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Ischemia-reperfusion injury (I/R injury) is a common complication in ischemic stroke (IS) treatment, which is characterized by a paradoxical perpetuation of tissue damage despite the successful re-establishment of vascular perfusion. This phenomenon is known to be facilitated by the detrimental interplay of platelets and inflammatory cells at the vascular interface. However, the spatio-temporal and molecular mechanisms underlying these cellular interactions and their contribution to infarct progression are still incompletely understood. Therefore, this study intended to clarify the temporal mechanisms of infarct growth after cerebral vessel recanalization. The data presented here could show that infarct progression is driven by early blood-brain-barrier perturbation and is independent of secondary thrombus formation. Since previous studies unravelled the secretion of platelet granules as a molecular mechanism of how platelets contribute to I/R injury, special emphasis was placed on the role of platelet granule secretion in the process of barrier dysfunction. By combining an in vitro approach with a murine IS model, it could be shown that platelet α-granules exerted endothelial-damaging properties, whereas their absence (NBEAL2-deficiency) translated into improved microvascular integrity. Hence, targeting platelet α-granules might serve as a novel treatment option to reduce vascular integrity loss and diminish infarct growth despite recanalization.
Recent evidence revealed that pathomechanisms underlying I/R injury are already instrumental during large vessel occlusion. This indicates that penumbral tissue loss under occlusion and I/R injury during reperfusion share an intertwined relationship. In accordance with this notion, human observational data disclosed the presence of a neutrophil dominated immune response and local platelet activation and secretion, by the detection of the main components of platelet α-granules, within the secluded vasculature of IS patients. These initial observations of immune cells and platelets could be further expanded within this thesis by flow cytometric analysis of local ischemic blood samples. Phenotyping of immune cells disclosed a yet unknown shift in the lymphocyte population towards CD4+ T cells and additionally corroborated the concept of an immediate intravascular immune response that is dominated by granulocytes. Furthermore, this thesis provides first-time evidence for the increased appearance of platelet-leukocyte-aggregates within the secluded human vasculature. Thus, interfering with immune cells and/or platelets already under occlusion might serve as a potential strategy to diminish infarct expansion and ameliorate clinical outcome after IS.
Dynamic interactions and their changes are at the forefront of current research in bioinformatics and systems biology. This thesis focusses on two particular dynamic aspects of cellular adaptation: miRNA and metabolites.
miRNAs have an established role in hematopoiesis and megakaryocytopoiesis, and platelet miRNAs have potential as tools for understanding basic mechanisms of platelet function. The thesis highlights the possible role of miRNAs in regulating protein translation in platelet lifespan with relevance to platelet apoptosis and identifying involved pathways and potential key regulatory molecules. Furthermore, corresponding miRNA/target mRNAs in murine platelets are identified. Moreover, key miRNAs involved in aortic aneurysm are predicted by similar techniques. The clinical relevance of miRNAs as biomarkers, targets, resulting later translational therapeutics, and tissue specific restrictors of genes expression in cardiovascular diseases is also discussed.
In a second part of thesis we highlight the importance of scientific software solution development in metabolic modelling and how it can be helpful in bioinformatics tool development along with software feature analysis such as performed on metabolic flux analysis applications. We proposed the “Butterfly” approach to implement efficiently scientific software programming. Using this approach, software applications were developed for quantitative Metabolic Flux Analysis and efficient Mass Isotopomer Distribution Analysis (MIDA) in metabolic modelling as well as for data management. “LS-MIDA” allows easy and efficient MIDA analysis and, with a more powerful algorithm and database, the software “Isotopo” allows efficient analysis of metabolic flows, for instance in pathogenic bacteria (Salmonella, Listeria). All three approaches have been published (see Appendices).
A subtly regulated and controlled course of cellular processes is essential for the healthy functioning not only of single cells, but also of organs being constituted thereof. In return, this entails the proper functioning of the whole organism. This implies a complex intra- and inter-cellular communication and signal processing that require equally multi-faceted methods to describe and investigate the underlying processes. Within the scope of this thesis, mathematical modeling of cellular signaling finds its application in the analysis of cellular processes and signaling cascades in different organisms. ...
Studies on receptor signaling and regulation in platelets and T cells from genetically modified mice
(2014)
Receptors with tyrosine-based signaling motifs control essential functions of hematopoietic cells, including lymphocytes and platelets. Downstream of the platelet receptor glycoprotein (GP) VI and the T cell receptor (TCR) the immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activation motif (ITAM) initiates a signaling cascade that involves kinases, adapter and effector proteins and finally leads to cellular activation. This thesis summarizes the results of three studies investigating different aspects of receptor signaling and regulation in platelets and T cells.
In the first part, the impact of constitutive Ca2+ influx on TCR signaling and T cell physiology was investigated using a transgenic mouse line with a mutation in the Ca2+ sensor stromal interaction molecule 1 (STIM1). The elevated cytoplasmic Ca2+ level resulted in an altered phosphorylation pattern of the key enzyme phospholipase (PL) Cγ1 in response to TCR stimulation, but without affecting its enzymatic activity. Withdrawal of extracellular Ca2+ or inhibition of the phosphatase calcineurin restored the normal phosphorylation pattern. In addition, there was a decrease in the release of Th2-type cytokines interleukin 4, 5 and 13 upon stimulation in vitro.
The second part of the thesis deals with the role of the adapter protein growth factor receptor-bound protein 2 (Grb2) in platelets using a megakaryocyte/platelet-specific knockout mouse line. Loss of Grb2 severely impaired signaling of GPVI and C-type lectin-like receptor 2 (CLEC-2), a related hemITAM receptor. This was attributed to defective stabilization of the linker for activation of T cells (LAT) signalosome and resulted in reduced adhesion, aggregation, Ca2+ mobilization and procoagulant activity downstream of (hem)ITAM-coupled receptors in vitro. In contrast, the signaling pathways of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) and the integrin αIIbβ3, which do not utilize the LAT signalosome, were unaffected. In vivo, the defective (hem)ITAM signaling caused prolonged bleeding times, however, thrombus formation was only affected under conditions where GPCR signaling was impaired (upon acetylsalicylic acid treatment). These results establish Grb2 as an important adapter protein in the propagation of GPVI- and CLEC-2-induced signals.
Finally, the proteolytic regulation of the immunoreceptor tyrosine-based switch motif (ITSM)-bearing receptor CD84 in platelets was investigated. This study demonstrated that in mice CD84 is cleaved by two distinct and independent proteolytic mechanisms upon platelet activation: shedding of the extracellular part, which is exclusively mediated by a disintegrin and metalloproteinase (ADAM) 10 and cleavage of the intracellular C-terminus by the protease calpain. Finally, the analysis of soluble CD84 levels in the plasma of transgenic mice revealed that shedding of CD84 by ADAM10 occurs constitutively in vivo.
Maintenance of tumor vasculature integrity is indispensable for tumor growth and thus affects tumor progression. Previous studies have identified platelets as major regulators of tumor vascular integrity, as their depletion selectively renders tumor vessels highly permeable, causing massive intratumoral hemorrhage. While these results establish platelets as potential targets for anti-tumor therapy, depletion is not a treatment option due to the essential role of platelets for hemostasis. This thesis demonstrates for the first time that functional inhibition of glycoprotein (GP) VI on the platelet surface rapidly induces tumor hemorrhage and diminishes tumor growth similar to complete platelet depletion but without inducing systemic bleeding complications. Both, the intratumoral bleeding and tumor growth arrest could be reverted by depletion of Ly6G+ cells confirming them to be responsible for the induction of bleeding and necrosis within the tumor. In addition, GPVI inhibition increased intra-tumoral accumulation of co-administered chemotherapeutic agents, thereby resulting in a profound anti-tumor effect. In summary, this thesis manifests platelet GPVI as a key regulator of vascular integrity specifically in growing tumors, serving as a potential basis for the development of anti-tumor strategies.
In the second part of this thesis, light is shed on the modulating role of bridging integrator 2 (BIN2) in platelet Ca2+ signaling. Stromal interaction molecule 1 (STIM1) mediated store-operated calcium entry (SOCE) is the major route of Ca2+ influx in platelets, triggered by inositol trisphosphate receptor (IP3R)-dependent Ca2+ store release. In this thesis, the BAR domain superfamily member BIN2 was identified as the first Ca2+ signaling modulator, interacting with both, STIM1 and IP3R in platelets. Deletion of BIN2 resulted in reduced Ca2+ store release and Ca2+ influx in response to all tested platelet agonists. These defects were a consequence of impaired IP3R function in combination with defective STIM1-mediated SOC channel activation, while Ca2+ store content and agonist-induced IP3 production were unaltered. These results establish BIN2 as a central regulator of platelet Ca2+ signaling.
The third part of this thesis focuses on the effect of the soluble neuronal guidance protein Sema7A on platelet function. Rosenberger et al. discovered that Sema7A cleavage from red blood cells increases the formation of platelet-neutrophil complexes, thereby reinforcing thrombo-inflammation in myocardial ischemia-reperfusion injury (MIRI). This thesis establishes soluble Sema7A as a stimulator of platelet thrombus formation via its interaction with platelet GPIbα, thereby reinforcing PNC formation. Thus, interfering with the GPIb-Sema7A interaction during MIRI represents a potential strategy to reduce cardiac damage and improve clinical outcome following MI.
Function and regulation of phospholipase D in blood platelets: in vitro and in vivo studies in mice
(2014)
Summary
Platelet activation and aggregation are crucial for primary hemostasis but can also result in occlusive thrombus formation. Agonist induced platelet activation involves different signaling pathways leading to the activation of phospholipases (PL) which produce second messengers. While the role of PLCs in platelet activation is well established, less is known about the relevance of PLDs. In the current study, the function and regulation of PLD in platelets was investigated using genetic and pharmacological approaches.
In the first part of this thesis, adhesion, activation and aggregation of platelets from mice lacking PLD2 or both PLD1 and PLD2 were analyzed in vitro and in vivo. While the absence of PLD2 resulted in slightly reduced PLD activity in platelets, it had no detectable effect on the platelet function in vitro and in vivo. However, the combined deficiency of both PLD isoforms resulted in defective alpha-granule release and protection in a model of ferric chloride induced arteriolar thrombosis, effects that were not observed in mice lacking only one PLD isoform. These results revealed, for the first time, redundant roles of PLD1 and PLD2 in platelet alpha-granule secretion and indicate that this may be relevant for pathological thrombus formation. Thus, PLD might represent a promising target for antithrombotic therapy.
Thus, this hypothesis was tested more directly in the second part of this thesis. The effects of pharmacological inhibition of PLD activity on hemostasis, thrombosis and thrombo-inflammatory brain infarction in mice were assessed. Treatment of platelets with the reversible, small molecule PLD inhibitor 5-Fluoro-2-indolyl des-chlorohalopemide (FIPI) led to a specific blockade of PLD activity that was associated with reduced -granule release and integrin activation. Mice that received FIPI at a dose of 3 mg/kg displayed reduced occlusive thrombus formation upon chemical injury of carotid arteries or mesenterial arterioles. Similarly, FIPI-treated mice had smaller infarct sizes and significantly better motor and neurological function 24 hours after transient middle cerebral artery occlusion. This protective effect was not associated with major intracerebral hemorrhage or prolonged tail bleeding times. Thus, pharmacological PLD inhibition might represent a safe therapeutic strategy to prevent arterial thrombosis or ischemic stroke.
After revealing a central role for PLD in thrombo-inflammation, the regulation of PLD activity in platelets was analyzed in the last part of the thesis. Up to date, most studies made use of inhibitors potentially exerting off-target effects and consequently PLD regulation is discussed controversially. Therefore, PLD activity in mice genetically lacking potential modulators of PLD activity was determined to address these controversies. These studies revealed that PLD is tightly regulated during initial platelet activation. While integrin outside-in signaling and Gi signaling was dispensable for PLD activation, it was found that PLC dependent pathways were relevant for the regulation of PLD enzyme activity.
Platelets are continuously produced from megakaryocytes (MK) in the bone marrow by a cytoskeleton-driven process of which the molecular regulation is not fully understood.
As revealed in this thesis, MK/ platelet-specific Profilin1 (Pfn1) deficiency results in micro- thrombocytopenia, a hallmark of the Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome (WAS) in humans, due to accelerated platelet turnover and premature platelet release into the bone marrow. Both Pfn1-deficient mouse platelets and platelets isolated from WAS patients contained abnormally organized and hyper-stable microtubules. These results reveal an unexpected function of Pfn1 as a regulator of microtubule organization and point to a previously unrecognized mechanism underlying the platelet formation defect in WAS patients.
In contrast, Twinfilin2a (Twf2a) was established as a central regulator of platelet reactivity and turnover. Twf2a-deficient mice revealed an age-dependent macrothrombocytopenia that could be explained by a markedly decreased platelet half-life, likely due to the pronounced hyper-reactivity of \(Twf2a^{-/-}\) platelets. The latter was characterized by sustained integrin acti- vation and thrombin generation in vitro that translated into accelerated thrombus formation in vivo. To further elucidate mechanisms of integrin activation, Rap1-GTP-interacting adaptor molecule (RIAM)-null mice were generated. Despite the proposed critical role of RIAM for platelet integrin activation, no alterations in this process could be found and it was concluded that RIAM is dispensable for the activation of β1 and β3 integrins, at least in platelets. These findings change the current mechanistic understanding of platelet integrin activation.
Outside-in signaling by integrins and other surface receptors was supposed to regulate MK migration, but also the temporal and spatial formation of proplatelet protrusions. In this the- sis, phospholipase D (PLD) was revealed as critical regulator of actin dynamics and podo- some formation in MKs. Hence, the unaltered platelet counts and production in \(Pld1/2^{-/-}\) mice and the absence of a premature platelet release in the bone marrow of \(Itga2^{-/-}\) mice question the role of podosomes in platelet production and raise the need to reconsider the proposed inhibitory signaling by α2β1 integrins on proplatelet formation.
Non-muscle myosin IIA (NMMIIA) has been implicated as a downstream effector of the in- hibitory signals transmitted via α2β1 integrins. Besides Rho-GTPase signaling, also \(Mg^{2+}\) and transient receptor potential melastatin-like 7 (TRPM7) channel α-kinase are known regulators of NMMIIA activity. In this thesis, TRPM7 was identified as major regulator of \(Mg^{2+}\) homeostasis in MKs and platelets. Furthermore, decreased \([Mg^{2+}]_i\) led to deregulated NMMIIA activity and altered cytoskeletal dynamics that impaired thrombopoiesis and resulted in macrothrombocytopenia in humans and mice.
Platelets are crucial to inhibit extensive blood loss at sites of vascular injury. However, under pathological conditions such as rupture of an atherosclerotic plaque, activated platelets form aggregates that may occlude the vessel. This can lead to heart attack and stroke. Various and complex signaling pathways in the cell are involved in the steps of platelet adhesion, activation and aggregation. Single aspects of these processes were studied in three different subprojects in this work. The Glycoprotein (GP) Ib-V-IX complex is responsible for the first contact of platelets with the vessel wall. Subsequently, GPVI can bind to collagen of the subendothelium, which initiates a signaling cascade leading to platelet activation, aggregation, characterized by integrin activation and granule secretion and platelet procoagulant activity. The latter is characterized by exposed phosphatidylserine (PS) on the platelet surface, which enhances thrombin generation and thereby the coagulation cascade. A controlled regulation of GP receptors on the platelet surface is vital for an intact response of the cell to platelet agonists. In the first subproject described here the regulation of GPV and GPVI on mouse platelets was investigated and it was found that both receptors are shed from the platelet surface in a metalloproteinase dependent manner. However, GPVI is shed upon mitochondrial injury, while GPV cleavage could be observed upon platelet stimulation. The metalloproteinase responsible for GPVI shedding remains unknown whereas the metallproteinase that sheds GPV was identified in this work as being ADAM17. This shows that the expression of both receptors underlies a controlled mechanism regulated through distinct metalloproteinases. In the second subproject the role of protein kinase C (PKC) in platelet activation and procoagulant response was investigated using PKC specific inhibitors. It was found that PKC blockage reduced platelet activation but enhanced platelet procoagulant activity. This is the first time that a dual role in platelet activation and procoagulant activity is defined for PKC. In the third project the role of the small GTPase Rac1 in platelet signaling was studied using conditional Rac1 knock out mice. It is reported here that Rac1 lies downstream of GPVI and is involved in integrin activation and cytsolic Ca2+ changes in vitro and platelet adhesion and thrombus formation in vivo. This is the first time that Rac1 is demonstrated to have a pivotal role in GPVI signaling and furthermore points to a novel, unknown pathway downstream of GPVI.
This work summarizes the results of studies on three major aspects of platelet signaling and of the pathogenesis of immune thrombocytopenia. Therefore, this thesis is divided into three parts. i) Platelet activation and subsequent thrombus formation at sites of vascular injury is crucial for normal hemostasis, but it can also trigger myocardial infarction and stroke. The initial capture of flowing platelets to the injured vessel wall is mediated by the interaction of the glycoprotein (GP) Ib-V-IX complex with von Willebrand factor (vWF) immobilized on the exposed subendothelial extracellular matrix (ECM). The central importance of GPIb for platelet adhesion is well established, whereas GPV is generally considered to be of minor relevance for platelet physiology and thrombus formation. This study intended to clarify the relevance of this receptor during thrombus formation using Gp5-/- mice and mice with different double-deficiencies in GPV and in other platelet receptors. It was found that GPV and the collagen receptor integrin a2b1 have partially redundant functions in collagentriggered platelet aggregation. Further, it was revealed that GPV limits thrombus formation and impairs hemostasis in vivo. The data presented here demonstrate that the protective effect of GPVI-deficiency (another platelet collagen receptor) in arterial thrombosis and ischemic stroke depends on the expression of GPV. Moreover, it was demonstrated that lack of GPV restores the hemostatic function of mice lacking both GPVI and a2b1 or mice lacking GPVI and the C-type lectin receptor 2 (CLEC-2). Conclusively, GPV-depletion or blockade might have the potential to treat hemorrhagic disease states. ii) Platelets contain the two phospholipase (PL) D isoforms, PLD1 and PLD2, both of which presumably become activated upon platelet stimulation. However, the function of PLD in the process of platelet activation and aggregation has not been definitively explored. Thus, PLD-deficient mice were analyzed. Mice lacking PLD1 or PLD2 were viable, fertile and had normal platelet counts. PLD1 was found to be responsible for the inducible PLD-activity in platelets and to contribute to efficient integrin activation under static conditions. Moreover, flow adhesion experiments revealed that PLD1 is essential for efficient GPIb-mediated integrin activation. Consequently, Pld1-/- mice were protected from arterial thrombosis and ischemic brain infarction without affecting tail bleeding times. Hence, inhibition of PLD1 might be a novel approach for antithrombotic therapy. iii) Cellular activation of platelets or immune cells results in increased cytosolic calcium (Ca2+) levels. Store-operated calcium entry (SOCE) via the STIM1-Orai1 axis is the main route of Ca2+ entry downstream of immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activating motif (ITAM) receptor stimulation in mast cells and T cells. However, the requirement of Ca2+-mobilization in Fcg receptor (FcgR)-signaling and the relevance of STIM2 for T cell SOCE have been unclear. To address these questions, genetically modified mice lacking central molecules of the SOCE machinery were analyzed. Ca2+-measurements revealed that both STIM isoforms contribute to Ca2+-mobilization downstream of T cell receptor activation. Additionally, it was found that FcgR stimulation results in SOCE and is mediated by STIM1 and probably Orai1. Animal models of immune thrombocytopenia (ITP) revealed that SOCE is essential for platelet clearance and that both STIM isoforms contribute to the pathology of ITP. Moreover, in this work it was also demonstrated that STIM1 and Orai1 are essential in IgG-mediated systemic anaphylaxis. STIM2 contributes to IgG-mediated, but not to IgE-mediated anaphylaxis. The data indicate that interference with SOCE might become a new strategy to prevent or treat IgG-dependent autoimmune diseases.
Platelets, small anucleated blood cells responsible for hemostasis, interact at sights of injury with several exposed extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins through specific receptors. Ligand binding leads to activation, adhesion and aggregation of platelets. Already megakaryocytes (MKs), the immediate precursor cells in bone marrow (BM), are in constant contact to these ECM proteins (ECMP). The interaction of ECMP with MKs is, in contrast to platelets, less well understood. It is therefore important to study how MKs interact with sinusoids via the underlying ECMP. This thesis addresses three major topics to elucidate these interactions and their role in platelet biogenesis.
First, we studied the topology of ECMP within BM and their impact on proplatelet formation (PPF) in vitro. By establishing a four-color immunofluorescence microscopy we localized collagens and other ECMP and determined their degree of contact towards vessels and megakaryocytes (MKs). In in vitro assays we could demonstrate that Col I mediates increased MK adhesion, but inhibits PPF by collagen receptor GPVI. By immunoblot analyses we identified that the signaling events underyling this inhibition are different from those in platelet activation at the Src family kinase level.
Second, we determined the degree of MK-ECM interaction in situ using confocal laser scanning microscopy of four-color IF-stained femora and spleen sections. In transgenic mouse models lacking either of the two major collagen receptors we could show that these mice have an impaired association of MKs to collagens in the BM, while the MK count in spleen increased threefold. This might contribute to the overall unaltered platelet counts in collagen receptor-deficient mice.
In a third approach, we studied how the equilibrium of ECMP within BM is altered after irradiation. Collagen type IV and laminin-α5 subunits were selectively degraded at the sinusoids, while the matrix degrading protease MMP9 was upregulated in MKs. Platelet numbers decreased and platelets became hyporesponsive towards agonists, especially those for GPVI activation.
Taken together, the results indicate that MK-ECM interaction differs substantially from the well-known platelet-ECM signaling. Future work should further elucidate how ECMP can be targeted to ameliorate the platelet production and function defects, especially in patients after BM irradiation.
Platelet activation and aggregation at sites of vascular injury involves massive cytoskeletal re-organization, which is required for proper platelet function. Moreover, the cytoskeleton plays central roles in megakaryo- and thrombopoiesis. Thus, cytoskeletal protein aberrations can be the underlying reason for many pathological phenotypes. Although intensive research is carried out to identify the key players involved in cytoskeletal reorganization, the signaling cascades orchestrating these complex processes are still poorly understood. This thesis investigates the role of three actin-binding proteins, Coactosin-like (Cotl) 1, Profilin (Pfn) 1 and Thymosin (T) β4, in platelet formation and function using genetically modified mice.
ADF-H-containing proteins such as Twinfilin or Cofilin are well characterized as regulators of thrombopoesis and cytoskeletal reorganization. Although Cotl1 belongs to the ADF-H protein family, lack of Cotl1 did not affect platelet count or cytoskeletal dynamics. However, Cotl1-deficiency resulted in significant protection from arterial thrombus formation and ischemic stroke in vivo. Defective GPIb-vWF interactions and altered second wave mediator release present potential reasons for the beneficial effect of Cotl1-deficiency. These results reveal an unexpected function of Cotl1 as a regulator of thrombosis and hemostasis, establishing it as a potential target for a safe therapeutic therapy to prevent arterial thrombosis or ischemic stroke.
Recent studies showed that the organization of the circumferential actin cytoskeleton modulates calpain-mediated αIIbβ3 integrin closure, thereby also controlling αIIbβ3 integrin localization. The second part of this thesis identified the actin-sequestering protein Pfn1 as a central regulator of platelet integrin function as Pfn1-deficient platelets displayed almost abolished αIIbβ3 integrin signaling. This translated into a profound protection from arterial thrombus formation and prolonged tail bleeding times in vivo which was caused by enhanced calpain-dependent integrin closure. These findings further emphasize the importance of a functional actin cytoskeleton for intact platelet function in vitro and in vivo.
Tβ4 is a moonlighting protein, acting as one of the major actin-sequestering proteins in cells of higher eukaryotes and exerting various paracrine functions including anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory and pro-angiogenic effects. Although excessively studied, its role for cytoskeletal dynamics, the distinction between endo- and exogenous protein function and its uptake and release mechanisms are still poorly understood. Constitutive Tβ4-deficiency resulted in thrombocytopenia accompanied by a largely diminished G-actin pool in platelets and divergent effects on platelet reactivity. Pre-incubation of platelets with recombinant Tβ4 will help to understand the function of endo- and exogenous protein, which is under current investigation.
Platelet interaction with the subendothelium is essential to limit blood loss after tissue injury. However, upon rupture of atherosclerotic plaques, this interaction may result in blood vessel occlusion leading to life threatening diseases such as myocardial infarction or stroke. Among the subendothelial matrix proteins, collagen is considered to be the most thrombogenic component as it directly activates platelets. Platelets interact with collagen, either indirectly through glycoprotein (GP) Ib-V-IX receptor complex, or directly through the major collagen receptor on the platelet surface, GPVI. The work presented here focused on studying the cellular regulation of GPVI. In addition, a possible role for GPVI in thrombus formation induced by atherosclerotic plaque material was investigated and it was found that GPVI plays an important role in this process. Using a recently published mitochondrial injury model, it was found that GPVI contains a cleavage site for a platelet-expressed metalloproteinase. Further studies showed that platelet activation by CRP, or thrombin induced down-regulation of GPIb, but not GPVI. In parallel, cellular regulation of GPV was studied and it was found that GPV is cleaved in vitro by the metalloproteinase ADAM17. In previous studies it was shown that injection of mice with the anti-GPVI mAb, JAQ1, induces GPVI down-regulation, which is associated with a strong, but transient, thrombocytopenia. Using new anti-GPVI mAbs, which bind different epitopes on the receptor, it is shown in this study that GPVI down-regulation occurs in an epitope-independent manner. Further experiments showed that antibody treatment induces a transient, but significant increase in bleeding time. Using different genetically modified mice, it is shown that, upon antibody injection, GPVI is both, shed from the platelet surface and internalized into the platelet. Signaling through the immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activation motif (ITAM) of the FcR chain is essential for both processes, while LAT and PLC2 are essential for the shedding process only. Antibody-induced increase in bleeding time and thrombocytopenia were absent in LAT deficient mice, showing that it is possible to uncouple the associated side effects from the down-regulation process. As antibody-induced GPVI internalization still occurs in LAT and PLC2 deficient mice, this suggests a novel signaling pathway downstream of GPVI that has not been described so far.
This work summarizes the results of studies on several major aspects of platelet activation and platelet receptor regulation. Therefore, this thesis is divided into four parts.
Platelet activation and aggregation at sites of vascular injury is critical to prevent excessive blood loss, but may also lead to life-threatening ischemic disease states, such as myocardial infarction and stroke. Agonist-induced elevation in cytosolic Ca2+ concentrations is essential for platelet activation in hemostasis and thrombosis. The principal route of Ca2+ influx in platelets is store-operated calcium entry (SOCE). The calcium sensor molecule stromal interaction molecule 1 (STIM1) regulates SOCE by activating the membrane calcium channel protein Orai1, but the exact mechanisms of this interaction are not fully understood. Using affinity chromatography to screen for STIM1 interacting proteins in platelets, bridging integrator 2 (BIN2), an adapter protein belonging to the family of BAR proteins that is mainly expressed in the hematopoietic system, was identified. Newly generated BIN2 KO mice were viable and fertile but their platelets displayed markedly impaired SOCE in response to thapsigargin (TG) as well as agonists acting on immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activation motif (ITAM) or G protein-coupled receptors. This SOCE defect resulted in impaired (hem)ITAM induced platelet activation, aggregate formation under flow and procoagulant activity. As a consequence, mice lacking BIN2 in platelets were protected from occlusive arterial thrombus formation and thrombo-inflammatory cerebral infarct progression in a model of experimental stroke. These results identify BIN2 as a critical regulator of platelet SOCE in thrombosis and thrombo-inflammatory disease.
Integrin αIIbβ3 plays a central role in the adhesion and aggregation of platelets. Integrin activation requires the transmission of a signal from the small cytoplasmic tails of the α or β
subunit to the large extracellular domains resulting in conformational changes of the extracellular domains to enable ligand binding. It was hypothesized that Hic-5 is a novel regulator of integrin αIIbβ3 activation in mice. As demonstrated in the second part of this thesis, lack of Hic-5 had no detectable effect on platelet integrin activation and function in vitro and in vivo under all tested conditions. These results indicate that Hic-5 is dispensable for integrin αIIbβ3 activation and consequently for arterial thrombosis and hemostasis in mice.
The Rho GTPase family members RhoA and Rac1 play major roles in platelet activation at sites of vascular injury. Little is known about possible redundant functions of these Rho GTPases in regulating platelet function. To investigate functional redundancies of RhoA and Rac1 in platelet production and function, mice with MK- and platelet-specific double- deficiencies in RhoA and Rac1 were generated. RhoA/Rac1 double-deficiency phenocopied the respective single knockouts without any additional effects in the double-knockout animals, demonstrating for the first time a functional non-redundancy of RhoA and Rac1 in platelet function.
Antibodies against platelet glycoproteins (GP) trigger platelet destruction in immune thrombocytopenia (ITP) by binding to Fcγ receptors (FcγRs) on immune cells. However, antibodies against the platelet collagen receptor GPVI exert powerful anti-thrombotic action in vivo by inducing ectodomain shedding of the receptor associated with a transient thrombocytopenia. As shown in the final part of this thesis, blockade or deficiency of the inhibitory FcγRIIB abolished sequestration of anti-GPVI opsonized platelets in the hepatic vasculature and GPVI shedding. This process was mediated by liver sinusoidal endothelial cells (LSEC), the major FcγRIIB expressing cell type in the body. Furthermore, LSEC FcγRIIB mediated hepatic platelet sequestration and contributed to thrombocytopenia in mice treated with antibodies against αIIbβ3, the major target antigen in human ITP. These results reveal a novel and unexpected function of hepatic FcγRIIB in the processing of antibody-opsonized platelets.
Platelet activation induces cytoskeletal rearrangements involving a change from discoid to spheric shape, secretion, and eventually adhesion and spreading on immobilized ligands. Small GTPases of the Rho family, such as Rac1 and Cdc42, are known to be involved in these processes by facilitating the formation of lamellipodia and filopodia, respectively. This thesis focuses on the role Rac1 and Cdc42 for platelet function and formation from their precursor cells, the megakaryocytes (MKs), using conditional knock-out mice. In the first part of the work, the involvement of Rac1 in the activation of the enzyme phospholipase (PL) C2 in the signaling pathway of the major platelet collagen receptor glycoprotein (GP) VI was investigated. It was found that Rac1 is essential for PLC2 activation independently of tyrosine phosphorylation of the enzyme, resulting in a specific platelet activation defect downstream of GPVI, whereas signaling of other activating receptors remains unaffected. Since Rac1-deficient mice were protected from arterial thrombosis in two different in vivo models, the GTPase might serve as a potential target for the development of new drugs for the treatment and prophylaxis of cardio- and cerebrovascular diseases. The second part of the thesis deals with the first characterization of MK- and platelet-specific Cdc42 knock-out mice. Cdc42-deficient mice displayed mild thrombo-cytopenia and platelet production from mutant MKs was markedly reduced. Unexpectedly, Cdc42-deficient platelets showed increased granule content and release upon activation, leading to accelerated thrombus formation in vitro and in vivo. Furthermore, Cdc42 was not generally required for filopodia formation upon platelet activation. Thus, these results indicate that Cdc42, unlike Rac1, is involved in multiple signaling pathways essential for proper platelet formation and function. Finally, the outcome of combined deletion of Rac1 and Cdc42 was studied. In contrast to single deficiency of either GTPase, platelet production from double-deficient MKs was virtually abrogated, resulting in dramatic macrothrombocytopenia in the animals. Formed platelets were largely non-functional leading to a severe hemostatic defect and defective thrombus formation in double-deficient mice in vivo. These results demonstrate for the first time a functional redundancy of Rac1 and Cdc42 in the hematopoietic system.
Systems biology looks for emergent system effects from large scale assemblies of molecules and data, for instance in the human platelets. However, the computational efforts in all steps before such insights are possible can hardly be under estimated. In practice this involves numerous programming tasks, the establishment of new database systems but as well their maintenance, curation and data validation. Furthermore, network insights are only possible if strong algorithms decipher the interactions, decoding the hidden system effects. This thesis and my work are all about these challenges. To answer this requirement, an integrated platelet network, PlateletWeb, was assembled from different sources and further analyzed for signaling in a systems biological manner including multilevel data integration and visualization. PlateletWeb is an integrated network database and was established by combining the data from recent platelet proteome and transcriptome (SAGE) studies. The information on protein-protein interactions and kinase-substrate relationships extracted from bioinformatical databases as well as published literature were added to this resource. Moreover, the mass spectrometry-based platelet phosphoproteome was combined with site-specific phosphorylation/ dephosphorylation information and then enhanced with data from Phosphosite and complemented by bioinformatical sequence analysis for site-specific kinase predictions. The number of catalogued platelet proteins was increased by over 80% as compared to the previous version. The integration of annotations on kinases, protein domains, transmembrane regions, Gene Ontology, disease associations and drug targets provides ample functional tools for platelet signaling analysis. The PlateletWeb resource provides a novel systems biological workbench for the analysis of platelet signaling in the functional context of protein networks. By comprehensive exploration, over 15000 phosphorylation sites were found, out of which 2500 have the corresponding kinase associations. The network motifs were also investigated in this anucleate cell and characterize signaling modules based on integrated information on phosphorylation and protein-protein interactions. Furthermore, many algorithmic approaches have been introduced, including an exact approach (heinz) based on integer linear programming. At the same time, the concept of semantic similarities between two genes using Gene Ontology (GO) annotations has become an important basis for many analytical approaches in bioinformatics. Assuming that a higher number of semantically similar gene functional annotations reflect biologically more relevant interactions, an edge score was devised for functional network analysis. Bringing these two approaches together, the edge score, based on the GO similarity, and the node score, based on the expression of the proteins in the analyzed cell type (e.g. data from proteomic studies), the functional module as a maximum-scoring sub network in large protein-protein interaction networks was identified. This method was applied to various proteome datasets (different types of blood cells, embryonic stem cells) to identify protein modules that functionally characterize the respective cell type. This scalable method allows a smooth integration of data from various sources and retrieves biologically relevant signaling modules.
Megakaryocytes (MKs) are the largest cells of the hematopoietic system and the precursor cells of platelets. During proplatelet formation (PPF) bone marrow (BM) MKs extent large cytoplasmic protrusions into the lumen of sinusoidal blood vessels. Under homeostatic conditions PPF occurs exclusively in the direction of the sinusoid, while platelet generation into the marrow cavity is prevented. So far, the mechanisms regulating this process in vivo are still not completely understood, especially when PPF is deregulated during disease. This thesis investigated the mechanisms of PPF in native BM and after myeloablation by total body irradiation (TBI).
First, we have identified a specialized type of BM stromal cells, so called CXCL12-abundant reticular (CAR) cells, as novel possible regulators of PPF. By using complementary high-resolution microscopy techniques, we have studied the morphogenetic events at the MK/vessel wall interface in new detail, demonstrating that PPF formation preferentially occurs at CAR cell-free sites at the endothelium.
In the second part of this thesis, we analyzed the processes leading to BM remodeling in response to myeloablation by TBI. We used confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) to study the kinetic of radiation-triggered vasodilation and mapped extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins after TBI. We could demonstrate that collagen type IV and laminin α5 are specifically degraded at BM sinusoids. At the radiation-injured vessel wall we observed ectopic release of platelet-like particles into the marrow cavity concomitantly to aberrant CAR cell morphology, suggesting that the balance of factors regulating PPF is disturbed after TBI. ECM proteolysis is predominantly mediated by the matrix metalloproteinase MMP9, as revealed by gelatin-zymography and by a newly established BM in situ zymography technique. In transgenic mice lacking MMP9 vascular recovery was delayed, hinting towards a role of MMP9 in vessel reconstitution after myeloablation.
In a third series of experiments, we studied the irradiated BM in the context of hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT). By using mice as BM donors that ubiquitously express the fluorescent reporter protein dsRed we tracked engraftment of donor cells and especially MKs in the recipient BM. We found a distinct engraftment pattern and cluster formation for MKs, which is different from other blood cell lineages.
Finally, we assessed platelet function after TBI and HSCT and were the first to demonstrate that platelets become massively hyporeactive, particularly upon stimulation of the collagen receptor GPVI.
In summary, our findings shed light on the processes of PPF during health and disease which will help to develop treatments for aberrant thrombopoiesis.
Platelets are important players in haemostasis and their activation is essential to limit post-traumatic blood loss upon vessel injury. On the other hand, pathological platelet activation may lead to thrombosis resulting in myocardial infarction and stroke. Platelet activation and subsequent thrombus formation are, therefore, tightly regulated and require a well-defined interplay of platelet surface receptors, intracellular signalling molecules, cytoskeletal rearrangements and the activation of the coagulation cascade.
In vivo thrombosis and haemostasis models mimic thrombus formation at sites of vascular lesions and are frequently used to assess thrombotic and haemostatic functions of platelets. In this dissertation, different in vivo models were used in mice to address the question at what level a reduced platelet count (PC) compromises stable thrombus formation. To study this, mice were rendered thrombocytopenic by low-dose anti-GPIbα antibody treatment and subjected to a tail bleeding time assay as well as to four different in vivo thrombosis models. Haemostasis and occlusive thrombus formation in small vessels were only mildly affected even at severe reductions of the PC. In contrast, occlusive thrombus formation in larger arteries required higher PCs demonstrating that considerable differences in the sensitivity for PC reductions exist between these models.
In a second part of this study, mice were rendered thrombocytopenic by injection of high-dose anti-GPIbα antibody which led to the complete loss of all platelets from the circulation for several days. During recovery from thrombocytopenia, the newly generated platelet population was characterised and revealed a defect in immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activation motif (ITAM)-signalling. This defect translated into impaired arterial thrombus formation.
To further investigate ITAM-signalling in vivo, genetically modified mice were analysed which display a positive or negative regulation of platelet ITAM-signalling in vitro. Whereas mice lacking the adapter Grb2 in platelets showed a delayed thrombus formation in vivo after acetylsalicylic acid treatment, Clp36ΔLIM bone marrow chimeric mice and SLAP/SLAP2-deficient mice displayed pro-thrombotic properties in vivo. Finally, mice lacking the adapter protein EFhd2 were analysed in vitro and in vivo. However, EFhd2-deficient platelets showed only a minor increase in the procoagulant activity compared to control.
Platelet activation and adhesion results in thrombus formation that is essential for normal hemostasis, but can also cause irreversible vessel occlusion leading to myocardial infarction or stroke. The C-type lectin-like receptor 2 (CLEC-2) was recently identified to be expressed on the platelet surface, however, a role for this receptor in hemostasis and thrombosis had not been demonstrated. In the current study, the involvement of CLEC-2 in platelet function and thrombus formation was investigated using mice as a model system. In the first part of the thesis, it was found that treatment of mice with a newly generated monoclonal antibody against murine CLEC-2 (INU1) led to the complete and highly specific loss of the receptor in circulating platelets (a process termed “immunodepletion”). CLEC-2-deficient platelets were completely unresponsive to the CLEC-2-specific agonist rhodocytin, whereas activation induced by all other tested agonists was unaltered. This selective defect translated into severely decreased platelet aggregate formation under flow ex vivo; and in vivo thrombosis models revealed impaired stabilization of formed thrombi with enhanced embolization. Consequently, CLEC-2 deficiency profoundly protected mice from occlusive arterial thrombus formation. Furthermore, variable bleeding times in INU1-treated mice indicated a moderate hemostatic defect. This reveals for the first time that CLEC-2 significantly contributes to thrombus stability in vitro and in vivo and plays a crucial role in hemostasis and arterial thrombosis. Thus, CLEC-2 represents a potential novel anti-thrombotic target that can be functionally inactivated in vivo. This in vivo down-regulation of platelet surface receptors might be a promising approach for future anti-thrombotic therapy. The second part of the work investigated the effect of double-immunodepletion of the immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activation motif (ITAM)- and hemITAM-coupled receptors, platelet glycoprotein (GP) VI and CLEC-2, on hemostasis and thrombosis using a combination of the GPVI- and CLEC-2-specific antibodies, JAQ1 and INU1, respectively. Isolated targeting of either GPVI or CLEC-2 in vivo did not affect expression or function of the respective other receptor. However, simultaneous treatment with both antibodies resulted in the sustained loss of GPVI and CLEC-2 signaling in platelets, while leaving other activation pathways intact. In contrast to single deficiency of either receptor, GPVI/CLEC-2 double-deficient mice displayed a dramatic hemostatic defect. Furthermore, this treatment resulted in profound impairment of arterial thrombus formation that far exceeded the effects seen in single-depleted animals. Importantly, similar results were obtained in Gp6-/- mice that were depleted of CLEC-2 by INU1-treatment, demonstrating that this severe bleeding phenotype was not caused by secondary effects of combined antibody treatment. These data suggest that GPVI and CLEC-2 can be independently or simultaneously down-regulated in platelets in vivo and reveal an unexpected functional redundancy of the two receptors in hemostasis and thrombosis. Since GPVI and CLEC-2 have intensively been discussed as potential anti-thrombotic targets, these results may have important implications for the development of novel, yet save anti-GPVI or anti-CLEC-2-based therapies.
Platelets are anucleated cell fragments derived from megakaryocytes. They play a fundamental role in hemostasis, but there is rising evidence that they are also involved in immunological processes. Despite absence of a nucleus, human platelets are capable of de novo protein synthesis and contain a fully functional proteasome system, which is, in nucleated cells, involved in processes like cell cycle progression or apoptosis by its ability of protein degradation. The physiological significance of the proteasome system in human platelets is not yet fully understood and subject of ongoing research.
Therefore, this study was conducted with the intention to outline the role of the proteasome system for functional characteristics of human platelets. For experimentation, citrated whole blood from healthy donors was obtained and preincubated with proteasome inhibitors. In addition to the commonly used bortezomib, the potent and selective proteasome inhibitor carfilzomib was selected as a second inhibitor to rule out agent-specific effects and to confirm that observed changes are related to proteasome inhibition.
Irreversibly induced platelet activation and aggregation were not affected by proteasome blockade with bortezomib up to 24 hours. Conversely, proteasome inhibition led to enhanced threshold aggregation and agglutination up to 25 %, accompanied by partial alleviation of induced VASP phosphorylation of approximately 10-15 %. Expression of different receptors were almost unaffected. Instead, a significant increase of PP2A activity was observable in platelets after proteasome blockade, accompanied by facilitated platelet adhesion to coated surfaces in static experiments or flow chamber experiments.
Carfilzomib, used for the first time in functional experimentation with human platelets in vitro, led to a dose-dependent decrease of proteasome activity with accumulation of poly ubiquitylated proteins. Like bortezomib, carfilzomib treatment resulted in enhanced threshold aggregation with attenuated VASP phosphorylation.
As the main conclusion of this thesis, proteasome inhibition enhances the responsiveness of human platelets, provided by an alleviation of platelet inhibitory pathways and by an additional increase of PP2A activity, resulting in facilitated platelet adhesion under static and flow conditions. The proteasome system appears to be involved in the promotion of inhibitory counterregulation in platelets. The potential of proteasome inhibitors for triggering thromboembolic adverse events in patients must be clarified in further studies, in addition to their possible use for targeting platelet function to improve the hemostatic reactivity of platelets.
The pancreas is the key organ for the maintenance of euglycemia. This is regulated in particular by α-cell-derived glucagon and β-cell-derived insulin, which are released in response to nutrient deficiency and elevated glucose levels, respectively. Although glucose is the main regulator of insulin secretion, it is significantly enhanced by various potentiators.
Platelets are anucleate cell fragments in the bloodstream that are essential for hemostasis to prevent and stop bleeding events. Besides their classical role, platelets were implemented to be crucial for other physiological and pathophysiological processes, such as cancer progression, immune defense, and angiogenesis. Platelets from diabetic patients often present increased reactivity and basal activation. Interestingly, platelets store and release several substances that have been reported to potentiate insulin secretion by β-cells. For these reasons, the impact of platelets on β-cell functioning was investigated in this thesis.
Here it was shown that both glucose and a β-cell-derived substance/s promote platelet activation and binding to collagen. Additionally, platelet adhesion specifically to the microvasculature of pancreatic islets was revealed, supporting the hypothesis of their influence on glucose homeostasis. Genetic or pharmacological ablation of platelet functioning and platelet depletion consistently resulted in reduced insulin secretion and associated glucose intolerance. Further, the platelet-derived lipid fraction was found to enhance glucose-stimulated insulin secretion, with 20-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (20-HETE) and possibly also lyso-precursor of platelet-activating factor (lysoPAF) being identified as crucial factors. However, the acute platelet-stimulated insulin secretion was found to decline with age, as did the levels of platelet-derived 20-HETE. In addition to their direct stimulatory effect on insulin secretion, specific defects in platelet activation have also been shown to affect glucose homeostasis by potentially influencing islet vascular development. Taking together, the results of this thesis suggest a direct and indirect mechanism of platelets in the regulation of insulin secretion that ensures glucose homeostasis, especially in young individuals.