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Die heute in der Krebstherapie vorherrschenden konventionellen Therapiemethoden weisen Defizite bezüglich ihrer Wirksamkeit auf und rufen oftmals gravierende Nebenwirkungen hervor. Eine Alternative für die Behandlung von Tumoren ist der Einsatz onkolytischer Viren. Um einen erfolgreichen klinischen Einsatz onkolytischer Viren zu ermöglichen, ist eine Verstärkung von deren Wirksamkeit durch die Insertion therapeutischer Gene wünschenswert. Im Rahmen der vorliegenden Arbeit sollte der Abbau von Proteinen der extrazellulären Matrix durch die Insertion des Relaxin- oder Matrixmetalloproteinase 9-Gens (MMP-9) in das Vaccinia-Virus Genom erreicht und dadurch die Virusausbreitung im Tumorgewebe erleichtert werden. Hierfür wurden die rekombinanten Vaccinia-Viren GLV-1h169, codierend für das Hormon Relaxin und GLV-1h255, codierend für das Enzym MMP-9, eingesetzt. Es wurde analysiert, ob die Expression dieser Proteine zu einem Abbau von Matrixproteinen führt, dies die Virusausbreitung erleichtert und die Lyse infizierter Tumorzellen gegenüber dem parentalen Virus GLV-1h68 verstärkt. GLV-1h169 wurde in DU145-, PC3- und C33A-Tumor-tragende Mäuse injiziert und die Wirkung des viral-codierten Relaxins auf die extrazelluläre Matrix und die virale Ausbreitung im Tumorgewebe analysiert. In Zellkultur-Experimenten wurde ermittelt, dass die Insertion des Relaxin-Gens in das GLV-1h169-Genom das Replikationsverhalten in DU145-Zellen gegenüber dem des parentalen Virus GLV-1h68 nicht negativ beeinflusst. In DU145-, PC3- und C33A-Tumorschnitten konnte eine Expression von Relaxin in GLV-1h169-infizierten Bereichen nachgewiesen werden. Die Expression von Relaxin soll durch die Aktivierung des Relaxin-Signalweges zur Translation von MMP-9 führen. Das Enzym wird von infizierten Zellen sezerniert und spaltet Proteine der extrazellulären Matrix. Der Gehalt der MMP-9 Substrate Collagen IV und Laminin in GLV-1h169 behandelten DU145- und C33A-Tumoren wurde analysiert und mit jenem in GLV-1h68- und PBS- behandelten Tumoren verglichen. In Virus-behandelten DU145-Tumoren zeigte sich im Vergleich mit PBS-behandelten Tumoren ein signifikant verringerter Collagen IV- und Laminingehalt. Weiterhin war der Collagen IV-Gehalt in GLV-1h169 infizierten Tumoren signifikant niedriger als in GLV-1h68 infizierten. Dies führte jedoch nicht zu einer Erhöhung des Virustiters und nicht zu einer verbesserten Virusausbreitung. GLV-1h68- und GLV-1h169-infizierte Tumore zeigten gegenüber PBS-behandelten Tumoren eine starke Regression. Die GLV-1h169-vermittelte Relaxin-Expression führte jedoch nicht zu einer weiteren Verstärkung der Tumorregression. In Virus-behandelten C33A-Tumoren wurde eine signifikante Erhöhung des Collagen IV- und Laminingehalts gegenüber PBS-behandelten Tumoren nachgewiesen. Dies könnte durch eine Virus-induzierte Inflammationsreaktion hervorgerufen werden, die eine Fibroblasten-vermittelte Collagenablagerung nach sich zieht. Das MMP-9 Expressionsle-vel war in Virus-behandelten Tumoren gegenüber PBS-behandelten signifikant erhöht, jedoch bewirkte die GLV-1h169-vermittelte Expression von Relaxin keine zusätzliche MMP-9 Expression. In Tumorrandbereichen erfolgte eine Expression von Relaxin und MMP-9, im Tumorinneren jedoch nur eine Expression von Relaxin. Hingegen wurde eine Korrelation zwischen der MMP-9-Expression und der Präsenz MHC II-positiver Zellen beobachtet. Diese Zellen migrieren von außen in das Tumorgewebe und exprimieren dort MMP-9. Bei der Analyse der Virustiter und –ausbreitung im Tumorgewebe zeigten sich keine signifikanten Unterschiede zwischen GLV-1h68- und GLV-1h169-injizierten Tieren. Die Injektion von beiden onkolytischen Viren in C33A-Tumor-tragende Mäuse führte zu einer starken Tumorregression. Diese wurde jedoch nicht durch die GLV-1h169-vermittelte Relaxin-Expression beeinflusst. Da die Aktivierung des Relaxin-Signalweges zu einer Expression des vascular endothelial growth factors (VEGF) führen kann, welcher die Angiogenese stimuliert, wurde die Blutgefäßdichte in C33A-Tumoren ermittelt. Die Expression von Relaxin führte nicht zu einer erhöhten Blutgefäßdichte. Die Basalmembran von Blutgefäßen enthält Collagen IV, deshalb wurde untersucht, ob die Relaxin-Expression eine erhöhte Permeabilität der Gefäße bewirkt. In den Virus-behandelten Tumoren zeigte sich eine gegenüber PBS-behandelten Tumoren signifikant erhöhte Gefäß-Permeabilität, jedoch bewirkte die Expression von Relaxin keine weitere Erhöhung der Gefäß-Permeabilität...
In initial experiments, the well characterized VACV strain GLV-1h68 and three wild-type LIVP isolates were utilized to analyze gene expression in a pair of autologous human melanoma cell lines (888-MEL and 1936 MEL) after infection. Microarray analyses, followed by sequential statistical approaches, characterized human genes whose transcription is affected specifically by VACV infection. In accordance with the literature, those genes were involved in broad cellular functions, such as cell death, protein synthesis and folding, as well as DNA replication, recombination, and repair. In parallel to host gene expression, viral gene expression was evaluated with help of customized VACV array platforms to get better insight over the interplay between VACV and its host. Our main focus was to compare host and viral early events, since virus genome replication occurs early after infection. We observed that viral transcripts segregated in a characteristic time-specific pattern, consistent with the three temporal expression classes of VACV genes, including a group of genes which could be classified as early-stage genes. In this work, comparison of VACV early replication and respective early gene transcription led to the identification of seven viral genes whose expression correlated strictly with replication. We considered the early expression of those seven genes to be representative for VACV replication and we therefore referred to them as viral replication indicators (VRIs). To explore the relationship between host cell transcription and viral replication, we correlated viral (VRI) and human early gene expression. Correlation analysis revealed a subset of 114 human transcripts whose early expression tightly correlated with early VRI expression and thus early viral replication. These 114 human molecules represented an involvement in broad cellular functions. We found at least six out of 114 correlates to be involved in protein ubiquitination or proteasomal function. Another molecule of interest was the serine-threonine protein kinase WNK lysine-deficient protein kinase 1 (WNK1). We discovered that WNK1 features differences on several molecular biological levels associated with permissiveness to VACV infection. In addition to that, a set of human genes was identified with possible predictive value for viral replication in an independent dataset. A further objective of this work was to explore baseline molecular biological variances associated with permissiveness which could help identifying cellular components that contribute to the formation of a permissive phenotype. Therefore, in a subsequent approach, we screened a set of 15 melanoma cell lines (15-MEL) regarding their permissiveness to GLV-1h68, evaluated by GFP expression levels, and classified the top four and lowest four cell lines into high and low permissive group, respectively. Baseline gene transcriptional data, comparing low and highly permissive group, suggest that differences between the two groups are at least in part due to variances in global cellular functions, such as cell cycle, cell growth and proliferation, as well as cell death and survival. We also observed differences in the ubiquitination pathway, which is consistent with our previous results and underlines the importance of this pathway in VACV replication and permissiveness. Moreover, baseline microRNA (miRNA) expression between low and highly permissive group was considered to provide valuable information regarding virus-host co-existence. In our data set, we identified six miRNAs that featured varying baseline expression between low and highly permissive group. Finally, copy number variations (CNVs) between low and highly permissive group were evaluated. In this study, when investigating differences in the chromosomal aberration patterns between low and highly permissive group, we observed frequent segmental amplifications within the low permissive group, whereas the same regions were mostly unchanged in the high group. Taken together, our results highlight a probable correlation between viral replication, early gene expression, and the respective host response and thus a possible involvement of human host factors in viral early replication. Furthermore, we revealed the importance of cellular baseline composition for permissiveness to VACV infection on different molecular biological levels, including mRNA expression, miRNA expression, as well as copy number variations. The characterization of human target genes that influence viral replication could help answering the question of host cell response to oncolytic virotherapy and provide important information for the development of novel recombinant vaccinia viruses with improved features to enhance replication rate and hence trigger therapeutic outcome.
Effects of stem cell transcription factor-expressing vaccinia viruses in oncolytic virotherapy
(2012)
Cancer remains the second leading cause of death in the industrialized. The data from many different studies investigating the nature of cancer-initiating cells coined the description ‘cancer stem cells’ and has major implications on conventional cancer therapy. Thus, to improve the outcome of cancer treatment and to lower negative side effects, the development of novel therapeutic regimens is indispensable. It has been demonstrated in many preclinical studies that oncolytic virotherapy using vaccinia virus may provide a powerful and well-tolerable new tool in cancer therapy which is currently investigated in several clinical trials (Phase I & II) as stand-alone treatment or in combination with conventional cancer therapy. Cancer-initiating cells and stem cells share a variety of characteristics like the ability to self-renew, differentiation potential, quiescence, drug and radiation resistance, activation and inhibition of similar signaling pathways as well as expression of cell surface markers and stem cell-related genes. In this work, two new recombinant vaccinia viruses expressing the transcription factors Nanog (GLV-1h205) and Oct4 (GLV-1h208) were engineered to provide deeper insight of these stem cell master regulators in their significance of cancer-initiation and their impact on oncolytic virotherapy. Both viruses were analyzed for their replication potential in A549 and PC-3 human cancer cells. Marker gene expression was assessed by RT-PCR, SDS-PAGE and Western blotting, ELISA or immunocytochemistry.Furthermore, the effect of GLV-1h205 infection on the cell cycle in A549 cells was analyzed. Next, the effects of virus-mediated expression of stem cell transcription factors on therapeutic efficacy and survival rates in A549 xenograft mouse models was analyzed. A non-functional Nanog mutant-expressing virus strain (GLV-1h321) was engineered to analyze whether the observed therapeutic benefits were promoter- or payload-driven. Furthermore, this study analyzed the potential of GLV-1h68 to infect, replicate in, and lyse colorectal cancer cell lines to study whether oncolytic vaccinia viruses can be potential new and less invasive treatment regimens for late stage colorectal cancer. Marker gene expression was assessed by fluorescence microscopy and FACS. The transcription factor Klf4 is highly expressed in quiescent, terminally differentiated cells in the colonic epithelium whereas it is dramatically downregulated in colon cancers. Klf4 expression leads to cell growth arrest and inhibits Wnt signaling by binding to beta-catenin. To further improve the treatment of colorectal cancers, new recombinant vaccinia viruses (GLV-1h290-292) mediating the expression of differing amounts of the tumor suppressor Klf4 by using different promoter strengths were engineered. Initial characterization of recombinant vaccinia viruses expressing Klf4 by replication assay, cell viability assay, SDS-PAGE and Western blotting, immuncytochemistry and analysis of protein functionality by qPCR and ELISA analysis for cellular beta-catenin expression, demonstrated promoter strength-dependent expression of and impact of Klf4. To further boost the effects of tumor suppressor Klf4, a vaccinia virus strain expressing Klf4 with a C-terminal fusion of the TAT transduction domain (GLV-1h391) was engineered. Treatment of HT-29 non-responder tumors in vivo with GLV-1h291 and GLV-1h391 led to significant tumor growth inhibition and improved overall survival compared to GLV-1h68. This makes the Klf4-TAT expressing GLV-1h391 a promising candidate for the treatment of colorectal cancer in man.
Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) represents the most aggressive form of malignant brain tumors and remains a therapeutically challenge. Intense research in the field has lead to the testing of oncolytic viruses to improve tumor control. Currently, a variety of different oncolytic viruses are being evaluated for their ability to be used in anti-cancer therapy and a few have entered clinical trials. Vaccinia virus, is one of the viruses being studied. GLV-1h68, an oncolytic vaccinia virus engineered by Genelux Corporation, was constructed by insertion of three gene cassettes, RUC-GFP fusion, β-galactosidase and β- glucuronidase into the genome of the LIVP strain. Since focal tumor radiotherapy is a mainstay for cancer treatment, including glioma therapy, it is of clinical relevance to assess how systemically administered oncolytic vaccinia virus could be combined with targeted ionizing radiation for therapeutic gain. In this work we show how focal ionizing radiation (IR) can be combined with multiple systemically delivered oncolytic vaccinia virus strains in murine models of human U-87 glioma. After initial experiments which confirmed that ionizing radiation does not damage viral DNA or alter viral tropism, animal studies were carried out to analyze the interaction of vaccinia virus and ionizing radiation in the in vivo setting. We found that irradiation of the tumor target, prior to systemic administration of oncolytic vaccinia virus GLV-1h68, increased viral replication within the U-87 xenografts as measured by viral reporter gene expression and viral titers. Importantly, while GLV-1h68 alone had minimal effect on U-87 tumor growth delay, IR enhanced GLV-1h68 replication, which translated to increased tumor growth delay and mouse survival in subcutaneous and orthotopic U-87 glioma murine models compared to monotherapy with IR or GLV-1h68. The ability of IR to enhance vaccinia replication was not restricted to the multi-mutated GLV-1h68, but was also seen with the less attenuated oncolytic vaccinia, LIVP 1.1.1. We have demonstrated that in animals treated with combination of ionizing radiation and LIVP 1.1.1 a strong pro-inflammatory tissue response was induced. When IR was given in a more clinically relevant fractionated scheme, we found oncolytic vaccinia virus replication also increased. This indicates that vaccinia virus could be incorporated into either larger hypo-fraction or more conventionally fractionated radiotherapy schemes. The ability of focal IR to mediate selective replication of systemically injected oncolytic vaccinia was demonstrated in a bilateral glioma model. In mice with bilateral U-87 tumors in both hindlimbs, systemically administered oncolytic vaccinia replicated preferentially in the focally irradiated tumor compared to the shielded non- irradiated tumor in the same mouse We demonstrated that tumor control could be further improved when fractionated focal ionizing radiation was combined with a vaccinia virus caring an anti-angiogenic payload targeting vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). Our studies showed that following ionizing radiation expression of VEGF is upregulated in U-87 glioma cells in culture. We further showed a concentration dependent increase in radioresistance of human endothelial cells in presence of VEGF. Interestingly, we found effects of vascular endothelial growth factor on endothelial cells were reversible by adding purified GLAF-1 to the cells. GLAF-1 is a single- chain antibody targeting human and murine VEGF and is expressed by oncolytic vaccinia virus GLV-109. In U-87 glioma xenograft murine models the combination of fractionated ionizing radiation with GLV-1h164, a vaccinia virus also targeting VEGF, resulted in the best volumetric tumor response and a drastic decrease in vascular endothelial growth factor. Histological analysis of embedded tumor sections 14 days after viral administration confirmed that blocking VEGF translated into a decrease in vessel number to 30% of vessel number found in control tumors in animals treated with GLV-164 and fractionated IR which was lower than for all other treatment groups. Our experiments with GLV-1h164 and fractionated radiotherapy have shown that in addition to ionizing radiation and viral induced tumor cell destruction we were able to effectively target the tumor vasculature. This was achieved by enhanced viral replication translating in increased levels of GLAF-2 disrupting tumor vessels as well as the radiosensitization of tumor vasculature to IR by blocking VEGF. Our preclinical results have important clinical implications of how focal radiotherapy can be combined with systemic oncolytic viral administration for highly aggressive, locally advanced tumors with the potential, by using a vaccinia virus targeting human vascular endothelial growth factor, to further increase tumor radiation sensitivity by engaging the vascular component in addition to cancer cells.