICDs). One of the major safety risks associated with MRI examinations of pacemaker and ICD patients is RF induced heating of the pacing electrodes. The design of MRI-safe (or MRI-conditional) pacing electrodes requires elaborate testing. In a first step, many different electrode shapes, electrode positions and sequence parameters are tested in a gel phantom with its geometry and conductivity matched to a human body. The resulting temperature increase is typically observed using temperature probes that are placed at various positions in the gel phantom. An alternative to this local thermometry approach is to use MRI for the temperature measurement. Chapter 5 describes a new approach for MRI thermometry that allows MRI thermometry during RF heating caused by the MRI sequence itself. Specifically, a proton resonance frequency (PRF) shift MRI thermometry method was combined with an MR heating sequence. The method was validated in a gel phantom, with a copper wire serving as a simple model for a medical implant.
Within the scope of this thesis two main topics have been investigated: the examination of micromagnetic sensors and transport of massive and massless Dirac fermions in HgTe quantum wells. For the investigation of localized, inhomogeneous magnetic fields, the fabrication and characterization of two different non-invasive and ultra sensitive sensors has been established at the chair ”Experimentelle Physik” of the University of Würzburg. The first sensor is based on the young technique named micro-Hall magnetometry. The necessary semiconductor devices (Hall cross structures) were fabricated by high-resolution electron beam lithography based on two different two dimensional electron gases (2DEGs), namely InAs/(Al,Ga)Sb- and HgTe/(Hg,Cd)Te- heterostructures. The characteristics have been examined in two different ways. Measurements in homogeneous magnetic fields served for characterization of the sensors, whereas the investigation of artificially produced sub-µm magnets substantiates the suitability of the devices for the study of novel nanoscale magnetic materials (e.g. nanowires). Systematic experiments with various magnets are in accordance with the theory of single-domain particles and anisotropic behavior due to shapes with high aspect ratio. The highest sensitivity for strongly localized fields was obtained at T = 4.2 K for a (200x200) nm^2 Hall cross - made from shallow, high mobility HgTe 2DEG. Although the field resolution was merely δB ≈ 100 µT, the nanoscale sensor size yields an outstanding flux resolution of δΦ = 2 10^(−3) Φ0, where Φ0 = h/2e is the flux quantum. Translating this result in terms of magnetic moment, the sensitivity allows for the detection of magnetization changes of a particle centered on top of the sensor as low as δM ≈ 10^2 µB, with the magnetic moment of a single electron µB, the Bohr magneton. The further examination of a permalloy nanomagnet with a cross-section of (100x20) nm^2 confirms the expected resolution ability, extracted from the noise of the sensor. The observed high signal-to-noise ratio validates the detection limit of this sensor in terms of geometry. This would be reached for a magnet (same material) with quadratic cross-section for an edge length of 3.3 nm. Moreover, the feasibility of this sensor for operation in a wide temperature range (T = mK... > 200 K) and high magnetic fields has been confirmed. The second micromagnetic sensor is the micro-SQUID (micro-Superconducting-QUantum-Interference-Device) based on niobium. The typical sensor area of the devices built in this work was (1.0x1.0) µm^2, with constrictions of about 20 nm. The characterization of this device demonstrates an amazing field sensitivity (regarding its size) of δB < 1 µT. Even though the sensor was 25 times larger than the best micro-Hall sensor, it provided an excellent flux resolution in the order of δΦ ≈ 5 10^(−4) Φ0 and a similar magnetic moment resolution of δM ≈ 10^2 µB. Furthermore, the introduction of an ellipsoidal permalloy magnet (axes: 200 nm and 400 nm, thickness 30 nm) substantiates the suitability for the detection of minuscule, localized magnetic fields. The second part of the thesis deals with the peculiar transport properties of HgTe quantum wells. These rely on the linear contribution to the band structure inherent to the heterostructure. Therefore the system can be described by an effective Dirac Hamiltonian, whose Dirac mass is tunable by the variation of the quantum well thickness. By fabrication and characterization of a systematical series of substrates, a system with vanishing Dirac mass (zero energy gap) has been confirmed. This heterostructure therefore resembles graphene (a monolayer of graphite), with the difference of exhibiting only one valley in the energy dispersion of the Brillouin zone. Thus parasitical intervalley scattering cannot occur. The existence of this system has been proven by the agreement of theoretical predictions, based on widely accepted band structure calculations with the experiment (Landau level dispersion, conductivity). Furthermore, another particularity of the band structure - the transition from linear to parabolic character - has been illustrated by the widths of the plateaus in the quantum Hall effect. Finally, the transport of ”massive” Dirac fermions (with finite Dirac mass) is investigated. In particular the describing Dirac Hamiltonian induces weak localization effects depending on the Dirac mass. This mechanism has not been observed to date, and survives in higher temperatures compared to typical localization mechanisms.
This work deals with nonlinear optics with wavefront controlled ultra-short laser pulses. The effects studied are self-phase modulation due to filamentation of ultra-short laser pulses and high-order harmonic generation in a jet of noble gas. Additionally, a way to optimize the spectral brilliance of the high-order harmonic source is studied by measuring the spectrum and wavefront of the generated XUV beam.
This thesis investigated the potential of Compressed Sensing (CS) applied to Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI). CS is a novel image reconstruction method that emerged from the field of information theory. The framework of CS was first published in technical reports in 2004 by Candès and Donoho. Two years later, the theory of CS was published in a conference abstract and two papers. Candès and Donoho proved that it is possible, with overwhelming probability, to reconstruct a noise-free sparse signal from incomplete frequency samples (e.g., Fourier coefficients). Hereby, it is assumed a priori that the desired signal for reconstruction is sparse. A signal is considered “sparse“ when the number of non-zero elements is significantly smaller than the number of all elements. Sparsity is the most important foundation of CS. When an ideal noise-free signal with few non-zero elements is given, it should be understandably possible to obtain the relevant information from fewer Fourier coefficients than dictated by the Nyquist-Shannon criterion. The theory of CS is based on noise-free sparse signals. As soon as noise is introduced, no exact sparsity can be specified since all elements have signal intensities that are non-zero. However, with the addition of little or moderate noise, an approximate sparsity that can be exploited using the CS framework will still be given. The ability to reconstruct noisy undersampled sparse MRI data using CS has been extensively demonstrated. Although most MR datasets are not sparse in image space, they can be efficiently sparsified by a sparsifying transform. In this thesis, the data are either sparse in the image domain, after Discrete Gradient transformation, or after subtraction of a temporally averaged dataset from the data to be reconstructed (dynamic imaging). The aim of this thesis was to identify possible applications of CS to MRI. Two different algorithms were considered for reconstructing the undersampled sparse data with the CS concept. The Nonlinear Conjugate Gradient based technique with a relaxed data consistency constraint as suggested by Lustig et al. is termed Relaxed DC method. An alternative represents the Gradient or Steepest Descent algorithm with strict data consistency and is, therefore, termed the Strict DC method. Chapter 3 presents simulations illustrating which of these two reconstruction algorithms is best suited to recover undersampled sparse MR datasets. The results lead to the decision for the Strict DC method as reconstruction technique in this thesis. After these simulations, different applications and extensions of CS are demonstrated. Chapter 4 shows how CS benefits spectroscopic 19F imaging at 7 T, allowing a significant reduction of measurement times during in vivo experiments. Furthermore, it allows highly resolved spectroscopic 3D imaging in acceptable measurement times for in vivo applications. Chapter 5 introduces an extension of the Strict DC method called CS-CC (CS on Combined Coils), which allows efficient processing of sparse undersampled multi-coil data. It takes advantage of a concept named “Joint Sparsity“, which exploits the fact that all channels of a coil array detect the same sparse object weighted with the coil sensitivity profiles. The practical use of this new algorithm is demonstrated in dynamic radial cardiac imaging. Accurate reconstructions of cardiac motion in free breathing without ECG triggering were obtained for high undersampling factors. An Iterative GRAPPA algorithm is introduced in Chapter 6 that can recover undersampled data from arbitrary (Non-Cartesian) trajectories and works solely in the Cartesian plane. This characteristic makes the proposed Iterative GRAPPA computationally more efficient than SPIRiT. Iterative GRAPPA was developed in a preceding step to combine parallel imaging with CS. Optimal parameters for Iterative GRAPPA (e.g. number of iterations, GRAPPA kernel size) were determined in phantom experiments and verified by retrospectively undersampling and reconstructing a radial cardiac cine dataset. The synergistic combination of the coil-by-coil Strict DC CS method and Iterative GRAPPA called CS-GRAPPA is presented in Chapter 7. CS-GRAPPA allows accurate reconstruction of undersampled data from even higher acceleration factors than each individual method. It is a formulation equivalent to L1-SPIRiT but computationally more efficient. Additionally, a comparison with CS-CC is given. Interestingly, exploiting joint sparsity in CS-CC is slightly more efficient than the proposed CS-GRAPPA, a hybrid of parallel imaging and CS. The last chapter of this thesis concludes the findings presented in this dissertation. Future applications expected to benefit from CS are discussed and possible synergistic combinations with other existing MR methodologies for accelerated imaging are also contemplated.
Oxide heterostructures attract a lot of attention as they display a vast range of physical phenomena like conductivity, magnetism, or even superconductivity. In most cases, these effects are caused by electron correlations and are therefore interesting for studying fundamental physics, but also in view of future applications. This thesis deals with the growth and characterization of several prototypical oxide heterostructures. Fe3O4 is highly ranked as a possible spin electrode in the field of spintronics. A suitable semiconductor for spin injection in combination with Fe3O4 is ZnO due to its oxide character and a sufficiently long spin coherence length. Fe3O4 has been grown successfully on ZnO using pulsed laser deposition and molecular beam epitaxy by choosing the oxygen partial pressure adequately. Here, a pressure variation during growth reduces an FeO-like interface layer. Fe3O4 films grow in an island-like growth mode and are structurally nearly fully relaxed, exhibiting the same lattice constants as the bulk materials. Despite the presence of a slight oxygen off-stoichiometry, indications of the Verwey transition hint at high-quality film properties. The overall magnetization of the films is reduced compared to bulk Fe3O4 and a slow magnetization behavior is observed, most probably due to defects like anti-phase boundaries originating from the initial island growth. LaAlO3/SrTiO3 heterostructures exhibit a conducting interface above a critical film thickness, which is most likely explained by an electronic reconstruction. In the corresponding model, the potential built-up owing to the polar LaAlO3 overlayer is compensated by a charge transfer from the film surface to the interface. The properties of these heterostructures strongly depend on the growth parameters. It is shown for the first time, that it is mainly the total pressure which determines the macroscopic sample properties, while it is the oxygen partial pressure which controls the amount of charge carriers near the interface. Oxygen-vacancy-mediated conductivity is found for too low oxygen pressures. A too high total pressure, however, destroys interface conductivity, most probably due to a change of the growth kinetics. Post-oxidation leads to a metastable state removing the arbitrariness in controlling the electronic interface properties by the oxygen pressure during growth. LaVO3/SrTiO3 heterostructures exhibit similar behavior compared to LaAlO3/SrTiO3 when it comes to a thickness-dependent metal-insulator transition. But in contrast to LaAlO3, LaVO3 is a Mott insulator exhibiting strong electron correlations. Films have been grown by pulsed laser deposition. Layer-by-layer growth and a phase-pure pervoskite lattice structure is observed, indicating good structural quality of the film and the interface. An electron-rich layer is found near the interface on the LaVO3 side for conducting LaVO3/SrTiO3. This could be explained by an electronic reconstruction within the film. The electrostatic doping results in a band-filling-controlled metal-insulator transition without suffering from chemical impurities, which is unavoidable in conventional doping experiments.