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Plants initially accepted by foraging leaf-cutting ants are later avoided if they prove unsuitable for their symbiotic fungus. Plant avoidance is mediated by the waste produced in the fungus garden soon after the incorporation of the unsuitable leaves, as foragers can learn plant odors and cues from the damaged fungus that are both present in the recently produced waste particles. We asked whether avoidance learning of plants unsuitable for the symbiotic fungus can take place entirely at the colony dump. In order to investigate whether cues available in the waste chamber induce plant avoidance in naïve subcolonies, we exchanged the waste produced by subcolonies fed either fungicide-treated privet leaves or untreated leaves and measured the acceptance of untreated privet leaves before and after the exchange of waste. Second, we evaluated whether foragers could perceive the avoidance cues directly at the dump by quantifying the visits of labeled foragers to the waste chamber. Finally, we asked whether foragers learn to specifically avoid untreated leaves of a plant after a confinement over 3 hours in the dump of subcolonies that were previously fed fungicide-treated leaves of that species. After the exchange of the waste chambers, workers from subcolonies that had access to waste from fungicide-treated privet leaves learned to avoid that plant. One-third of the labeled foragers visited the dump. Furthermore, naïve foragers learned to avoid a specific, previously unsuitable plant if exposed solely to cues of the dump during confinement. We suggest that cues at the dump enable foragers to predict the unsuitable effects of plants even if they had never been experienced in the fungus garden.
Cooperative Breeding in the Ambrosia Beetle Xyleborus affinis and Management of Its Fungal Symbionts
(2020)
Fungus-farming is known from attine ants, macrotermites, and ambrosia beetles (Scolytinae, Platypodinae). Farming ant and termite societies are superorganismal and grow fungal cultivars in monocultures. Social organization of ambrosia beetle groups and their farming systems are poorly studied, because of their enigmatic life within tunnel systems inside of wood. Ambrosia beetle-fungus symbioses evolved many times independently in both the beetles and their fungal cultivars. Observations suggest that there is evolutionary convergence between these lineages, but also a high variation in the degree of sociality and the modes of fungiculture. Using a laboratory observation technique, I here tried to give insights into the social system and fungus symbiosis of the sugar-cane borer, Xyleborus affinis Eichhoff (Scolytinae: Curculionidae), a currently poorly studied ambrosia beetle. The study revealed a cooperatively breeding system characterized by delayed dispersal of adult daughters, alloparental brood care by larvae and adults, and about half of the totipotent adult daughters laying eggs within the natal nest. Most interesting, there was a tendency of egg-laying females to engage more commonly in mutually beneficial behaviors than non-egg-layers. Fungus gardens covering gallery walls composed of five different filamentous fungi. A Raffaelea isolate was predominant and together with an unidentified fungus likely served as the main food for adults and larvae. Three isolates, a Mucor, a Fusarium and a Phaeoacremonium isolate were most abundant in the oldest gallery part close to the entrance; Mucor, Fusarium and the Raffaelea isolate in diseased individuals. Additionally, there was correlative evidence for some fungal isoaltes influencing beetle feeding and hygienic behaviors. Overall, X. affinis is now the second ambrosia beetle that can be classified as a cooperative breeder with division of labor among and between adults and larvae.
Effects of timing and herbivory on a grass-endophyte association and its trophic interactions
(2017)
I.) Plant associated microorganisms can affect the plant`s interaction with herbivores and higher trophic levels. For instance, endophytic fungi infecting aerial plant parts of grass species produce bioactive alkaloids that can negatively affect species from higher trophic levels, indicating a defensive mutualism between the grass and the endophyte. However, beneficial insects can also be negatively affected by the endophyte, which might question the mutualistic effect of endophytic fungi. On the other hand, grass-endophytes are affected by environmental conditions and species interactions. Grazing can increase endophyte frequencies in natural habitats. Furthermore, endophyte mediated effects on herbivores are most pronounced during warm summers following rainy springs. In this study, we investigated whether endophyte derived alkaloids cascade up a food chain (chapter II) and whether their concentrations depend on plant age and season (chapter III). Further we analysed, whether altered herbivore phenology affects the endophytic fungus (chapter IV) and whether endophyte derived alkaloid production is induced by different herbivore species (chapter V).
II.) In our first experimental study we analysed whether grass-endophyte derived alkaloids decreased the performance of two ladybird species feeding on aphids exclusively reared on endophyte infected grass (6 weeks young grass). Further, we screened species from three trophic levels (grass, herbivores and aphid predators) for their alkaloid content using two year old infected grass as diet for herbivores. We established an UPLC-MS method to detect and quantify the amount of the endophyte derived alkaloids peramine and lolitrem B extracted from the organic plant and insect material. Performance parameters of ladybirds revealed little differences between ladybirds fed on aphids reared on endophyte infected and non-infected grass, which probably resulted from low alkaloid concentrations in the young (6-weeks old) endophyte infected grass used in this part of the study. Alkaloid quantification of the two year old endophyte infected grass, herbivores and aphid predators revealed similar concentrations between grass and aphids, while aphid predators contained approximately half of that amount which still exceeded the bioactive threshold. We conclude that alkaloids produced by grass-endophytes cascade up the food chain and are responsible for fitness disadvantages of higher trophic levels.
III.) In the second study we investigated the impact of plant age and seasonal timing on grass-endophyte growth and alkaloid production. Plants were sown in April of 2013 and sampled monthly over 30 consecutive months. Endophyte growth was quantified with real-time PCR (qPCR) and alkaloid concentrations with UPLC-MS. We showed that alkaloid concentrations and fungal growth followed a seasonal rhythmicity and that alkaloid concentrations increased with plant age. Alkaloid concentrations peak during summer, when also herbivore abundances are high. Consequently, we conclude that plant age and season contribute to the toxicity of endophytes on grass herbivores
IV.) In the third study we simulated earlier spring arrival of aphids by enhancing aphid abundance on endophyte infected and endophyte-free grass in spring and analysed responses across three trophic levels. Enhanced aphid abundance in spring caused higher aphid abundances during the study period. Predators stayed unaffected by increased herbivore abundances; however they did level aphid numbers within two weeks after arrival on the plants, independent of aphid abundance. Grass-endophyte showed a time delayed growth, two weeks after aphid abundance peak and after predators already controlled aphid infestations on the plants. We conclude that phenology shifts of herbivorous insects can affect multi-trophic interactions leading to desynchronizations between phenologies of interacting species and mismatches in food-webs.
V.) In the fourth study we analysed whether herbivores induce endophyte growth and alkaloid production and whether different types of herbivores induce specific alkaloid production. We applied three different herbivore treatments on endophyte infected grass over 18 weeks. Locust herbivory increased the insect deterring alkaloid peramine and clipping of plants (simulation of grazing livestock) increased the vertebrate toxic alkaloid lolitrem B. Aphid herbivory did not affect endophyte derived alkaloid concentrations. Endophyte responses to herbivory were species specific which indicates a primarily plant protecting role of alkaloid synthesis in endophyte infected plants and a close chemical crosstalk between interacting species.
VI.) In summary, we showed that endophyte derived alkaloids affect higher trophic levels and that alkaloid concentrations in the plant depend on prevalent herbivore species, plant age and seasonal timing. Our results indicate a close chemical crosstalk between the host plant and the endophytic fungus which is susceptible to environmental changes altering the endophyte`s alkaloid production in plants. We gained insights into the grass-endophyte symbiosis in ecological contexts and conclude that several factors determine the herbivore toxic potential of endophytic fungi and thereby their plant mutualistic or parasitic character. Future studies should investigate the mechanisms behind the herbivore induced alkaloid concentration increase, shown in this thesis, especially whether plant signals mediate the endophyte response. Furthermore it would be interesting to study the induction of indirect endophyte mediated defence and how it affects multi-trophic level interactions.
Symbiotic microbes help a myriad of insects acquire nutrients. Recent work suggests that insects also frequently associate with actinobacterial symbionts that produce molecules to help defend against parasites and predators. Here we explore a potential association between Actinobacteria and two species of fungus-farming ambrosia beetles, Xyleborinus saxesenii and Xyleborus affinis. We isolated and identified actinobacterial and fungal symbionts from laboratory reared nests, and characterized small molecules produced by the putative actinobacterial symbionts. One 16S rRNA phylotype of Streptomyces (XylebKG-1) was abundantly and consistently isolated from the galleries and adults of X. saxesenii and X. affinis nests. In addition to Raffaelea sulphurea, the symbiont that X. saxesenii cultivates, we also repeatedly isolated a strain of Nectria sp. that is an antagonist of this mutualism. Inhibition bioassays between Streptomyces griseus XylebKG-1 and the fungal symbionts from X. saxesenii revealed strong inhibitory activity of the actinobacterium toward the fungal antagonist Nectria sp. but not the fungal mutualist R. sulphurea. Bioassay guided HPLC fractionation of S. griseus XylebKG-1 culture extracts, followed by NMR and mass spectrometry, identified cycloheximide as the compound responsible for the observed growth inhibition. A biosynthetic gene cluster putatively encoding cycloheximide was also identified in S. griseus XylebKG-1. The consistent isolation of a single 16S phylotype of Streptomyces from two species of ambrosia beetles, and our finding that a representative isolate of this phylotype produces cycloheximide, which inhibits a parasite of the system but not the cultivated fungus, suggests that these actinobacteria may play defensive roles within these systems.
BAKTERIELLE ENDOSYMBIONTEN DER BIENENWÖLFE Symbiontische Interaktionen zwischen verschiedenen Arten stellen allgegenwärtige und essentielle Bestandteile natürlicher Systeme dar und haben wahrscheinlich die Evolution jedes rezenten Lebewesens beeinflusst. Insekten als die diverseste Metazoen-Klasse der Erde profitieren von dem außerordentlichen metabolischen Potenzial vieler Mikroorganismen in einer großen Anzahl mutualistischer Assoziationen. Die große Mehrheit der bisher untersuchten Symbiosen zwischen Insekten und Mikroorganismen stellen Interaktionen dar, in denen die Wirte durch die Symbionten mit essentiellen Nährstoffen versorgt werden. Es sind jedoch auch einige Fälle bekannt, in denen symbiontische Bakterien eine wichtige Rolle für die intraspezifische olfaktorische Kommunikation spielen oder zur Verteidigung gegen Pathogene oder Parasitoide dienen. Die vorliegende Arbeit untersucht eine hoch spezialisierte Assoziation zwischen einer Grabwespen-Art, dem Europäischen Bienenwolf (Philanthus triangulum, Hymenoptera, Crabronidae), und Bakterien aus der Familie der Actinomyceten. Die bakteriellen Symbionten sind an einem einzigartigen Ort zu finden: Sie werden in den Reservoiren spezialisierter Antennendrüsen weiblicher Bienenwölfe kultiviert. Das Weibchen sezerniert vor der Eiablage große Mengen dieser Bakterien in die unterirdischen Brutkammern. Wenn die Bienewolf-Larve einige Tage später ihre Nahrungsaufnahme an den von der Mutter als Nahrungsvorrat bereitgestellten Honigbienen beendet hat, nimmt sie die Bakterien auf und spinnt sie in ihren Kokon mit ein. Dort erfüllen die Symbionten eine wichtige Funktion, indem sie den Schimmelbefall herabsetzen und dadurch die Überlebenschancen der Larve im Kokon während der langen und gefährlichen Winterruhe signifikant erhöhen. Experimente, in denen Bienenwolf-Weibchen ohne die Bakterien aufgezogen wurden, und Beobachtungen an Bienenwolf-Larven deuten darauf hin, dass die Symbionten vertikal von der Mutter an die Töchter weitergegeben werden. Vermutlich werden die Bakterien während des Schlupfes oder kurz davor vom Kokon in die Antennendrüsen-Reservoire aufgenommen. Phylogenetische Untersuchungen von Wirten und Symbionten sowie Transfer-Experimente mit den Bakterien wären notwendig, um herauszufinden, ob ein horizontaler Austausch der Symbionten zwischen verschiedenen Bienenwolf-Arten möglich ist. Genetische Analysen zeigen, dass die Symbionten einer unbeschriebenen Art der Gattung Streptomyces innerhalb der Actinomyceten angehören. 16s rDNA Primer und eine fluoreszenzmarkierte Oligonukleotid-Sonde wurden entwickelt, um die Bienenwolf-Symbionten mittels PCR und Fluoreszenz-in-situ-Hybridisierung (FISH) spezifisch nachweisen zu können. Mit Hilfe von PCR und Sequenzierungen der 16s rDNA konnten nah verwandte Endosymbionten in den Antennen von 28 Arten und Unterarten der Gattung Philanthus festgestellt werden, nicht aber in anderen Gattungen der Unterfamilie Philanthinae (Aphilanthops, Clypeadon, Cerceris), so dass die Symbiose auf die Gattung Philanthus beschränkt zu sein scheint. Phylogenetische Untersuchungen auf der Grundlage nahezu kompletter 16s rDNA-Sequenzen belegen, dass die Symbionten aller analysierten Bienenwolf- Arten eine monophyletische Gruppe innerhalb der Gattung Streptomyces bilden, was darauf hindeutet, dass die Symbiose hoch spezifisch ist und wahrscheinlich das Ergebnis einer langen Koevolution und Kospeziation darstellt. Anhand von Sequenzunterschieden zwischen den Symbionten lässt sich das Alter der Assoziation zwischen Philanthus und Streptomyces auf etwa 26-67 Millionen Jahre schätzen, was der Entstehung der Gattung Philanthus entsprechen könnte. Auf der Basis von 16s rDNA Sequenzen und Ultrastruktur-Daten wurden die Antennensymbionten der Bienenwölfe als neues Taxon ‚Candidatus Streptomyces philanthi’ beschrieben, wobei die Symbionten verschiedener Wirtsarten als Ökotypen behandelt und nach der Wirtsart benannt wurden (z.B. ‚Candidatus Streptomyces philanthi triangulum’). Wie die Bakterien von der Assoziation mit Bienenwölfen profitieren, ist noch unklar. Auf jeden Fall wird ihnen vom Wirt eine unbesetzte und wahrscheinlich konkurrenzfreie ökologische Nische in den Antennen sowie eine zuverlässige Weitergabe an die nächste Generation garantiert. Außerdem sprechen einige Hinweise für eine Versorgung der Bakterien mit Nährstoffen durch den Bienenwolf: (1) Weibchen legen manchmal mehrere Brutkammern pro Tag an und sezernieren jedes Mal große Mengen an Bakterien; die Bakterien müssen sich also in den Drüsen-Reservoiren schnell vermehren, um den Vorrat an Symbionten wieder aufzufüllen. (2) Die Reservoire sind von Typ 3-Drüsenzellen umgeben, die die Bakterien mit Nährstoffen versorgen könnten. (3) Eine der Reservoir-Wände weist eine netzartige Struktur auf, die möglicherweise den Eintritt von Hämolymphe und damit von Nährstoffen in das Reservoir zulässt. Dies wird durch chemische Analysen der Kohlenwasserstoffe in der Hämolymphe und in dem Antennendrüsen-Sekret untermauert, die sehr ähnliche Zusammensetzungen aufweisen. Die Assoziation zwischen Bienenwölfen und Streptomyceten stellt den ersten bekannten Fall einer Symbiose dar, bei der Bakterien in den Antennen von Insekten kultiviert werden, und sie repräsentiert eines von wenigen Beispielen für Actinomyceten als Symbionten von Insekten. Weitere Untersuchungen evolutionärer und ökologischer Aspekte dieser Symbiose werden wertvolle Erkenntnisse über die Bedeutung von Actinomyceten für die Pathogen-Abwehr bei Insekten liefern und könnten sogar zur Entdeckung neuer Sekundärmetabolite mit antibiotischen Eigenschaften für die Verwendung in der Humanmedizin führen. CHEMISCHE KOMMUNIKATION UND PARTNERWAHL BEIM EUROPÄISCHEN BIENENWOLF Chemische Signale stellen sowohl die älteste als auch die am weitesten verbreitete Form von Kommunikation zwischen Organismen dar. Bei Insekten spielen Pheromone eine essentielle Rolle für die intraspezifische Kommunikation, und eine Vielzahl aktueller Untersuchungen belegt die Bedeutung olfaktorischer Signale für die Balz und Paarung. Die meisten dieser Studien konzentrieren sich jedoch auf Weibchen-Pheromone, während von Männchen produzierte Pheromone trotz ihrer ökologischen und evolutionären Bedeutung für die Partneranlockung und Partnerwahl bisher wenig Beachtung gefunden haben. Männchen des Europäischen Bienenwolfes etablieren und verteidigen Territorien, die sie mit einem Kopfdrüsen-Sekret markieren. Dieses Sekret wirkt höchstwahrscheinlich als ein Sex- Pheromon und lockt paarungsbereite Weibchen an. Da Männchen-Territorien meist aggregiert in der Nähe von Weibchennestern auftreten, haben die Weibchen die Möglichkeit, zwischen verschiedenen potenziellen Paarungspartnern zu wählen. Die chemischen Analysen der vorliegenden Arbeit zeigen, dass die Zusammensetzung und Menge des männlichen Markierpheromons vom Verwandtschaftsgrad, der Herkunft, dem Alter und der Größe der Männchen abhängen. Das Pheromon beinhaltet demnach Informationen über eine Vielzahl von Eigenschaften der Männchen, die für die Weibchenwahl von Bedeutung sein könnten. Sowohl die genetische Distanz („optimal outbreeding“) als auch die allgemeine genetische Qualität („good genes“) eines Männchens könnte die Partnerwahl der Bienenwolf-Weibchen beeinflussen. In dieser Arbeit für den Europäischen Bienenwolf entwickelte polymorphe Mikrosatelliten legen den Grundstein für Vaterschaftsanalysen und ermöglichen so die Durchführung und Auswertung von Experimenten zur Weibchenwahl bei dieser Art.
Epichloë endophytes associated with cool-season grass species can protect their hosts from herbivory and can suppress mycorrhizal colonization of the hosts’ roots. However, little is known about whether or not Epichloë endophyte infection can also change the foliar fungal assemblages of the host. We tested 52 grassland study sites along a land-use intensity gradient in three study regions over two seasons (spring vs. summer) to determine whether Epichloë infection of the host grass Lolium perenne changes the fungal community structure in leaves. Foliar fungal communities were assessed by Next Generation Sequencing of the ITS rRNA gene region. Fungal community structure was strongly affected by study region and season in our study, while land-use intensity and infection with Epichloë endophytes had no significant effects. We conclude that effects on non-systemic endophytes resulting from land use practices and Epichloë infection reported in other studies were masked by local and seasonal variability in this study’s grassland sites.
Animal-microbe mutualisms are typically maintained by vertical symbiont transmission or partner choice. A third mechanism, screening of high-quality symbionts, has been predicted in theory, but empirical examples are rare. Here we demonstrate that ambrosia beetles rely on ethanol within host trees for promoting gardens of their fungal symbiont and producing offspring. Ethanol has long been known as the main attractant for many of these fungus-farming beetles as they select host trees in which they excavate tunnels and cultivate fungal gardens. More than 300 attacks by Xylosandrus germanus and other species were triggered by baiting trees with ethanol lures, but none of the foundresses established fungal gardens or produced broods unless tree tissues contained in vivo ethanol resulting from irrigation with ethanol solutions. More X. germanus brood were also produced in a rearing substrate containing ethanol. These benefits are a result of increased food supply via the positive effects of ethanol on food-fungus biomass. Selected Ambrosiella and Raffaelea fungal isolates from ethanol-responsive ambrosia beetles profited directly and indirectly by (i) a higher biomass on medium containing ethanol, (ii) strong alcohol dehydrogenase enzymatic activity, and (iii) a competitive advantage over weedy fungal garden competitors (Aspergillus, Penicillium) that are inhibited by ethanol. As ambrosia fungi both detoxify and produce ethanol, they may maintain the selectivity of their alcohol-rich habitat for their own purpose and that of other ethanol-resistant/producing microbes. This resembles biological screening of beneficial symbionts and a potentially widespread, unstudied benefit of alcohol-producing symbionts (e.g., yeasts) in other microbial symbioses.
Ants of the species Camponotus floridanus live in huge colonies composed of genetically identical or closely related animals, which should predispose them to an increased vulnerability towards infection by pathogens (Cremer et al. 2007). Therefore the question is how ants (or social insects in general) can nevertheless efficiently combat infections. In order to investigate the immune response of the ant C. floridanus, the present study initially focused on the identification of possible immune factors, encoded by the ant´s genome. By using the method “suppression subtractive hybridization” as well as by Illumnia sequencing technology, several immune-related genes could be identified. Among these were genes encoding proteins involved in pathogen recognition, signal transduction, antimicrobial activity, or general stress response. In accordance with the ant´s genome sequence (Bonasio et al. 2010), only three antimicrobial peptide (AMP) genes could be identified in C. floridanus. The gene and cDNA sequences of these AMPs were established and their expression was shown to be induced by microbial challenge. Two different defensin genes (type 1 and 2) were characterized. A detailed characterization of the mRNA and gene sequence of the other AMP, a hymenoptaecin, revealed a special repeat structure. The C. floridanus hymenoptaecin has a signal and a pro-sequence followed by a hymenoptaecin-like domain and six directly repeated hymenoptaecin domains (HDs). Since each HD is flanked by two known processing sites, proteolytic processing of the precursor protein may generate several mature AMPs. Bioinformatical analyses revealed the presence of hymenoptaecin genes with similar multipeptide precursor structure in genomes of other ant species suggesting an evolutionary conserved important role of this gene in ant immunity. C. floridanus ants harbor the obligate intracellular bacterium, Blochmannia floridanus, in specialized cells (so-called bacteriocytes), which are intercalated between midgut cells as well as in ovaries of females (Blochmann 1882; Sauer et al. 2002; Schröder et al. 1996). Ant hosts face the problem that on the one hand they have to maintain the beneficial symbiotic bacteria and on the other hand they need to raise an immune response against harmful pathogenic bacteria during an infection. It was investigated, if endosymbionts are actually detected by the host immune system. Injection of B. floridanus induced an immune response of its host C. floridanus, which was comparable to the one towards pathogens. This means that, despite the evolutionary established cooperation of the endosymbionts and their hosts, these bacteria are still recognized as „non-self“ by the host immune system. This finding led to the question, if the ant immune system might be involved in regulation of the endosymbiont number in the midgut tissue in order to avoid their uncontrolled replication. During the holometabolous life cycle of the ant hosts the distribution of bacteriocytes and of Blochmannia endosymbionts is remarkably dynamic and peaks in late pupal stages, in which the entire midgut is transformed into a symbiotic organ (Stoll et al. 2010). It was hypothesized that hosts could regulate the number of endosymbionts present in their tissues via the innate immune system. A quantitative gene expression analysis of assumed symbiosis-relevant candidate genes revealed distinct expression patterns of some genes according to developmental stage and tissue. Moreover, the immune gene expression in response to bacterial challenge was investigated in the pupal stage. By an artificial immune-challenge of pupae it was confirmed that in fact the immune response of the endosymbiont-bearing midgut tissue differs from that of other body parts. The data support a key role for amidase peptidoglycan recognition proteins (PGRPs), especially PGRP-LB, in endosymbiont tolerance and suggest an involvement of the lysosomal system in control of Blochmannia endosymbionts. In sum, this thesis provides a first description of the immune response of the ant C. floridanus. A comprehensive set of immune-relevant genes was determined. Especially, the identification and molecular characterization of the hymenoptaecin gene delivered new insights into the immune competence of ants in general. Moreover, first indications could be gathered for the involvement of the immune system in controlling the endosymbiont B. floridanus.
Defense against biotic or abiotic stresses is one of the benefits of living in symbiosis. Leaf-cutting ants, which live in an obligate mutualism with a fungus, attenuate thermal and desiccation stress of their partner through behavioral responses, by choosing suitable places for fungus-rearing across the soil profile. The underground environment also presents hypoxic (low oxygen) and hypercapnic (high carbon dioxide) conditions, which can negatively influence the symbiont. Here, we investigated whether workers of the leaf-cutting ant Acromyrmex lundii use the CO\(_{2}\) concentration as an orientation cue when selecting a place to locate their fungus garden, and whether they show preferences for specific CO\(_{2}\) concentrations. We also evaluated whether levels preferred by workers for fungus-rearing differ from those selected for themselves. In the laboratory, CO\(_{2}\) preferences were assessed in binary choices between chambers with different CO\(_{2}\) concentrations, by quantifying number of workers in each chamber and amount of relocated fungus. Leaf-cutting ants used the CO\(_{2}\) concentration as a spatial cue when selecting places for fungus-rearing. A. lundii preferred intermediate CO\(_{2}\) levels, between 1 and 3%, as they would encounter at soil depths where their nest chambers are located. In addition, workers avoided both atmospheric and high CO\(_{2}\) levels as they would occur outside the nest and at deeper soil layers, respectively. In order to prevent fungus desiccation, however, workers relocated fungus to high CO\(_{2}\) levels, which were otherwise avoided. Workers’ CO\(_{2}\) preferences for themselves showed no clear-cut pattern. We suggest that workers avoid both atmospheric and high CO\(_{2}\) concentrations not because they are detrimental for themselves, but because of their consequences for the symbiotic partner. Whether the preferred CO\(_{2}\) concentrations are beneficial for symbiont growth remains to be investigated, as well as whether the observed preferences for fungus-rearing influences the ants’ decisions where to excavate new chambers across the soil profile.
Ambrosia beetles farm ascomycetous fungi in tunnels within wood. These ambrosia fungi are regarded asexual, although population genetic proof is missing. Here we explored the intraspecific genetic diversity of Ambrosiella grosmanniae and Ambrosiella hartigii (Ascomycota: Microascales), the mutualists of the beetles Xylosandrus germanus and Anisandrus dispar. By sequencing five markers (ITS, LSU, TEF1α, RPB2, β-tubulin) from several fungal strains, we show that X. germanus cultivates the same two clones of A. grosmanniae in the USA and in Europe, whereas A. dispar is associated with a single A. hartigii clone across Europe. This low genetic diversity is consistent with predominantly asexual vertical transmission of Ambrosiella cultivars between beetle generations. This clonal agriculture is a remarkable case of convergence with fungus-farming ants, given that both groups have a completely different ecology and evolutionary history.