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Beans, roots and leaves
(2001)
The author presents the first detailed review of the pharmacological therapy of parkinsonism from ancient times until the near present (1980). It is not clear whether parkinsonism as it is now defined – a progressive neurodegenerative disorder of the basal ganglia characterized by sharply reduced striatal dopamine levels, particularly in the striatum – has always affected a significant minority of aged persons, but suggestive evidence to this effect in the older literature is reviewed. The major discussion commences, however, with the administration of various plant alkaloids to parkinsonian patients in the second half of the 19th century. Antiparkinsonian therapy since this time may be divided into a number of phases: 1. The employment of alkaloids derived from solanaceous plants: initially hyoscyamine, then hyoscine/scopolamine and atropine. The discovery and characterization of these alkaloids, and the gradual recognition that other pharmacologically useful solanaceous alkaloids (such as duboisine) were identical with one or other of these three compounds, is discussed. 2. With the outbreak of encephalitis lethargica following the First World War, parkinsonian patient numbers increased dramatically, leading to a multiplicity of new directions, including the use of another solanaceous plant, stramonium, of extremely high atropine doses, and of harmala alkaloids. 3. The so-called “Bulgarian treatment” was popularized in western Europe in the mid-1930s. It was also a belladonna alkaloid-based therapy, but associated with greater efficacy and fewer side effects. This approach, whether as actual plant extracts or as defined combinations of belladonna alkaloids, remained internationally dominant until the end of the 1940s. 4. Synthetic antiparkinsonian agents were examined following the Second World War, with the aim of overcoming the deficiencies of belladonna alkaloid therapy. These agents fell into two major classes: synthetic anticholinergic (= antimuscarinic) agents, such as benzhexol, and antihistaminergic drugs, including diphenhydramine. These agents were regarded as more effective than plant-based remedies, but certainly not as cures for the disease. 5. A complete change in direction was heralded by the discovery in 1960 of the striatal dopamine deficit in parkinsonism. This led to the introduction of L-DOPA therapy for parkinsonism, the first approach directed against an identified physiological abnormality in the disorder. 6. Subsequent developments have thus far concentrated on refinement or supplementation of the L-DOPA effect. Recent attempts to develop neuroprotective or -restorative approaches are also briefly discussed. The thesis also discusses the mechanisms by which the various types of antiparkinsonian agent achieved their effects, and also the problems confronting workers at various periods in the design and assessment of novel agents. The impact of attitudes regarding the etiology and nature of parkinsonism, particularly with regard to symptomatology, is also considered. Finally, the history of antiparkinsonian therapy is discussed in context of the general development of both clinical neurology and fundamental anatomical, physiological and biochemical research. In particular, the deepening understanding of the neurochemical basis of central nervous system function is emphasized, for which reason the history of dopamine research is discussed in some detail. This history of antiparkinsonian therapy also illustrates the fact that the nature of experimental clinical pharmacology has markedly changed throughout this period: No longer the preserve of individual physicians, it is now based firmly on fundamental laboratory research, the clinical relevance of which is not always immediately apparent, and which is only later examined in (large scale) clinical trials. It is concluded that antiparkinsonian therapy was never irrational or without basis, but has always been necessarily rooted in current knowledge regarding neural and muscular function. The achievements of L-DOPA therapy, the first successful pharmacological treatment for a neurodegenerative disorder, derived from the fruitful union of the skills and contributions of different types by laboratory scientists, pharmacologists and clinicians.
The understanding of the mechanisms underlying the establishment and maintenance of the extraordinary biodiversity in tropical forests is a major challenge for modern biology. In this context, epiphytes are presumed to play an important role. To investigate the biological reality of this persistent yet insufficiently investigated notion, I conducted the present study. The main questions I intended to clarify were: (1) do epiphytes affect arthropod abundance and diversity in tropical tree crowns? and (2) what might be the driving forces behind this potential influence? I studied the arthropod fauna of 25 tree crowns bearing different epiphyte assemblages, and the resident fauna of 90 individual epiphytes. I also quantified the mitigating influence of epiphytes on the microclimate in tree crowns. In total, more than 277,000 arthropods were collected and about 700 morphospecies determined. Epiphytes had a significant moderating influence on canopy microclimate (Chapter 3), both at various microsites within a tree crown and among tree crowns with different epiphyte growth. On hot dry season days, they provided microsites with lower temperatures and reduced evaporative water loss compared to epiphyte-free spaces within the same tree crown. Quantitative sampling of the arthropods inhabiting three different epiphyte species provided compelling evidence for the specificity of epiphyte-associated faunas (Chapter 4). Epiphytes proved to be microhabitats for a diverse and numerous arthropod fauna, and different epiphyte species fostered both taxonomically and ecologically very distinct arthropod assemblages: among epiphyte hosts, the inhabitant faunas showed remarkably little species overlap, and guild composition differed strongly. In the subsequent chapters I investigated if this pronounced effect scaled up to the level of entire tree crowns. Arthropods were captured with three different trap types to obtain an ample spectrum of the canopy fauna (Chapter 2). Four tree categories were classified, three of which were dominated by a different species of epiphyte, and an epiphyte-free control group. On a higher taxonomic level, there were no detectable effects of epiphytes on the fauna: the ordinal composition was similar among tree categories and indifferent of the amount of epiphytes in a tree crown (Chapter 5). I examined three focal groups (ants, beetles and spiders) on species level. The diversity and abundance of ants was not influenced by the epiphyte load of the study trees (Chapter 6). Although many species readily used the epiphytes as nesting site and shelter, they seemed to be highly opportunistic with respect to their host plants. Likewise, the species richness and abundance of beetles, as well as their guild composition were entirely unaffected by the presence of epiphytes in the study trees (Chapter 7). Focusing on herbivorous beetles did not alter these results. Spiders, however, were strongly influenced by the epiphyte assemblages of the host trees (Chapter 8). Overall spider abundance and species richness did not differ among trees, but particular families and guilds exhibited marked differences in abundance between the tree categories. Most remarkable were the substantial differences in spider species composition across trees with different epiphyte assemblages. Conclusion Thus, the prevalent notion that epiphytes positively influence arthropod diversity in tropical canopies seems justified, but not without reservation. Whether an influence of epiphytes on the fauna was discernible depended greatly on (1) the scale of the investigated system: clear faunal distinctions at the microhabitat level were absent or much more subtle at the level of tree crowns. (2) the focal taxa: different arthropod orders allowed for completely different statements concerning the importance of epiphytes for canopy fauna. I therefore recommend a multitaxon approach for the investigation of large-scale ecological questions. In conclusion, I resume that epiphytes are associated with a species-specific inhabiting fauna,and that epiphytes impose an influence on certain, but not all, taxa even at the level of entire tree crowns. Although I could only hypothesize about the potential causes for this influence, this study provided the first comprehensive investigation of the role of epiphytes in determining arthropod abundance and diversity in tropical tree crowns.