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Cardiac healing after myocardial infarction (MI) represents the cardinal prerequisite for proper replacement of the irreversibly injured myocardium. In contrast to innate immunity, the functional role of adaptive immunity in postinfarction healing has not been systematically addressed. The present study focused on the influence of CD4+ T lymphocytes on wound healing and cardiac remodeling after experimental myocardial infarction in mice. Both conventional and Foxp3+ regulatory CD4+ T cells (Treg cells) became activated in heart draining lymph nodes after MI and accumulated in the infarcted myocardium. T cell activation was strictly antigen-dependant as T cell receptor-transgenic OT-II mice in which CD4+ T cells exhibit a highly limited T cell
receptor repertoire did not expand in heart-draining lymph nodes post-MI. Both OT-II and major histocompatibility complex class II-deficient mice lacking a CD4+ T cell compartment showed a fatal clinical postinfarction outcome characterized by disturbed scar tissue construction that resulted in impaired survival due to a prevalence of left-ventricular ruptures. To assess the contribution of anti-inflammatory Treg cells on wound healing after MI, the Treg cell compartment was depleted using DEREG mice that specifically express the human diphtheria toxin receptor in Foxp3-positive cells, resulting in Treg cell ablation after diphtheria toxin administration. In a parallel line of experiments, a second model of anti-CD25 antibody-mediated Treg cell immuno-depletion was used. Treg cell ablation prior to MI resulted in adverse postinfarction left-ventricular dilatation associated with cardiac deterioration. Mechanistically, Treg cell depletion resulted in an increased recruitment of pro-inflammatory neutrophils and Ly-6Chigh monocytes into the healing myocardium. Furthermore, Treg cell-ablated mice exhibited an adverse activation of conventional non-regulatory CD4+ and CD8+ T cells that
showed a reinforced infiltration into the infarct zone. Increased synthesis of TNFα and IFNγ by conventional CD4+ and CD8+ T cells in hearts of Treg cell-depleted mice provoked an M1-like macrophage polarization characterized by heightened expression of healing-compromising induced NO synthase, in line with a reduced synthesis of healing-promoting transglutaminase factor XIII (FXIII), osteopontin (OPN) and transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGFβ1).
Therapeutic Treg cell activation by a superagonistic anti-CD28 monoclonal antibody stimulated Treg cell accumulation in the infarct zone and led to an increased expression of mediators inducing an M2-like macrophage polarization state, i.e. interleukin-10, interleukin-13 and TGFβ1. M2-like macrophage differentiation in the healing infarct was associated with heightened expression of scar-forming procollagens as well as scar-stabilizing FXIII and OPN, resulting in improved survival due to a reduced incidence of left-ventricular ruptures. Therapeutic Treg cell activation and the induction of a beneficial M2-like macrophage polarization was further achieved by employing a treatment modality of high clinical potential, i.e. by therapeutic administration of IL-2/ anti-IL-2 monoclonal antibody complexes. The findings of the present study suggest that therapeutic Treg cell activation and the resulting improvement of healing may represent a suitable strategy to attenuate adverse infarct expansion, left-ventricular remodeling, or infarct ruptures in patients with MI.
Leishmaniasis is a neglected tropical disease that can be manifested through different clinical forms, ranging from cutaneous to visceral. The host response against Leishmania spp. is greatly dependent on T cell-mediated immunity, in which T helper 1 responses are associated with macrophage activation and elimination of the parasite, while regulatory T cells and T helper 2 responses are correlated with parasite survival and persistence of infection. Leishmania uses different virulence factors as strategies for evading the immune response of the host. One of them are cathepsin-like cysteine proteases, which are currently under extensive investigation as targets for drug development. Previous studies with inhibitors of cathepsins B and L in vivo revealed an outstanding modulation of the host T helper cell response. However, the mechanisms behind these observations were not further investigated. Given the urgent need for better treatments against leishmaniasis, the aim of this study was to investigate the effects that the lack of cathepsin B and L activity have on the signals that dendritic cells use to instruct T helper cell polarization in response to infection with Leishmania major.
The cathepsin inhibitors tested showed low or no cytotoxicity in bone marrow-derived dendritic cells, and dendritic cells and macrophages could be generated from cathepsin B and cathepsin L-deficient mice without apparent alterations in their phenotype in comparison to wild-type controls. Furthermore, lack of cathepsin B and L activity showed no impact in the rate of promastigote processing by dendritic cells. Cathepsin B and cathepsin L-deficient macrophages showed no differences in parasite proliferation and capacity to produce nitric oxide in comparison to wild-type macrophages. In response to the parasite, dendritic cells treated with a cathepsin B inhibitor and dendritic cells from cathepsin B-deficient mice showed higher levels of expression of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II molecules than dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) or wild-type controls, but it was not accompanied by changes in the expression of costimulatory molecules. Wild-type dendritic cells and macrophages are not able to express the pro-inflammatory cytokine interleukin (IL)-12 in response to promastigotes. However, cells treated with a cathepsin B inhibitor or cells deficient for cathepsin B were able to express IL-12, whilethe expression of other cytokines -including IL-6 and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha-remained unchanged. These characteristics point towards a more “pro-Th1” profile of dendritic cells in the absence of cathepsin B.
This data is the first report on IL-12 regulation depending on cathepsin B. The IL-12 up-regulation observed was already present at the transcriptional level. Furthermore, it was also present in macrophages and dendritic cells in response to LPS, and the latter had a higher capacity to induce T cell helper 1 polarization in vitro than wild-type dendritic cells. The activation of different signaling pathways was analyzed, but the up-regulation of IL-12 could not be attributed to modulation of nuclear factor-kappaB (NFkappaB), p38 mitogen activated protein kinase (MAPK) and extra-cellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK)1/2 pathways. Thus, the mechanism behind IL-12 regulation by cathepsin B remains to be elucidated, and the impact of these effects is yet to be confirmed in vivo. Altogether it is tempting to speculate that cathepsin B, in addition to its role in processing endocytosed material, is involved in the modulation of the pro-inflammatory cytokine IL-12.
Transforming-Growth-Factor-beta1 (TGF-b1) is a multifunctional cytokine that regulates cell growth and differentiation in many types of cells. TGF-b1 is especially known to exert a variety of regulatory functions in the immune system, such as T cell differentiation and T cell function. Signal transduction of TGF-b1 is mediated by phosphorylation of receptorassociated Smad proteins (R-Smads). R-Smads are phosphorylated by the activated type I receptor, which is itself phosphorylated by the high affinity type II receptor upon ligand binding. The phosphorylated R-Smads then associate with Co-Smads. Heterooligomers of R- and Co-Smads translocate into the nucleus where they regulate transcription of target genes in concert with other transcription factors such as CBP/p300 or AP-1. Recent findings suggest that the pleiotropic effects of TGF-b1 are conferred by crosstalks to other signal transduction pathways such as the MAP-kinases or the STAT-pathway. Here we describe the effect of long-term exposure to TGF-b1 on the effector function of differentially stimulated primary murine splenocytes and purified primary murine CD8+ cytotoxic T cells. Long-term exposure to TGF-b1 results in non-responsiveness to TGF-b1- induced Smad2 phosphorylation. This is seen either by no phosphorylation or sustained phosphorylation of Smad2. Furthermore, we observed a strong correlation between sustained Smad2 phosphorylation and resistance to TGF-b1 mediated growth inhibition. In contrast, splenocyte cultures strongly growth inhibited by TGF-b1 showed no Smad2 phosphorylation. Lytic activity of these cultures, however, was found to be suppressed regardless of proliferation properties and Smad2 phosphorylation pattern. We also describe that a functional MEK-1 pathway is a prerequisite for rendering murine splenocytes unresponsive to TGF-b1 mediated growth inhibition, and that inhibition of the MEK-1 cascade alters the Smad2 phosphorylation pattern. In addition, we show that resistance to TGF-b1 mediated growth inhibition correlates with the activation of the JNK pathway. However, the resistant phenotype was found unable to be reverted upon administration of exogeneous IFNg and/or aCD28 antibody. In human or mouse T cell lines, however, the described correlation between the type of stimulation and TGF-b growth resistance or growth sensitivity is not present. Thus, this correlation is specific for primary T cells. We also cloned a chimeric dominantnegative TGF-b receptor which is coupled to a suicide gene, in order to render T cells resistant to TGF-b mediated effects.These findings shed light on how TGF-b1 mediates its immunosuppressive role, and may help to gain knowledge of averting these TGF-b1 effects in the course of tumor therapy.
The immune system is responsible for the preservation of homeostasis whenever a given organism is exposed to distinct kinds of perturbations. Given the complexity of certain organisms like mammals, and the diverse types of challenges that they encounter (e.g. infection or disease), the immune system evolved to harbor a great variety of distinct immune cell populations with specialized functions. For instance, the family of T cells is sub-divided into conventional (Tconv) and unconventional T cells (UTCs). Tconv form part of the adaptive arm of the immune system and are comprised of αβ CD4+ or CD8+ cells that differentiate from naïve to effector and memory populations upon activation and are essential during infection and cancer. Furthermore, UTCs, which include γδ T cells, NKT and MAIT, are involved in innate and adaptive immune responses, due to their dual mode of activation, through cytokines (innate-like) or TCR (adaptive), and function. Despite our understanding of the basic functions of T cells in several contexts, a great number of open questions related to their basic biology remain. For instance, the mechanism behind the differentiation of naïve CD4+ and CD8+ T cells into effector and memory populations is not fully understood. Moreover, the exact function and relevance of distinct UTC subpopulations in a physiological context have not been fully clarified. Here, we investigated the factors mediating naïve CD8+ T cell differentiation into effector and memory cells. By using flow cytometry, mass spectrometry, enzymatic assays, and transgenic mouse models, we found that the membrane bound enzyme sphingomyelin-phosphodiesterase acid-like 3b (Smpdl3b) is crucial for the maintenance of memory CD8+ T cells. Our data show that the absence of Smpdl3b leads to diminished CD8+ T cell memory, and a loss of stem-like memory populations due to an aggravated contraction. Our scRNA-seq data suggest that Smpdl3b could be involved in clathrinmediated endocytosis through modulation of Huntingtin interacting protein 1 (Hip1) levels, likely regulating TCR-independent signaling events. Furthermore, in this study we explored the role of UTCs in lymph node-specific immune responses. By using transgenic mouse models for photolabeling, lymph node transplantation models, infection models and flow cytometry, we demonstrate that S1P regulates the migration of tissue-derived UTC from tissues to draining lymph nodes, resulting in heterogeneous immune responses mounted by lymph nodes draining different tissues. Moreover, our unbiased scRNAseq and single lineage-deficient mouse models analysis revealed that all UTC lineages (γδ T cells, NKT and MAIT) are organized in functional units, based on transcriptional homogeneity, shared microanatomical location and migratory behavior, and numerical and functional redundancy. Taken together, our studies describe additional cell intrinsic (Smpdl3b) and extrinsic (S1Pmediated migration) functions of sphingolipid metabolism modulating T cell biology. We propose the S1P/S1PR1/5 signaling axis as the potential survival pathway for Smpdl3b+ memory CD8+ T cells and UTCs, mainly in lymph nodes. Possibly, Smpdl3b regulates S1P/S1PR signaling by balancing ligandreceptor endocytosis, while UTCs migrate to lymph nodes during homeostasis to be exposed to specific levels of S1P that assure their maintenance. Our results are clinically relevant, since several drugs modulating the S1P/S1PR signaling axis or the levels of Smpdl3b are currently used to treat human diseases, such as multiple sclerosis and B cell-mediated diseases. We hope that our discoveries will inspire future studies focusing on sphingolipid metabolism in immune cell biology.
Studies on receptor signaling and regulation in platelets and T cells from genetically modified mice
(2014)
Receptors with tyrosine-based signaling motifs control essential functions of hematopoietic cells, including lymphocytes and platelets. Downstream of the platelet receptor glycoprotein (GP) VI and the T cell receptor (TCR) the immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activation motif (ITAM) initiates a signaling cascade that involves kinases, adapter and effector proteins and finally leads to cellular activation. This thesis summarizes the results of three studies investigating different aspects of receptor signaling and regulation in platelets and T cells.
In the first part, the impact of constitutive Ca2+ influx on TCR signaling and T cell physiology was investigated using a transgenic mouse line with a mutation in the Ca2+ sensor stromal interaction molecule 1 (STIM1). The elevated cytoplasmic Ca2+ level resulted in an altered phosphorylation pattern of the key enzyme phospholipase (PL) Cγ1 in response to TCR stimulation, but without affecting its enzymatic activity. Withdrawal of extracellular Ca2+ or inhibition of the phosphatase calcineurin restored the normal phosphorylation pattern. In addition, there was a decrease in the release of Th2-type cytokines interleukin 4, 5 and 13 upon stimulation in vitro.
The second part of the thesis deals with the role of the adapter protein growth factor receptor-bound protein 2 (Grb2) in platelets using a megakaryocyte/platelet-specific knockout mouse line. Loss of Grb2 severely impaired signaling of GPVI and C-type lectin-like receptor 2 (CLEC-2), a related hemITAM receptor. This was attributed to defective stabilization of the linker for activation of T cells (LAT) signalosome and resulted in reduced adhesion, aggregation, Ca2+ mobilization and procoagulant activity downstream of (hem)ITAM-coupled receptors in vitro. In contrast, the signaling pathways of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) and the integrin αIIbβ3, which do not utilize the LAT signalosome, were unaffected. In vivo, the defective (hem)ITAM signaling caused prolonged bleeding times, however, thrombus formation was only affected under conditions where GPCR signaling was impaired (upon acetylsalicylic acid treatment). These results establish Grb2 as an important adapter protein in the propagation of GPVI- and CLEC-2-induced signals.
Finally, the proteolytic regulation of the immunoreceptor tyrosine-based switch motif (ITSM)-bearing receptor CD84 in platelets was investigated. This study demonstrated that in mice CD84 is cleaved by two distinct and independent proteolytic mechanisms upon platelet activation: shedding of the extracellular part, which is exclusively mediated by a disintegrin and metalloproteinase (ADAM) 10 and cleavage of the intracellular C-terminus by the protease calpain. Finally, the analysis of soluble CD84 levels in the plasma of transgenic mice revealed that shedding of CD84 by ADAM10 occurs constitutively in vivo.
The cancer stem cell hypothesis is a cancer development model which elicited great interest in the last decades stating that cancer heterogeneity arises from a stem cell through asymmetrical division. The Cancer Stem Cell subset is described as the only population to be tumorigenic and having the potential to renew. Conventional therapy often fails to eradicate CSC resulting in tumor relapse. Consequently, it is of great inter-est to eliminate this subset of cells to provide the best patient outcome. In the last years several approaches to target CSC were developed, one of them being immunotherapeu-tic targeting with antibodies. Since markers associated with CSC are also expressed on normal stem cells or healthy adjacent tissue in colorectal cancer, dual targeting strate-gies are preferred over targeting only a single antigen. Subsequently, the idea of dual targeting two CSC markers in parallel by a newly developed split T cell-engaging anti-body format termed as Hemibodies emerged. In a preliminary single cell RNA sequenc-ing analysis of colorectal cancer cells CD133, CD24, CD166 and CEA were identified as suitable targets for the combinatorial targeting strategy. Therefore, this study focused on trispecific and trivalent Hemibodies comprising a split binding moiety against CD3 and a binding moiety against either CD133, CD24, CD166 or CEA to overcome the occurrence of resistance and to efficiently eradicate all tumor cells including the CSC compartment. The study showed that the Hemibody combinations CD133xCD24, CD133xCD166 and CD133xCEA are able to eliminate double positive CHO cells with high efficacy while having a high specificity indicated by no killing of single antigen positive cells. A thera-peutic window ranging between one to two log levels could be achieved for all combina-tions mentioned above. The combinations CD133xCD24 and CD133xCD166 further-more proved its efficacy and specificity on established colorectal cancer cell lines. Be-sides the evaluation of specificity and efficacy the already introduced 1st generation of Hemibodies could be improved into a 2nd generation Hemibody format with increased half-life, stability and production yield. In future experiments the applicability of above-mentioned Hemibodies will be proven on patient-derived micro tumors to also include variables like tumor microenvironment and infiltration.
The bidirectional influence of parenchymal cells and cells of the immune system, especially of antigen-presenting and CD8\(^+\) T cells, in situations of putative auto- immune pathogenicity and degeneration was the main topic of this thesis. In the first part, the influence of human muscle cells on antigen-presenting cells was investigated. In inflammatory myopathies prominent infiltrates of immune cells containing T cells and antigen-presenting cells like macrophages and dendritic cells are present. The hypothesis was that human myoblasts have an inhibiting influence on these antigen-presenting cells under homeostatic conditions. A dysfunction or impairment under inflammatory circumstances might contribute to the development of myopathic conditions. The surface analysis of dendritic cells cocultured with myoblasts showed that immature dendritic cells could be driven into a reversible semi- mature state with significantly elevated levels of CD80. These dendritic cells were additionally characterized by their inhibiting function on T-cell proliferation. It was also shown that the lysates of healthy myoblasts could strongly enhance the phagocytic ability of macrophages, which could help with muscle regeneration and which might be disturbed in myositis patients. The second part of this thesis was about the clonal specificity of CD8\(^+\) T cells in a mouse model with genetically induced over-expression of PLP in oligodendrocytes. Here, we could show that the cytotoxic T lymphocytes, which had previously been shown to be pathogenic, were clonally expanded in the CNS of the transgenic mice. The amino acid sequences of the corresponding receptor chains were not identical, yet showed some similarities, which could mean that these clones recognize similar antigens (or epitopes of the same antigen). The knockout of PD-1 in this setting allowed for an analysis of the importance of tissue immune regulation. It became evident that the absence of PD-1 induced a larger number of clonal expansions in the CNS, hinting towards a reduced threshold for clonal disturbance and activation in these T cells. The expansions were, however, not pathogenic by themselves. Only in the presence of tissue damage and an antigenic stimulus (in our case the overexpression of PLP), the PD-1 limitation exacerbated the immune pathogenicity. Therefore, only in the presence of a “tissue damage signal”, the dyshomeostasis of T cells lacking PD-1 achieved high pathogenetic relevance. Finally, we investigated the pathogenetic role of CD8 T cells in Rasmussen encephalitis, a rare and chronic neurological disease mainly affecting children. The analysis of the T-cell receptor repertoire in Rasmussen encephalitis patients in the peripheral CD4\(^+\) and CD8\(^+\) T-cell compartments as well as the brain revealed the involvement of T cells in the pathogenicity of this disease. Many clonal expansions in the brain matched CD8\(^+\) T-cell expansions in the periphery on the sequence level. These putatively pathogenic clones could be visualized by immunohistochemistry in the brain and were found in close proximity to astrocytes and neurons. Additionally, the expanded clones could be found in the periphery of patients for at least one year.
Glucocorticoids (GCs) are small lipophilic compounds that mediate a plethora of biological effects by binding to the intracellular glucocorticoid receptor (GR) which, in turn, translocates to the nucleus and directly or indirectly regulates gene transcription. GCs remain the cornerstone in the treatment for a number of hematological malignancies, including leukemia, lymphoma and myeloma. Extensive literature suggests that the efficacy of GCs stems from their ability to mediate apoptosis. Despite the enormous strides made in our understanding of regulated cell death, the exact mechanism by which GCs cause apoptosis is still unknown. The data obtained so far provide strong evidence that gene transactivation by the GR underlies the initiation phase of GC-induced thymocyte apoptosis. Furthermore, the multicatalytic proteasome, several members of the Bcl-2 family, changes in calcium flux as well as caspases have been identified as important players in the execution phase of GC-mediated cell death. However, the exact sequence of events in this process still remains elusive. A major problem of the current discussion arises from the fact that different cell types, such as thymocytes, peripheral T cells and lymphoma cells are compared without acknowledging their different characteristics and gene expression profiles. Although it is generally assumed that GCs induce apoptosis via a conserved mechanism, this is not supported by any data. In other words, it is possible that thymocytes, peripheral T cells and lymphoma cells may undergo cell death along different pathways. We therefore wondered whether a unique signal transduction pathway is engaged by GCs to initiate and execute cell death in all types of T lymphocytes or whether distinct pathways exist. Therefore, we compared the role of the proteasome, various caspases, the lysosomal compartment and other factors in GC-induced apoptosis of murine thymocytes and peripheral T cells as well as T-ALL lymphoma cells. Our findings show that the initiation phase of GC-induced apoptosis is similar irrespective of the differentiation state of the cell. Apoptosis in both thymocytes and peripheral T cells is mediated by the GR and depends on gene transcription. In contrast, the execution phase significantly differs between thymocyte and peripheral T cells in its requirement for a number of signal transduction components. Whilst in thymocytes, the proteasome, caspases 3, 8 and 9 as well as cathepsin B play an important role in GC-induced apoptosis, these factors are dispensable for the induction of cell death in peripheral T cells. In contrast, changes in the expression and intracellular location of Bcl-2 family members do not appear to contribute to GC-induced apoptosis in either cell type. Importantly, our observation that GC treatment of thymocytes leads to an activation of the lysosomal protease cathepsin B and that this is an essential step in the induction of cell death by GCs, is the first indication that a lysosomal amplification loop is involved in this process. Analysis of GC-induced apoptosis in several T-ALL cell lines further indicates that the signaling pathway induced by GCs in thymocytes but not in peripheral T cells is shared by all lymphoma cell-types analyzed. Given the therapeutic importance of high-dose GC-therapy for the treatment of hematological malignancies, this finding could potentially form a basis for new anti-cancer strategies in the future, which specifically target tumor cells whilst leaving peripheral T cells of patients untouched.
The defense against invading pathogens is, amongst other things, mediated via the action of antibodies. Class-switched antibodies and antibodies of high affinity are produced by plasma cells descending from germinal center B (GCB) cells. GCB cells develop in the germinal center (GC), a specialized microstructure found in the B-cell follicle of secondary lymphoid organs. GCB-cell maturation and proliferation are supported by follicular T- helper (Tfh) cells. On the other hand, follicular regulatory T (Tfr) cells control this process in quantity and quality preventing, for instance, the formation of autoantibodies directed against endogenous structures. The development of GCB, Tfh and Tfr cells essentially depends on the migration into the GC, which is mediated via the expression of the chemokine receptor CXCR5.
One transcription factor highly expressed in follicular T cells, comprising Tfh and Tfr cells, is NFATc1. Tfr cells additionally express the transcriptional repressor Blimp-1, which is not expressed in Tfh cells. We found that NFATc1 is transactivating Cxcr5 via response elements in the promoter and enhancer in vitro. Blimp-1 binds to the same elements, transactivating Cxcr5 expression in cooperation with NFATc1, whilst mediating Cxcr5- repression on its own. In Tfr cells Blimp-1 suppresses CXCR5 expression in the absence of NFATc1. Blimp-1 itself is necessary to restrict Tfr-cell frequencies and to mediate Tfr- cell function as in mice with Blimp-1-ablated Tregs high frequencies of Tfr cells do not reduce GCB- or Tfh cell frequencies. NFATc1 and Blimp-1 double deficient Tfr cells show additional loss of function, which becomes visible in clearly expanded antibody titers.
To evaluate the function of NFATc1 in Tfr cells, we not only deleted it, but also overexpressed a constitutive active form of NFATc1/aA (caNFATc1/aA) in regulatory T cells (Tregs). The latter is leading to an upregulation of CXCR5 per cell, without changing Tfh or Tfr-cell frequencies. However, the high density of surface CXCR5 enhances the migration of Tfr cells deep into the GC, which results in a tighter control of the antigen- specific humoral immune response. Additionally, caNFATc1/aA increases the expression of genes coding for Tfr effector molecules like Il1rn, Il10, Tigit and Ctla4. Interestingly, this part of the transcriptional change is dependent on the presence of Blimp-1. Furthermore, Blimp-1 regulates the expression of multiple chemokine receptor genes on the background of caNFATc1/aA.
In contrast, when caNFATc1/aA is overexpressed in all T cells, the frequencies of Tfh- and GCB cells are dominantly reduced. This effect seems to stem from the conventional T- cell (Tcon) side, most probably originating from increased secretion of interleukin-2 (IL- 2) via the caNFATc1/aA overexpressing Tcons. IL-2 is known to hinder the germinal center reaction (GCR) and it might in its abundance not be neutralizable by Tfr cells.
Taken together, NFATc1 and Blimp-1 cooperate to control the migration of Tfr cells into the GC. Tfr cells in the GC depend on NFATc1 and Blimp-1 to perform their proper function. Overexpression of caNFATc1 in Tregs strengthens Tfr function in a Blimp-1-dependent manner, whilst overexpression of caNFATc1 in all T cells dominantly diminishes the GCR.