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In this project two novel murine autoimmune models were to be established in an attempt to further investigate the nervous system disorders of Multiple Sclerosis and Guillain Barré Syndrome. Previous experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) and experimental autoimmune neuritis (EAN) models have demonstrated that T cells play a major role in these diseases. Which roles CD4 and CD8 T cells specifically have in the initiation, propagation and termination of an autoimmune nervous system disorder remains controversial. To this end two transgenic mice specifically expressing the neo-antigen (Ag) ovalbumin (OVA) in either the central nervous system (CNS) or peripheral nervous system (PNS) were to be generated. The myelin basic protein (MBP) is a major component of the myelin sheath both within the CNS and the PNS. Therefore the MBP promoter was employed for its distinct regulatory elements to facilitate exclusive CNS or PNS OVA expression. The adoptive transfer of OVA specific MHCI restricted (OT-I) and MHCII restricted (OT-II) TCR Tg T cells extended the OVA Tg mouse model by allowing potentially encephalitogenic T cells to be tracked in vivo. Specificity for the target Ag should enable the dynamic role of antigen specific T cells in neuroinflammatory diseases to be revealed in more detail.
Spreds are a new Sprouty-related family of membrane-associated proteins inhibiting the MAPK signaling pathway by interacting with Ras and Raf-1. Different studies have already demonstrated the inhibitory function of Spreds in cell culture systems, but the in vivo function of Spreds in the whole organism was still unclear. Therefore, Spred-2 knockout mice were generated using a gene trap approach. The Spred-2 deficiency was verified on RNA and protein levels and the lack of functional Spred-2 protein in mice caused a dwarf phenotype similar to achondroplasia, the most common form of human dwarfism. Spred-2-/- mice showed reduced growth and body weight, they had a shorter tibia length and showed narrower growth plates as compared to wildtype mice. Spred-2 promoter activity and protein expression were detected in chondrocytes, suggesting an important function of Spred-2 in chondrocytes and bone development. Furthermore, stimulation of chondrocytes with different FGF concentrations showed earlier and augmented ERK phosphorylation in Spred-2-/- chondrocytes as compared to Spred-2+/+ chondrocytes. These observations suggest a model, in which loss of Spred-2 inhibits bone growth by inhibiting chondrocyte differentiation through upregulation of the MAPK signaling pathway. An additional observation of Spred-2-/- mice was an increased bleeding phenotype after injuries, whereas the bleeding volume was extremely enlarged and the bleeding time was significantly prolonged. So far, hypertension as cause could be excluded, but to discover the physiological reasons for this phenotype, the different steps of the clotting cascade have to be investigated further. As the Spred-2 promoter activity studies demonstrated a high and specific Spred-2 expression in vascular smooth muscle cells and previous studies showed an interaction of Spreds with RhoA, a key regulator of vascular smooth muscle contraction, the regulation of smooth muscle contractility seems to be a good candidate of this phenomenon. Moreover, Spred-1 and Spred-2 specific antibodies were generated as important tools to study the protein expression patterns in mice. Furthermore, nothing was known about the Spred-2 promoter region and its regulation. Here, a detailed in situ analysis of the physiological promoter activity profile in the gene trapped Spred-2-deficient mouse strain was shown. In these mice, the beta-galactosidase and neomycin fusion gene (β-geo) of the gene trap vector was brought under control of the endogenous Spred-2 promoter, giving the opportunity to monitor Spred-2 promoter activity in practically every organ and their corresponding sub-compartments. X-Gal staining of sections of newborn and adult mice revealed 1) a very high Spred-2 promoter activity in neural tissues and different glands; 2) a high activity in intestinal and uterine smooth muscle cells, and kidney; 3) a low activity in heart, testis, lung, and liver; 4) an almost lacking activity in skeletal muscle and spleen, and 5) very interestingly, a very distinct and strong activity in vascular smooth muscle cells. Moreover, comparison of newborn and adult mouse organs revealed a nearly congruent Spred-2 promoter activity. These detailed data provide valuable information for further studies of the physiological functions of Spred-2 in organs showing strong Spred-2 promoter activity, which are in most of these organs still unclear. Finally, gene targeting vectors for Spred-1 and Spred-2 were cloned, to generate ES cells with a floxed exon 2 of the Spred-1 and Spred-2 gene, respectively. Now, these ES cells are valuable tools to establish conditional knockout mice. This is of major interest to investigate the physiological tissue specific functions of Spred-1 and Spred-2, especially if the double knockout mice are not viable.
Spinal muscular atrophy with respiratory distress type 1 (SMARD1) is a fatal monogenic motoneuron disease in children with unknown etiology caused by mutations in the immunoglobulin μ-binding protein 2 (IGHMBP2) gene coding for DNA/RNA ATPase/helicase. Despite detailed knowledge of the underlying genetic changes, the cellular mechanisms leading to this disease are not well understood. In the Nmd2J ("neuromuscular disorder") mouse, the mouse model for the juvenile form of SMARD1 patients, in which similar pathological features as diaphragmatic paralysis and skeletal muscle atrophy are observed. Ex vivo studies in Nmd2J mice showed that loss of the motor axon precedes atrophy of the gastrocnemius muscle and does not correlate with neurotransmission defects in the motor endplate. The already described independent myogenic anomalies in the diaphragm and heart of the Nmd2J mouse raised the question whether spinal motoneuron degeneration develops cell autonomously. Ighmbp2 is predominantly localized in the cytoplasm and seems to bind to ribosomes and polysomes, suggesting a role in mRNA metabolism.
In this Ph.D. thesis, morphological and functional analyses of isolated Ighmbp2-deficient (Ighmbp2-def.) motoneurons were performed to answer the question whether the SMARD1 phenotype results from dysregulation of protein biosynthesis. Ighmbp2-deficient motoneurons show only negligible morphological alterations with respect to a slight increase in axonal branches. This observation is consistent with only minor changes of transcriptome based on RNA sequencing data from Ighmbp2-deficient motoneurons. Only the mRNA of fibroblast growth factor receptor 1 (Fgfr1) showed significant up-regulation in Ighmbp2-deficient motoneurons. Furthermore, no global aberrations at the translational level could be detected using pulsed SILAC (Stable Isotope Labeling by Amino acids in cell culture), AHA (L-azidohomoalanine) labeling and SUnSET (SUrface SEnsing of Translation) methods. However, a reduced β-actin protein level was observed at the growth cones of Ighmbp2-deficient motoneurons, which was accompanied with a reduced level of Imp1 protein, a known β-actin mRNA interactor. Live-cell imaging studies using fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP) showed translational down-regulation of eGFPmyr-β-actin 3'UTR mRNA in the growth cones and the cell bodies, although the amount of β-actin mRNA and the total protein amount in Ighmbp2-deficient motoneurons showed no aberrations. This compartment-specific reduction of β-actin protein occurred independently of a non-existent direct IGHMBPF2 binding to β-actin mRNA. Fgfr1, which was upregulated on the RNA level, did not show an increased protein amount in Ighmbp2-deficient motoneurons, whereas a reduced amount could be detected. Interestingly, a correlation could be found between the reduced amount of the Imp1 protein and the increased Fgfr1 mRNA, since the IMP1 protein binds the FGFR1 mRNA and thus could influence the transport and translation of FGFR1 mRNA. In summary, all data suggest that Ighmbp2 deficiency leads to a local but modest disturbance of protein biosynthesis, which might contribute to the motoneuron defects of SMARD1.
Acute graft-versus-host disease (aGvHD) is an immune syndrome associated with allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation (allo-HCT) that is mediated by alloreactive donor T cells attacking the gastrointestinal tract, liver, and skin of the host. Early diagnosis remains problematic and to date mainly relies on clinical symptoms and histopathology. Previously, different groups demonstrated that in order to cause aGvHD, alloreactive T cells require the expression of appropriate homing receptors to efficiently migrate from their priming sites to their target tissues. Therefore, the development of a predictive test based on the homing receptor expression profile of peripheral blood T cells seems attractive to identify patients at risk before the onset of aGvHD. The aim of this study was to analyze migrating alloreactive donor T cell kinetics in the peripheral blood early after allo-HCT in a murine model across minor histocompatibility antigens (miHAg) followed by a precise characterization of the homing receptor expression profile of migrating donor lymphocytes in order to identify suitable predictive markers. Combining daily bioluminescence imaging (BLI) and flow cytometry (FC) allowed defining two weeks of massive alloreactive donor T cell migration before clinical aGvHD symptoms became apparent. Peripheral blood donor T lymphocytes highly up-regulated the homing markers α4β7 integrin, and P- and E-selectin-ligand at peak time points of cell migration. The combination with the activation markers CD25 and CD69 and low expression levels of L-selectin allowed alloreactive donor T cell definition. Based on this migration phase we postulated a potential diagnostic window to precisely identify alloreactive donor T cells upon their homing receptor expression profile. Consequently, targeted pre-emptive treatment with rapamycin starting at the earliest detection time point of alloreactive donor T cells in the peripheral blood (day+6) significantly prolonged survival of treated mice. Based on this data, we propose a potential diagnostic window for alloreactive cell detection based on their homing receptor expression profile for a timely and effective therapeutic intervention before the clinical manifestation of aGvHD.
Allergic disease are inflammatory disorders in which aberrant immune regulation occurs, and susceptible individuals mount allergen specific T helper 2 (Th2) responses, which drives disease pathology. Recent studies indicate that Th2 responses that are characteristic of allergic manifestations can be regulated by both naturally occurring CD4+CD25+ regulatory (Treg) cells and antigen-driven IL-10-secreting CD4+ regulatory T cells. Evidence is also emerging that successful Allergen specific immunotherapy (SIT) might work through the induction of IL-10-secreting regulatory T cells. In the first part of this work, I demonstrated the efficiency of allergen specific immunotherapy in the mouse model for allergic airway inflammation. Here I could show that intranasal administration of SIT abrogates allergic symptoms more efficiently, than the subcutaneous treatment. Furthermore, an IL-4/IL-13 (QY) inhibitor was used as an adjuvant for SIT, which has been demonstrated to have an anti-allergic potential, when administered prophylactically during allergic sensitization. However, the combination therapy with SIT and the inhibitory molecule QY did not show any significant enhancement in regards to all measured allergic parameters, when compared to monotherapy with SIT. These results provide the evidence, that shift from Th2 to Th1 cytokine profile might not be a key event in successful SIT. Subsequently, the investigation of immune mechanisms under successful SIT demonstrate that the increase of IL-10 secreting CD4+ T regulatory cells is associated with the suppression of airway inflammation in our mouse system, suggesting that these T cell subsets might be involved in the regulatory mechanisms of allergic disorders. In agreement with these findings is the second part of this work, where superagonistic a-CD28 mAb´s were used for the expansion of T regulatory cell subsets in our murine model for allergic airway inflammation. Here I could show, that the application of a-CD28 mAb during allergic sensitization, resulted in the establishment of a Th2 state, rather than a stimulation of a Treg cell population, supporting the Th2 promoting role of a-CD28 mAb together with TCR engagement. However, interesting findings were obtained by application of the superagonistic a-CD28 mAb in the challenge phase in established allergy. Conversely to the previous experiment, therapeutic administration of a-CD28 mAb lead to the generation of IL-10 secreting CD4+CD25+ T cell population in line with the induction of anti-allergic effects. Taking together the results of this study argue for the anti-inflammatory properties of T regulatory cells in allergic disease and highlights importance of these T cell subsets in the suppression of Th2 cell-driven response to allergen. Moreover, these observations suggest that the induction of IL-10 in vivo by T regulatory cells may represent a novel treatment strategy for allergic disorders.
In vitro and in vivo studies on the activating platelet collagen receptor glycoprotein VI in mice
(2003)
The work summarized here focused on the characterization of the murine platelet collagen receptor glycoprotein (GP) VI and was performed to evaluate its potential as an antithrombotic target. The first mAb against (mouse) GPVI, JAQ1, was generated and used to demonstrate that GPVI requires the FcRgamma-chain for its expression and function and that this receptor is the central molecule in collagen-induced platelet activation. Blocking the major collagen binding site on GPVI with JAQ1 revealed the presence of a second activatory epitope within collagen. Additionally, the collagen receptor integrin alpha2beta1 was found to be required for activation via this second pathway but not to be essential for collagen-induced activation of normal platelets. In studies with mice expressing reduced levels of the GPVI-FcRgamma-complex, differential responses to GPVI ligands were observed. Most importantly, the striking difference between platelet responses to collagen and the GPVI specific synthetic collagen related peptide (CRP) confirmed the supportive role of other collagen receptor(s) on platelets. Irrespective of yet undefined additional receptors, studies with mice deficient in GPVI (FcRgamma-chain) or alpha2beta1 showed that GPVI, but not alpha2beta1 is essential for platelet-collagen interaction. Based on these results, the model of platelet attachment to collagen was revised establishing GPVI as the initial activating receptor which upregulates the activity of integrins, thus enabling firm attachment of platelets to the ECM. While the mAb JAQ1 had only limited inhibitory effects on collagen-induced activation in vitro, its in vivo application to mice resulted in completely abolished platelet responses to collagen and the GPVI specific agonists CRP and convulxin. This effect was found to be due to antibody-induced irreversible down-regulation of GPVI on circulating platelets for at least two weeks. Further studies revealed that GPVI depletion occurs independently of the targeted epitope on the receptor and does not require the divalent form of IgG as it was also induced by mAbs (JAQ2, JAQ3) or the respective Fab fragments directed against epitopes distinct from the major collagen binding site. The internalization of GPVI in vivo resulted in a long-term protection of the mice from lethal collagen-dependent thromboembolism whereas it had only moderate effects on the bleeding time, probably because the treatment did not affect other activation pathways. These results establish GPVI as a potential pharmacological target for the prevention of ischemic cardiovascular diseases and may open the way for a completely new generation of antithrombotics.
The experimental work of this thesis addresses the questions of whether established cell lines injected into murine blastocysts find their way back home and seed preferentially at the site of their origin. Furthermore, can they change their fate and differentiate to unrelated cell types when exposed to the embryonic environment. This survey was based on the fact that different cell lines have different potentials in developing embryos, dependent on their cellular identity. The cell lines used in this survey were AGM region-deriving DAS 104-4, DAS 104-8 cells, yolk sac-deriving YSE cells and bone marrow-deriving FDCP mix cells. These cells were injected into mouse blastocysts. Donor cells were traced in developing embryos via specific markers. Analysis of the embryos revealed that DAS cells are promiscuous in their seeding pattern, since they were found in all analysed tissues with similar frequencies. YSE cells showed preferences in seeding yolk sac and liver. YSE donor cells in chimaeric tissues were not able to change their immuno-phenotype, indicating that they did not change their destiny. Analysis of adult mice did not reveal any of YSE-derived cells donor contribution. In contrast, FDCP mix cells mostly engrafted haematopoietic tissues, although the embryos analysed by in situ hybridization had donor signals frequently in cartilage primordia, heads, and livers. Analysis of whether FDCPmix-derived cells found in foetal livers were of haematopoietic or hepatocytes nature showed that progeny of injected FDCP mix cells do not differentiate into cells that express a hepatocyte-specific marker. Further analysis showed that FDCPmix-derived donor cells found in brain express neural or haematopoietic markers. In order to reveal if they transdifferentiate to neurons or fuse with neurons/glial cells, nuclear diameters of donor and recipient cells were determined. Comparison of the nuclear diameters of recipient and donor cells revealed no differences. Therefore this suggests that progeny of FDCP mix in brain are not fusion products. Analysis of adult mice tissues revealed that presence of FDCP mix-derived cells was the highest in brains. These results confirmed the assumption that the developmental potential of the analysed cells cannot be easily modified, even when exposed to early embryonic environment. Therefore one can conclude that the analysed cell types had different homing patterns depending on their origins.
Background Transgenic mouse models are increasingly used to study the pathophysiology of human cardiovascular diseases. The aortic pulse wave velocity (PWV) is an indirect measure for vascular stiffness and a marker for cardiovascular risk. Results This work presents three MR-methods that allow the determination of the PWV in the descending murine aorta by analyzing blood flow waveforms, arterial distension waveforms, and a method that uses the combination of flow and distension waveforms. Systolic flow pulses were recorded with a temporal resolution of 1 ms applying phase velocity encoding. In a first step, the MR methods were validated by pressure waveform measurements on pulsatile elastic vessel phantoms. In a second step, the MR methods were applied to measure PWVs in a group of five eight-month-old apolipoprotein E deficient (ApoE(-/-)) mice and an age matched group of four C57Bl/6J mice. The ApoE(-/-) group had a higher mean PWV than the C57Bl/6J group. Depending on the measurement technique, the differences were or were not statistically significant. Conclusions The findings of this study demonstrate that high field MRI is applicable to non-invasively determine and distinguish PWVs in the arterial system of healthy and diseased groups of mice.
Background: We evaluated the effect of insulin stimulation and dietary changes on myocardial, skeletal muscle and brain [18F]-fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) kinetics and uptake in vivo in intact mice. Methods: Mice were anesthetized with isoflurane and imaged under different conditions: non-fasted (n = 7; "controls"), non-fasted with insulin (2 IU/kg body weight) injected subcutaneously immediately prior to FDG (n = 6), fasted (n = 5), and fasted with insulin injection (n = 5). A 60-min small-animal PET with serial blood sampling and kinetic modeling was performed. Results: We found comparable FDG standardized uptake values (SUVs) in myocardium in the non-fasted controls and non-fasted-insulin injected group (SUV 45-60 min, 9.58 ± 1.62 vs. 9.98 ± 2.44; p = 0.74), a lower myocardial SUV was noted in the fasted group (3.48 ± 1.73; p < 0.001). In contrast, the FDG uptake rate constant (Ki) for myocardium increased significantly by 47% in non-fasted mice by insulin (13.4 ± 3.9 ml/min/100 g vs. 19.8 ± 3.3 ml/min/100 g; p = 0.030); in fasted mice, a lower myocardial Ki as compared to controls was observed (3.3 ± 1.9 ml/min/100 g; p < 0.001). Skeletal muscle SUVs and Ki values were increased by insulin independent of dietary state, whereas in the brain, those parameters were not influenced by fasting or administration of insulin. Fasting led to a reduction in glucose metabolic rate in the myocardium (19.41 ± 5.39 vs. 3.26 ± 1.97 mg/min/100 g; p < 0.001), the skeletal muscle (1.06 ± 0.34 vs. 0.34 ± 0.08 mg/min/100 g; p = 0.001) but not the brain (3.21 ± 0.53 vs. 2.85 ± 0.25 mg/min/100 g; p = 0.19). Conclusions: Changes in organ SUVs, uptake rate constants and metabolic rates induced by fasting and insulin administration as observed in intact mice by small-animal PET imaging are consistent with those observed in isolated heart/muscle preparations and, more importantly, in vivo studies in larger animals and in humans. When assessing the effect of insulin on the myocardial glucose metabolism of non-fasted mice, it is not sufficient to just calculate the SUV - dynamic imaging with kinetic modeling is necessary.
Stem cells are defined by their capacity to self-renew and their potential to differentiate into multiple cell lineages. Pluripotent embryonic stem (ES) cells can renew indefinitely while keeping the potential to differentiate into any of the three germ layers (ectoderm, endoderm or mesoderm). For decades, ES cells are in the focus of research because of these unique features. When ES cells differentiate they form spheroid aggregates termed “embryoid bodies” (EBs). These EBs mimic post- implantation embryonic development and therefore facilitate the understanding of developmented mechanisms.
During ES cell differentiation, de-repression or repression of genes accompanies the changes in chromatin structure. In ES cells, several mechanisms are involved in the regulation of the chromatin architecture, including post-translational modifications of histones. Post-translational histone methylation marks became one of the best- investigated epigenetic modifications, and they are essential for maintaining pluripotency. Until the first histone demethylase KDM1A was discovered in 2004 histone modifications were considered to be irreversible. Since then, a great number of histone demethylases have been identified. Their activity is linked to gene regulation as well as to stem cell self-renewal and differentiation.
KDM6A and KDM6B are H3K27me3/2-specific histone demethylases, which are known to play a central role in the regulation of posterior development by regulating HOX gene expression. So far less is known about the molecular function of KDM6A or KDM6B in undifferentiated and differentiating ES cells. In order to completely abrogate KDM6A and KDM6B demethylase activity in undifferentiated and differentiating ES cells, a specific inhibitor (GSK-J4) was employed. Treatment with GSK-J4 had no effect on the viability or proliferation on ES cells. However, in the presence of GSK-J4 ES cell differentiation was completely abrogated with cells arrested in G1-phase and an increased rate of apoptosis. Global transcriptome analyses in early-differentiating ES cells revealed that only a limited set of genes were differentially regulated in response to GSK-J4 treatment with more genes up- regulated than down-regulated. Many of the up-regulated genes are linked to DNA damage response (DDR). In agreement with this, DNA damage was found in EBs incubated with GSK-J4. A co-localization of H3K27me3 or KDM6B with γH2AX foci, marking DNA breaks, could be excluded. However, differentiating Eed knockout (KO) ES cells, which are devoid of the H3K27me3 mark, showed an attenuated GSK-J4- induced DDR. Finally, hematopoietic differentiation in the presence of GSK-J4 resulted in a reduced colony-forming potential. This leads to the conclusion that differentiation in the presence of GSK-J4 is also restricted to hematopoietic differentiation.
In conclusion, my results show that the enzymatic activity of KDM6A and KDM6B is not essential for maintaining the pluripotent state of ES cells. In contrast, the enzymatic activity of both proteins is indispensable for ES cell and hematopoietic differentiation. Additionally KDM6A and KDM6B enzymatic inhibition in differentiating ES cells leads to increased DNA damage with an activated DDR. Therefore, KDM6A and KDM6B are associated with DNA damage and in DDR in differentiating ES cells.
Food borne pathogens that cause systemic disease must cross the intestinal barrier. Many of these pathogens, eg Salmonella typhimurium and Shigella flexneri, use M cells, found only within the follicle associated epithelium (FAE) that overlies Peyer’s patches and other lymphoid follicles, to enter the host. This study is primarily an investigation into the interaction of S. typhimurium and Listeria monocytogenes with the intestinal epithelium, representing the early stage of an infection.
Acetylcholine (ACh) mediates transmission at vertebrate neuromuscular junctions and many other synapses. The postsynaptic ACh receptors at neuromuscular junctions are of the nicotinic subtype (nAChRs). They are among the best studied receptor channels and often serve as models or receptor prototypes. Despite a wealth of information on muscle type nAChRs so far little is known about species specific functional differences. In this work, mouse and human adult muscle type nAChRs are investigated.
Cell attached recordings in the HEK293T heterologous expression system provided evidence that the ACh affinity of recombinant mouse and human adult muscle type nAChRs are different. To clarify this, I compared these receptors in outside-out patches employing a system for fast agonist application. Thus, the individual membrane patches with receptors can be exposed to various ligand concentrations. In response to 10 and 30 µM ACh normalized peak currents (î) were significantly larger and current rise-time (tr) shorter in human than in mouse receptors. Analyzing dose-response curves of î and tr and fitting them with a two-step equivalent binding-site kinetic mechanism revealed a two-fold higher ACh association rate constant in human compared to mouse receptors. Furthermore, human nAChRs were blocked faster in outside-out patches by superfusion of 300 nM α-Bungarotoxin (α-Bgtx) than mouse nAChRs. Finally, human nAChRs in outside-out patches showed higher affinity at 3 µM ACh than chimeric receptors consisting of mouse α- and human β-, γ- and ε-subunits. The higher affinity of human than mouse receptors for ACh and α-Bgtx is thus at least in part due to sequence difference in their α-subunits.
Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is the deadliest form of lung cancer and has a poor prognosis due to its high rate of metastasis. Notably, metastasis is one of the leading causes of death among cancer patients. Despite the clinical importance, the cellular and molecular mechanisms that govern the initiation, establishment and progression of metastasis remain unclear. Moreover, knowledge gained on metastatic process was largely based on cultured or in vitro manipulated cells that were reintroduced into immune-compromised recipient mice. In the present study, a spontaneous metastasis mouse model for NSCLC was generated with a heritable fluorescent tag (DsRed) driven by CAG (combination of cytomegalovirus early enhancing element and chicken beta actin) promoter in alveolar type II cells (SpC-rtTA/TetO-Cre/LSL-DsRed). This approach is essential, keeping in mind the reprogramming nature of Myc oncogene (Rapp et al, 2009). Such genetic lineage tracing approach not only allowed us to monitor molecular and cellular changes during development of primary tumor but also led us to identify the different stages of secondary tumor development in distant organs. Upon combined expression of oncogenic C Raf-BXB and c-Myc (MYC-BXB-DsRed) in lung alveolar type II epithelial cells, macroscopic lung tumors arose comprising of both cuboidal and columnal cellular features. C Raf-BXB induced tumors (CRAF-DsRed) exhibit cuboidal morphology and is non-metastatic whereas Myc-BXB induced lung tumors (Myc-BXB-DsRed) present cuboidal-columnar cellular features and is able to undergo metastasis mainly in liver. Surprisingly, cystic lesions which were negative for SpC (Surfactant protein C) and CCSP (Clara cell secretory protein), strongly expressed DsRed proteins indicating its origin from lung alveolar type II cells. Moreover, early lung progenitor markers such as GATA4 (GATA-binding protein 4) and TTF1 (Thyroid Transcription Factor 1) were still expressed in these early cystic lesions suggesting metastasis as a faulty recapitulation of ontogeny (Rapp et al, 2008). Interestingly, mixed cystic lesions and metastatic tumors contained DsRed and SpC positive cells. These results demonstrate secondary tumor progression from cystic, mixed cystic to malignant transformation. Our results shed tremendous light on reprogramming of metastasizing cells during secondary tumor development. Moreover, such fluorescent tagged metastatic mice model can also be used to track the migration ability of metastatic cancer cell to different organs and its potential to differentiate into other cell types such as blood vessel or stromal cell within the primary tumor.
This work summarizes the results of studies on several major aspects of platelet activation and platelet receptor regulation. Therefore, this thesis is divided into four parts.
Platelet activation and aggregation at sites of vascular injury is critical to prevent excessive blood loss, but may also lead to life-threatening ischemic disease states, such as myocardial infarction and stroke. Agonist-induced elevation in cytosolic Ca2+ concentrations is essential for platelet activation in hemostasis and thrombosis. The principal route of Ca2+ influx in platelets is store-operated calcium entry (SOCE). The calcium sensor molecule stromal interaction molecule 1 (STIM1) regulates SOCE by activating the membrane calcium channel protein Orai1, but the exact mechanisms of this interaction are not fully understood. Using affinity chromatography to screen for STIM1 interacting proteins in platelets, bridging integrator 2 (BIN2), an adapter protein belonging to the family of BAR proteins that is mainly expressed in the hematopoietic system, was identified. Newly generated BIN2 KO mice were viable and fertile but their platelets displayed markedly impaired SOCE in response to thapsigargin (TG) as well as agonists acting on immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activation motif (ITAM) or G protein-coupled receptors. This SOCE defect resulted in impaired (hem)ITAM induced platelet activation, aggregate formation under flow and procoagulant activity. As a consequence, mice lacking BIN2 in platelets were protected from occlusive arterial thrombus formation and thrombo-inflammatory cerebral infarct progression in a model of experimental stroke. These results identify BIN2 as a critical regulator of platelet SOCE in thrombosis and thrombo-inflammatory disease.
Integrin αIIbβ3 plays a central role in the adhesion and aggregation of platelets. Integrin activation requires the transmission of a signal from the small cytoplasmic tails of the α or β
subunit to the large extracellular domains resulting in conformational changes of the extracellular domains to enable ligand binding. It was hypothesized that Hic-5 is a novel regulator of integrin αIIbβ3 activation in mice. As demonstrated in the second part of this thesis, lack of Hic-5 had no detectable effect on platelet integrin activation and function in vitro and in vivo under all tested conditions. These results indicate that Hic-5 is dispensable for integrin αIIbβ3 activation and consequently for arterial thrombosis and hemostasis in mice.
The Rho GTPase family members RhoA and Rac1 play major roles in platelet activation at sites of vascular injury. Little is known about possible redundant functions of these Rho GTPases in regulating platelet function. To investigate functional redundancies of RhoA and Rac1 in platelet production and function, mice with MK- and platelet-specific double- deficiencies in RhoA and Rac1 were generated. RhoA/Rac1 double-deficiency phenocopied the respective single knockouts without any additional effects in the double-knockout animals, demonstrating for the first time a functional non-redundancy of RhoA and Rac1 in platelet function.
Antibodies against platelet glycoproteins (GP) trigger platelet destruction in immune thrombocytopenia (ITP) by binding to Fcγ receptors (FcγRs) on immune cells. However, antibodies against the platelet collagen receptor GPVI exert powerful anti-thrombotic action in vivo by inducing ectodomain shedding of the receptor associated with a transient thrombocytopenia. As shown in the final part of this thesis, blockade or deficiency of the inhibitory FcγRIIB abolished sequestration of anti-GPVI opsonized platelets in the hepatic vasculature and GPVI shedding. This process was mediated by liver sinusoidal endothelial cells (LSEC), the major FcγRIIB expressing cell type in the body. Furthermore, LSEC FcγRIIB mediated hepatic platelet sequestration and contributed to thrombocytopenia in mice treated with antibodies against αIIbβ3, the major target antigen in human ITP. These results reveal a novel and unexpected function of hepatic FcγRIIB in the processing of antibody-opsonized platelets.
In this work we wanted to investigate the role of NFATc1 in lymphocyte physiology and in pathological conditions (eg. psoriasis). NFATc1 is part of the signal transduction
pathways that regulates B cells activation and function. NFATc1 has different isoforms that are due to different promoters (P1 and P2), polyadenylation and alternative splicing. Moreover, we tried to elucidate the points of interactions between the NFAT and the NF-κB pathways in
activated B-cell fate. NFAT and NF-κB factors share several properties, such as a similar mode of induction and architecture in their DNA binding domain. We used mice which over-express a constitutive active version of NFATc1/α in their B cells with -or without- an ablated IRF4. IRF4 inhibits cell cycle progression of germinal center B cell-derived Burkitt’s lymphoma cells and
induces terminal differentiation toward plasma cells. Our experiments showed that a ‘double hit’ in factors affecting B cell activation (NFATc1 in this case) and late B cell Differentiation (IRF4 in this case) alter the development of the B cells, lead to increase in their numbers and increase in stimulation induced proliferation. Therefore, the overall picture indicates a link between these 2 genes and probable carcinogenic alterations that may occur in B cells.
We also show that in splenic B cells, c-Rel (of the NF-κB canonical pathway) Support the induction of NFATc1/αA through BCR signals. We also found evidence that the lack of NFATc1 affects the expression of Rel-B (of the NF-κB non-canonical pathway). These data suggest a tight interplay between NFATc1 and NF-κB in B cells, influencing the competence of B cells and their functions in peripheral tissues.
We also used IMQ-induced psoriasis-like inflammation on mice which either lack NFATc1 from B cell. Psoriasis is a systemic chronic immunological disease characterized
primarily by abnormal accelerated proliferation of the skin keratinocytes. In psoriasis, the precipitating event leads to immune cell activation. Our experiments showed that NFATc1 is needed for the development of psoriasis. It also showed that IL-10 is the link that enables NFAT
from altering the B cell compartment (eg Bregs) in order to affect inflammation. The important role of B cell in psoriasis is supported by the flared up psoriasis-like inflammation in mice that lack B cells. Bregs is a special type of B cells that regulate other B cells and T cells; tuning the immunological response through immunomodulatory cytokines.
MDSCs are suppressive immune cells with a high relevance in various pathologies including cancer, autoimmunity, and chronic infections. Surface marker expression of MDSCs resembles monocytes and neutrophils which have immunostimulatory functions instead of suppressing T cells. Therefore, finding specific surface markers for MDSCs is important for MDSC research and therapeutic MDSC manipulation. In this study, we analyzed if the integrin VLA-1 has the potential as a novel MDSC marker. VLA-1 was expressed by M-MDSCs but not by G-MDSCs as well as by Teff cells. VLA-1 deficiency did not impact iNOS expression, the distribution of M-MDSC and G-MDSC subsets, and the suppressive capacity of MDSCs towards naïve and Teff cells in vitro. In mice, VLA-1 had no effect on the homing capability of MDSCs to the spleen, which is a major reservoir for MDSCs. Since the splenic red pulp contains collagen IV and VLA-1 binds collagen IV with a high affinity, we found MDSCs and Teff cells in this area as expected. We showed that T cell suppression in the spleen, indicated by reduced T cell recovery and proliferation as well as increased apoptosis and cell death, partially depended on VLA-1 expression by the MDSCs. In a mouse model of multiple sclerosis, MDSC injection prior to disease onset led to a decrease of the disease score, and this effect was significantly reduced when MDSCs were VLA-1 deficient. The expression of Sema7A by Teff cells, a ligand for VLA-1 which is implicated in negative T cell regulation, resulted in a slightly stronger Teff cell suppression by MDSCs compared to Sema7A deficient T cells. Live cell imaging and intravital 2-photon microscopy showed that the interaction time of MDSCs and Teff cells was shorter when MDSCs lacked VLA 1 expression, however VLA-1 expression had no impact on MDSC mobility. Therefore, the VLA-1-dependent interaction of MDSC and Teff cells on collagen IV in the splenic red pulp is implicated MDSC-mediated Teff cell suppression.
Myocardial B-cell infiltration after LAD occlusion in mice is driven by CXCL13
After myocardial infarction, the immune system is activated and regulates wound healing and remodeling processes in the heart.
While the role of T cells has been elucidated already, the function of B cells in myocardial infarction remained relatively unclear until now. It is, however, already known that B cells are of importance in healing processes in other tissues, for example in the skin.
Our studies therefore addressed the role and function of B cells in healing and early remodeling processes in the myocardium after infarction.
Under physiological conditions, only few B cells can be found in the heart. After myocardial infarction, however, which we modelled with a permanent ligation of the left anterior descending artery (LAD) in C57BL/6J mice, we could demonstrate that B lymphocytes accumulate in the early phase after tissue injury (days one to seven) in the myocardium.
To detect B cells, we performed immunofluorescence stainings on cryosections of infarcted hearts using an anti-B220 antibody. Quantitative analysis of tissue infiltration revealed that B cells peaked at day seven. In flow cytometry, we further characterized the B cells infiltrating infarcted tissue. We found that most of them were mature B cells (IgM+, IgD+).
Next, we wanted to outline a potential mechanism responsible for B-cell infiltration to the site of tissue injury. We therefore performed ELISA experiments revealing that CXCL13 was upregulated in scar tissue.
Antibody-mediated neutralization of CXCL13 verifiably attenuated B-cell infiltration.
Treated mice also showed – in the tendency – smaller infarct sizes and an improved survival.
In conclusion, we could show that B lymphocytes infiltrate the myocardium after MI in mice following a local CXCL13 gradient and that it is, most likely, beneficial to inhibit this process.
Thrombus formation at sites of vascular lesions is a dynamic process that requires a defined series of molecular events including the action of platelet adhesion/activation receptors, intracellular signal transduction, cytoskeletal rearrangements and activation of plasma coagulation factors. This process is essential to limit post-traumatic blood loss but may also contribute to acute thrombotic diseases such as myocardial infarction and stroke. With the help of genetically modified mice and the use of specific protein inhibitors and receptordepleting antibodies, the work presented in this thesis identified novel mechanisms underlying thrombus formation in hemostasis and thrombosis. In the first part of the study, it was shown that von Willebrand Factor (vWF) binding to glycoprotein (GP)Iba is critical for the formation of stable pathological thrombi at high shear rates, suggesting GPIba as an attractive pharmacological target for antithrombotic therapy. The subsequent analysis of recently generated phospholipase (PL)D1-deficient mice identified this enzyme, whose role in platelet function had been largely unknown, as a potential target protein downstream of GPIba. This was based on the finding that PLD1- deficient mice displayed severely defective GPIba-dependent thrombus stabilization under high shear conditions in vitro and in vivo without affecting normal hemostasis. The second part of the thesis characterizes the functional relevance of the immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activation motif (ITAM)-bearing collagen receptor GPVI and the recently identified hemITAM-coupled C-type lectin-like receptor 2 (CLEC-2) for in vivo thrombus formation. Genetic- and antibody-induced GPVI deficiency was found to similarly protect mice from arterial vessel occlusion in three different thrombosis models. These results confirmed GPVI as a promising antithrombotic target and revealed that antibody-treatment had no obvious off-target effects on platelet function. Similarly, immunodepletion of CLEC-2 by treating mice with the specific antibody INU1 resulted in markedly impaired thrombus growth and stabilization under flow in vitro and in vivo. Furthermore, it could be demonstrated that double-immunodepletion of GPVI and CLEC-2 resulted in severely decreased arterial thrombus formation accompanied by dramatically prolonged bleeding times. These data revealed an unexpected redundant function of the two receptors for in vivo thrombus formation and might have important implications for the potential development of anti-GPVI and anti-CLEC-2 antithrombotic agents. The third part of the thesis provides the first functional analysis of megakaryocyte- and platelet-specific RhoA knockout mice. RhoA-deficient mice displayed a defined signaling defect in platelet activation, leading to a profound protection from arterial thrombosis andand ischemic brain infarction, but at the same time also strongly increased bleeding times. These findings identified the GTPase as an important player for thrombus formation in hemostasis and thrombosis. Based on the previous proposal that the coagulation factor (F)XII might represent an ideal target for safe antithrombotic therapy without causing bleeding side effects, the last part of this thesis assesses the antithrombotic potential of the newly generated FXIIa inhibitor rHAInfestin- 4. It was found that rHA-Infestin-4 injection into mice resulted in virtually abolished arterial thrombus formation but no change in bleeding times. Moreover, rHA-Infestin-4 was similarly efficient in a murine model of ischemic stroke, suggesting that the inhibitor might be a promising agent for effective and safe therapy of cardio- and cerebrovascular diseases.
The neuronal ceroid lipofuscinoses (NCLs) are fatal neurodegenerative disorders in which the visual system is affected in early stages of disease. A typical accompanying feature is neuroinflammation, the pathogenic impact of which is presently unknown. In this study, the role of inflammatory cells in the pathogenesis was investigated in Palmitoyl-protein thioesterase 1-deficient (Ppt1-/-) and Ceroidlipofuscinosis, neuronal 3-deficient (Cln3-/-) mice, models of the infantile and juvenile forms of NCL, respectively. Focusing predominantly on the visual system, an infiltration of CD8+ cytotoxic Tlymphocytes and an activation of microglia/macrophage-like cells was observed early in disease. To analyze the pathogenic impact of lymphocytes, Ppt1-/- mice were crossbred with mice lacking lymphocytes (Rag1-/-) and axonal transport, perturbation and neuronal survival were scored. Lack of lymphocytes led to a significant amelioration of neuronal disease and reconstitution experiments revealed a crucial role of CD8+ cytotoxic T-lymphocytes. Lack of lymphocytes also caused an improved clinical phenotype and extended longevity. To investigate the impact of microglia/macrophage-like cells, Ppt1-/- and Cln3-/- mice were crossbred with mice lacking sialoadhesin (Sn-/-), a monocyte lineage-restricted cell adhesion molecule important for interactions between macrophage-like cells and lymphocytes. Similar to the lack of lymphocytes, absence of sialoadhesin significantly ameliorated the disease in Ppt1-/- and Cln3-/- mice. Taken together, both T-lymphocytes and microglia/macrophage-like cells were identified as pathogenic mediators in two distinct forms of fatal inherited neurodegenerative storage disorders. These studies expand the concept of secondary inflammation as a common pathomechanistic feature in some neurological diseases and provide novel insights that may be crucial for developing treatment strategies for different forms of NCL.
Every year, stroke affects over 100 million people worldwide and the number of cases continues to grow. Ischemic stroke is the most prevalent form of stroke and rapid restoration of blood flow is the primary therapeutic aim. However, recanalization might fail or reperfusion itself induces detrimental processes leading to infarct progression. Previous studies identified platelets and immune cells as drivers of this so-called ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury, establishing the concept of ischemic stroke as thrombo-inflammatory disease. Reduced cerebral blood flow despite recanalization promoted the hypothesis that thrombus formation within the cerebral microcirculation induces further tissue damage. The results presented in this thesis refute this: using complementary methodologies, it was shown that infarct growth precedes the occurrence of thrombi excluding them as I/R injury-underlying cause. Blood brain barrier disruption is one of the hallmarks of ischemic stroke pathology and was confirmed as early event during reperfusion injury in the second part of this study. Abolished platelet α-granule release protects mice from vascular leakage in the early reperfusion phase resulting in smaller infarcts. Using in vitro assays, platelet α-granule-derived PDGF-AB was identified as one factor contributing to blood-brain barrier disruption.
In vivo visualization of platelet activation would provide important insights in the spatio-temporal context of platelet activation in stroke pathology. As platelet signaling results in elevated intracellular Ca2+ levels, this is an ideal readout. To overcome the limitations of chemical calcium indicators, a mouse line expressing an endogenous calcium reporter specifically in platelets and megakaryocytes was generated. Presence of the reporter did not interfere with platelet function, consequently these mice were characterized in in vivo and ex vivo models.
Upon ischemic stroke, neutrophils are among the first cells that are recruited to the brain. Since for neutrophils both, beneficial and detrimental effects are described, their role was investigated within this thesis. Neither neutrophil depletion nor absence of NADPH-dependent ROS production (Ncf-/- mice) affected stroke outcome. In contrast, abolished NET-formation in Pad4-/- mice resulted in reduced infarct sizes, revealing detrimental effects of NETosis in the context of ischemic stroke, which might become a potential therapeutic target.
Cerebral venous (sinus) thrombosis, CV(S)T is a rare type of stroke with mainly idiopathic onset. Whereas for arterial thrombosis a critical contribution of platelets is known and widely accepted, for venous thrombosis this is less clear but considered more and more. In the last part of this thesis, it was shown that fab-fragments of the anti-CLEC-2 antibody INU1 trigger pathological platelet activation in vivo, resulting in foudroyant CVT accompanied by heavy neurological symptoms. Using this novel animal model for CVT, cooperative signaling of the two platelet receptors CLEC-2 and GPIIb/IIIa was revealed as major trigger of CVT and potential target for treatment.