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We explore a cosmology where the Big Bang singularity is replaced by a condensation event of interacting strings. We study the transition from an uncontrolled, chaotic soup (“before”) to a clearly interacting “real world”. Cosmological inflation scenarios do not fit current observations and are avoided. Instead, long-range interactions inside this crystallization event limit growth and crystal symmetries ensure the same laws of nature and basic symmetries over our domain. Tiny mis-arrangements present nuclei of superclusters and galaxies and crystal structure leads to the arrangement of dark (halo regions) and normal matter (galaxy nuclei) so convenient for galaxy formation. Crystals come and go, allowing an evolutionary cosmology where entropic forces from the quantum soup “outside” of the crystal try to dissolve it. These would correspond to dark energy and leads to a big rip scenario in 70 Gy. Preference of crystals with optimal growth and most condensation nuclei for the next generation of crystals may select for multiple self-organizing processes within the crystal, explaining “fine-tuning” of the local “laws of nature” (the symmetry relations formed within the crystal, its “unit cell”) to be particular favorable for self-organizing processes including life or even conscious observers in our universe.
Independent of cosmology, a crystallization event may explain quantum-decoherence in general: The fact, that in our macroscopic everyday world we only see one reality. This contrasts strongly with the quantum world where you have coherence, a superposition of all quantum states. We suggest that a “real world” (so our everyday macroscopic world) happens only in our domain, i.e. inside a crystal. “Outside” of our domain and our observable universe there is the quantum soup of boiling quantum foam and superposition of all possibilities. In our crystallized world the vacuum no longer boils but is cooled down by the crystallization event and hence is 10**20 smaller, exactly as observed in our everyday world. As we live in a “solid” state, within a crystal, the different quanta which build our world have all their different states nicely separated. This theory postulates there are only n quanta and m states available for them (there is no Everett-like ever splitting multiverse after each decision). In the solid state we live in, there is decoherence, the states are nicely separated. The arrow of entropy for each edge of the crystal forms one fate, one worldline or clear development of a world, while the layers of the crystal are different system states.
Some mathematical leads from loop quantum gravity point to required interactions and potentials. A complete mathematical treatment of this unified theory is far too demanding currently. Interaction potentials for strings or membranes of any dimension allow a solid state of quanta, so allowing decoherence in our observed world are challenging to calculate. However, if we introduce here the heuristic that any type of physical interaction of strings corresponds just to a type of calculation, there is already since 1898 the Hurwitz theorem showing that then only 1D, 2D, 4D and 8D (octonions) allow complex or hypercomplex number calculations. No other hypercomplex numbers and hence dimensions or symmetries are possible to allow calculations without yielding divisions by zero. However, the richest solution allowed by the Hurwitz theorem, octonions, is actually the observed symmetry of our universe, E8.
Summary
Bees, like many other organisms, evolved an endogenous circadian clock, which enables them to foresee daily environmental changes and exactly time foraging flights to periods of floral resource availability. The social lifestyle of a honey bee colony has been shown to influence circadian behavior in nurse bees, which do not exhibit rhythmic behavior when they are nursing. On the other hand, forager bees display strong circadian rhythms. Solitary bees, like the mason bee, do not nurse their offspring and do not live in hive communities, but face the same daily environmental changes as honey bees. Besides their lifestyle mason and honey bees differ in their development and life history, because mason bees overwinter after eclosion as adults in their cocoons until they emerge in spring. Honey bees do not undergo diapause and have a relatively short development of a few weeks until they emerge. In my thesis, I present a comparison of the circadian clock of social honey bees (Apis mellifera) and solitary mason bees (Osmia bicornis and Osmia cornuta) on the neuroanatomical level and behavioral output level.
I firstly characterized in detail the localization of the circadian clock in the bee brain via the expression pattern of two clock components, namely the clock protein PERIOD (PER) and the neuropeptide Pigment Dispersing Factor (PDF), in the brain of honey bee and mason bee. PER is localized in lateral neuron clusters (which we called lateral neurons 1 and 2: LN1 and LN2) and dorsal neuron clusters (we called dorsal lateral neurons and dorsal neurons: DLN, DN), many glia cells and photoreceptor cells. This expression pattern is similar to the one in other insect species and indicates a common ground plan of clock cells among insects. In the LN2 neuron cluster with cell bodies located in the lateral brain, PER is co-expressed with PDF. These cells build a complex arborization network throughout the brain and provide the perfect structure to convey time information to brain centers, where complex behavior, e.g. sun-compass orientation and time memory, is controlled. The PDF arborizations centralize in a dense network (we named it anterio-lobular PDF hub: ALO) which is located in front of the lobula. In other insects, this fiber center is associated with the medulla (accessory medulla: AME). Few PDF cells build the ALO already in very early larval development and the cell number and complexity of the network grows throughout honey bee development. Thereby, dorsal regions are innervated first by PDF fibers and, in late larval development, the fibers grow laterally to the optic lobe and central brain. The overall expression pattern of PER and PDF are similar in adult social and solitary bees, but I found a few differences in the PDF network density in the posterior protocerebrum and the lamina, which may be associated with evolution of sociality in bees.
Secondly, I monitored activity rhythms, for which I developed and established a device to monitor locomotor activity rhythms of individual honey bees with contact to a mini colony in the laboratory. This revealed new aspects of social synchronization and survival of young bees with indirect social contact to the mini colony (no trophalaxis was possible). For mason bees, I established a method to monitor emergence and locomotor activity rhythms and I could show that circadian emergence rhythms are entrainable by daily temperature cycles. Furthermore, I present the first locomotor activity rhythms of solitary bees, which show strong circadian rhythms in their behavior right after emergence. Honey bees needed several days to develop circadian locomotor rhythms in my experiments. I hypothesized that honey bees do not emerge with a fully matured circadian system in the hive, while solitary bees, without the protection of a colony, would need a fully matured circadian clock right away after emergence. Several indices in published work and preliminary studies support my hypothesis and future studies on PDF expression in different developmental stages in solitary bees may provide hard evidence.
Insight into molecular mechanisms of folding and self-association of spider silk protein domains
(2021)
Spider silk is a biomaterial of extraordinary toughness paired with elasticity. The assembly of silk proteins, so-called spidroins (from “spider” and “fibroin”), generates the silk threads we typically see in our garden or the corners of our houses. Although spider webs from different species vary considerably in geometry and size, many sections of spidroin sequences are conserved. Highly conserved regions, found in all spidroins, relate to the terminal domains of the protein, i.e., the N-terminal (NTD) and C-terminal domains (CTD). Both have an essential function in the silk fibre association and polymerisation.
The NTD is a 14 kDa five-helix bundle, which self-associates via a pH-driven mechanism. This process is critical for starting the polymerisation of the fibre. However, detailed insights into how conserved this mechanism is in different species and the quantitative thermodynamic comparison between homologous NTDs was missing. For this reason, four homologous NTDs of the major ampullate gland (MaSp) from spider species Euprosthenops australis, Nephila clavipes, Latrodectus hesperus, and Latrodectus geometricus were investigated. I analysed and quantified equilibrium thermodynamics, kinetics of folding, and self-association. Methods involved dynamic light scattering (MALS), stopped-flow fluorescence and circular dichroism spectroscopy in combination with thermal and chemical denaturation experiments. The results showed conserved, cooperative two-state folding on a sub-millisecond time scale. All homologous NTDs showed a similarly fast association in the order of 10^9 M^−1 s^−1, while the resulting equilibrium dissociation constants were in the low nanomolar range. Electrostatic forces were found to be of great importance for protein association. Monomeric protein stability increased with salt concentration while enhancing its folding speed. However, due to Debye-Hückel effects, we found intermolecular electrostatics to be shielded, which reduced the NTDs association capacity significantly at high ionic strength. Altogether, the energetics and kinetics of the NTD dimerisation was conserved for all analysed homologs.
Comparable to the NTD, the spider silks CTD is also a α-helix bundle, which covalently links two spidroins. The orientation of the domains predetermines the future fibre geometry. Here again, the detailed quantitative characterisation of the folding and dimerisation was missing. Therefore, the CTD from the E. australis was analysed in-depth. The protein folded via a three-state mechanism and was placed in the family of knotted proteins.
By analysing the amino acid composition of the NTD of the MaSp1 of the Euprosthenops australis, we found an unusually high content of methionine residues (Met). To elucidate why this protein exhibits so many Met residues, I mutated all core Mets simultaneously to leucine (Leu). Results revealed a dramatically stabilised NTD, which now folded 50 times faster. After solving the tertiary structure of the mutant by NMR (nuclear magnetic resonance) spectroscopy, the structure of the monomeric mutant was found to be identical with the wild-type protein. However, when probing the dimerisation of the NTD, I could show that the association capacity was substantially impaired for the mutant. Our findings lead to the conclusion that Met provides the NTD with enhanced conformational dynamics and thus mobilises the protein, which results in tightly associated dimers. In additional experiments, I first re-introduced new Met residues into the Met-depleted protein at sequence positions containing native Leu. Hence, the mutated NTD protein was provided with the same number of Leu, which were previously removed by mutation. However, the protein did not regain wild-type characteristics. The functionality was not restored, but its stability was decreased as expected. To probe our hypothesis gained from the MaSp NTD, I transferred the experiment to another protein, namely the Hsp90 chaperone. Therefore, I incorporated methionine residues in the protein, which resulted in a slight improvement of its function.
Finally, trial experiments were performed aiming at the synthesis of shortened spidroin constructs containing less repetitive middle-segments than the wild-type protein. The objective was to study the findings of the terminal domains in the context of an intact spidroin. The synthesis of these engineered spidroins was challenging. Nevertheless, preliminary results encourage the assumption that the characteristics observed in the isolated domains hold true in the context of a full-length spidroin.
The Chimpanzees of the Comoé National Park, Ivory Coast. Status, distribution, ecology and behavior
(2021)
Although wild chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) have been studied intensely for more than 50 years, there are still many aspects of their ecology and behavior that are not well understood. Every time that a new population of chimpanzees has been studied, new behaviors and unknown aspects of their ecology have been discovered. All this accumulated knowledge is helping us to piece together a model of how could last human and chimpanzee common ancestors have lived and behaved between seven and five million years ago. Comoé chimpanzees had never been studied in depth, until we started our research in October 2014, only a few censuses had been realized. The last surveys prior our work, stated that the population was so decimated that was probably functionally extinct. When we started this research, we had to begin with a new intensive survey, using new methods, to ascertain the real status and distribution of the chimpanzees living in Comoé National Park (CNP). During the last five years, we have realized a deep study aiming to know more about their ecology and behavior. We combined transects and reconnaissance marches (recces) with the use of camera traps, for the first time in CNP, obtaining a wealth of data that is not fully comprised in this dissertation. With this research, we determined that there is a sustainable continuous population of Western chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) in CNP and the adjacent area of Mont Tingui, to the West, with a minimum of 127 weaned chimpanzees living in our main 900 km2 study area, SW of CNP. We found that this population is formed by a minimum of eight different chimpanzee communities, of which we studied seven, four of them more in detail. These chimpanzees spent much more time in the forest than in the savanna habitats.
We also found that Comoé chimpanzees consumed at least 58 different food items in their dit, which they obtained both from forest and savanna habitats. Another finding was that insectivory had an important role in their diet, with at least four species of ants, three of termites and some beetle larvae. These chimpanzees also hunted at least three species of monkeys and maybe rodents and duikers and occasionally consumed the big land snails of genus Achatina. We found that, during the fruit scarcity period in the late rainy season, they intensely consumed the cambium of Ceiba pentandra, as fallback food, much more than the bark or cambium of any other tree species. Another interesting finding was that all the chimpanzees in the studied area realized this particular bark-peeling behavior and had been repeatedly peeling the trees of this species for years. This did not increase tree mortality and the damage caused to the trees was healed in two years, not reducing the growth, thus being a sustainable use of the trees. We found that Comoé chimpanzees produced and used a great variety of tools, mainly from wooden materials, but also from stone and herbaceous vegetation.
Their tool repertory included stick tools to dip for Dorylus burmeisteri ants, to fish for Camponotus and Crematogaster ants, to dip for honey, mainly from Meliponini stingless bees, but sometimes from honey bees (Apis mellifera). It also included the use of stick tools to fish termites of Macrotermes subhyalinus and Odontotermes majus (TFTs), to dip for water from tree holes and investigatory probes for multiple purposes. Additionally, these chimpanzees used leaf-sponges to drink from tree holes and to collect clayish water from salt-licks. They also used stones to hit the buttresses of trees during displays, the so called accumulative stone throwing behavior and probably used stones as hammers, to crack open hard-shelled Strichnos spinosa and Afraegle paniculata fruits and Achatina snails. The chimpanzees also used objects that are not generally accepted as animal tools, for being attached to the substrate, with different purposes: they drummed buttresses of trees with hands and/or feet to produce sound during male displays and they pounded open hard-shelled fruits, Achatina snails and Cubitermes termite mounds on stone or root anvils. We finally measured the stick tools and found significant differences between them suggesting that they were specialized tools made specifically for every purpose. We studied more in detail the differences between apparently similar tools, the honey dipping tools and the water dipping tools, often with brushes made at their tips to collect the fluids. These last tools were exclusive from Comoé and have not been described at any other site. We found that total length, diameter and brush length were significantly different, suggesting that they were specialized tools. We concluded that Comoé chimpanzees had a particular culture, different from those of other populations of Western chimpanzees across Africa. Efficient protection, further research and permanent presence of research teams are required to avoid that this unique population and its culture disappears by the poaching pressure and maybe by the collateral effects of climate change.
How diversity of life is generated, maintained, and distributed across space and time is the central question of community ecology. Communities are shaped by three assembly processes: (I) dispersal, (II) environ-mental, and (III) interaction filtering. Heterogeneity in environmental conditions can alter these filtering processes, as it increases the available niche space, spatially partitions the resources, but also reduces the effective area available for individual species. Ultimately, heterogeneity thus shapes diversity. However, it is still unclear under which conditions heterogeneity has positive effects on diversity and under which condi-tions it has negative or no effects at all. In my thesis, I investigate how environmental heterogeneity affects the assembly and diversity of diverse species groups and whether these effects are mediated by species traits.
In Chapter II, I first examine how much functional traits might inform about environmental filtering pro-cesses. Specifically, I examine to which extent body size and colour lightness, both of which are thought to reflect the species thermal preference, shape the distribution and abundance of two moth families along elevation. The results show, that assemblages of noctuid moths are more strongly driven by abiotic filters (elevation) and thus form distinct patterns in colour lightness and body size, while geometrid moths are driven by biotic filters (habitat availability), and show no decline in body size nor colour lightness along elevation. Thus, one and the same functional trait can have quite different effects on community assembly even between closely related taxonomic groups.
In Chapter III, I elucidate how traits shift the relative importance of dispersal and environmental filtering in determining beta diversity between forests. Environmental filtering via forest heterogeneity had on aver-age higher independent effects than dispersal filtering within and among regions, suggesting that forest heterogeneity determines species turnover even at country-wide extents. However, the relative importance of dispersal filtering increased with decreasing dispersal ability of the species group. From the aspects of forest heterogeneity covered, variations in herb or tree species composition had overall stronger influence on the turnover of species than forest physiognomy. Again, this ratio was influenced by species traits, namely trophic position, and body size, which highlights the importance of ecological properties of a taxo-nomic group in community assembly.
In Chapter IV, I assess whether such ecological properties ultimately determine the level of heterogeneity which maximizes species richness. Here, I considered several facets of heterogeneity in forests. Though the single facets of heterogeneity affected diverse species groups both in positive and negative ways, we could not identify any generalizable mechanism based on dispersal nor the trophic position of the species group which would dissolve these complex relationships.
In Chapter V, I examine the effect of environmental heterogeneity of the diversity of traits itself to evalu-ate, whether the effects of environmental heterogeneity on species richness are truly based on increases in the number of niches. The results revealed that positive effects of heterogeneity on species richness are not necessarily based on an increased number of niches alone, but proposedly also on a spatially partition of resources or sheltering effects. While ecological diversity increased overall, there were also negative trends which indicate filtering effects via heterogeneity.
In Chapter VI, I present novel methods in measuring plot-wise heterogeneity of forests across continental scales via Satellites. The study compares the performance of Sentinel-1 and LiDar-derived measurements in depicting forest structures and heterogeneity and to their predictive power in modelling diversity. Senti-nel-1 could match the performance of Lidar and shows high potential to assess free yet detailed infor-mation about forest structures in temporal resolutions for modelling the diversity of species.
Overall, my thesis supports the notion that heterogeneity in environmental conditions is an important driv-er of beta-diversity, species richness, and ecological diversity. However, I could not identify any general-izable mechanism which direction and form this effect will have.
Recent progress in nanotechnology has attracted interest to a biomedical application of the carbon nanoparticle C60 fullerene (C60) due to its unique structure and versatile biological activity. In the current study the dual functionality of C60 as a photosensitizer and a drug nanocarrier was exploited to improve the efficiency of chemotherapeutic drugs towards human leukemic cells.
Pristine C60 demonstrated time-dependent accumulation with predominant mitochondrial localization in leukemic cells. C60’s effects on leukemic cells irradiated with high power single chip LEDs of different wavelengths were assessed to find out the most effective photoexcitation conditions. A C60-based noncovalent nanosized system as a carrier for an optimized drug delivery to the cells was evaluated in accordance to its physicochemical properties and toxic effects. Finally, nanomolar amounts of C60-drug nanocomplexes in 1:1 and 2:1 molar ratios were explored to improve the efficiency of cell treatment, complementing it with photodynamic approach.
A proposed treatment strategy was developed for C60 nanocomplexes with the common chemotherapeutic drug Doxorubicin, whose intracellular accumulation and localization, cytotoxicity and mechanism of action were investigated. The developed strategy was revealed to be transferable to an alternative potent anticancer drug – the herbal alkaloid Berberine.
Hereafter, a strong synergy of treatments arising from the combination of C60-mediated drug delivery and C60 photoexcitation was revealed. Presented data indicate that a combination of chemo- and photodynamic treatments with C60-drug nanoformulations could provide a promising synergetic approach for cancer treatment.
Fluorescence microscopy is a form of light microscopy that has developed during the 20th century and is nowadays a standard tool in Molecular and Cell biology for studying the structure and function of biological molecules. High-resolution fluorescence microscopy techniques, such as dSTORM (direct Stochastic Optical Reconstruction Microscopy) allow the visualization of cellular structures at the nanometre scale (10−9 m). This has already made it possible to decipher the composition and function of various biopolymers, such as proteins, lipids and nucleic acids, up to the three-dimensional (3D) structure of entire organelles. In practice, however, it has been shown that these imaging methods and their further developments still face great challenges in order to achieve an effective resolution below ∼ 10 nm. This is mainly due to the nature of labelling biomolecules. For the detection of molecular structures, immunostaining is often performed as a standard method. Antibodies to which fluorescent molecules are coupled, recognize and bind specifcally and with high affnity to the molecular section of the target structure, also called epitope or antigen. The fluorescent molecules serve as reporter molecules which are imaged with the use of a fluorescence microscope. However, the size of these labels with a length of about 10-15 nm in the case of immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibodies, cause a detection of the fluorescent molecules shifted to the real position of the studied antigen. In dense regions where epitopes are located close to each other, steric hindrance between antibodies can also occur and leads to an insuffcient label density. Together with the shifted detection of fluorescent molecules, these factors can limit the achievable resolution of a microscopy technique. Expansion microscopy (ExM) is a recently developed technique that achieves a resolution improvement by physical expansion of an investigated object. Therefore, biological samples such as cultured cells, tissue sections, whole organs or isolated organelles are chemically anchored into a swellable polymer. By absorbing water, this so-called superabsorber increases its own volume and pulls the covalently bound biomolecules isotropically apart. Routinely, this method achieves a magnifcation of the sample by about four times its volume. But protocol variants have already been developed that result in higher expansion factors of up to 50-fold. Since the ExM technique includes in the frst instance only the sample treatment for anchoring and magnifcation of the sample, it can be combined with various standard methods of fluorescence microscopy. In theory, the resolution of the used imaging technique improves linearly with the expansion factor of the ExM treated sample. However, an insuffcient label density and the size of the antibodies can here again impair the effective achievable resolution. The combination of ExM with high-resolution fluorescence microscopy methods represents a promising strategy to increase the resolution of light microscopy. In this thesis, I will present several ExM variants I developed which show the combination of ExM with confocal microscopy, SIM (Structured Illumination Microscopy), STED (STimulated Emission Depletion) and dSTORM. I optimized existing ExM protocols and developed different expansion strategies, which allow the combination with the respective imaging technique. Thereby, I gained new structural insights of isolated centrioles from the green algae Chlamydomonas reinhardtii by combining ExM with STED and confocal microscopy. In another project, I combined 3D-SIM imaging with ExM and investigated the molecular structure of the so-called synaptonemal complex. This structure is formed during meiosis in eukaryotic cells and contributes to the exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes. Especially in combination with dSTORM, the ExM method showed its high potential to overcome the limitations of modern fluorescence microscopy techniques. In this project, I expanded microtubules in mammalian cells, a polymer of the cytoskeleton as well as isolated centrioles from C. reinhardtii. By labelling after expansion of the samples, I was able to signifcantly reduce the linkage error of the label and achieve an improved label density. In future, these advantages together with the single molecule sensitivity and high resolution obtained by the dSTORM method could pave the way for achieving molecular resolution in fluorescence microscopy
The family of trypanosomatid parasites, including the human pathogens Trypanosoma brucei and Leishmania, has evolved sophisticated strategies to survive in harmful host environments. While Leishmania generate a safe niche inside the host’s macrophages, Trypanosoma brucei lives extracellularly in the mammalian bloodstream, where it is constantly exposed to the attack of the immune system. Trypanosoma brucei ensures its survival by periodically changing its protective surface coat in a process known as antigenic variation. The surface coat is composed of one species of ‘variant surface glycoprotein’ (VSG). Even though the genome possesses a large repertoire of different VSG isoforms, only one is ever expressed at a time from one out of the 15 specialized subtelomeric ‘expression sites’ (ES). Switching the coat can be accomplished either by a recombination-based exchange of the actively-expressed VSG with a silent VSG, or by a transcriptional switch to a previously silent ES.
The conserved histone methyltransferase DOT1B methylates histone H3 on lysine 76 and is involved in ES regulation in T. brucei. DOT1B ensures accurate transcriptional silencing of the inactive ES VSGs and influences the kinetics of a transcriptional switch. The molecular machinery that enables DOT1B to execute these regulatory functions at the ES is still elusive, however. To learn more about DOT1B-mediated regulatory processes, I wanted to identify DOT1B-associated proteins.
Using two complementary approaches, specifically affinity purification and proximity-dependent biotin identification (BioID), I identified several novel DOT1B-interacting candidates. To validate these data, I carried out reciprocal co-immunoprecipitations with the most promising candidates. An interaction of DOT1B with the Ribonuclease H2 protein complex, which has never been described before in any other organism, was confirmed. Trypanosomal Ribonuclease H2 maintains genome integrity by resolving RNA-DNA hybrids, structures that if not properly processed might initiate antigenic variation. I then investigated DOT1B’s contribution to this novel route to antigenic variation. Remarkably, DOT1B depletion caused an increased RNA-DNA hybrid abundance, accumulation of DNA damage, and increased VSG switching. Deregulation of VSGs from throughout the silent repertoire was observed, indicating that recombination-based switching events occurred. Encouragingly, the pattern of deregulated VSGs was similar to that seen in Ribonuclease H2-depleted cells. Together these data support the hypothesis that both proteins act together in modulating RNA-DNA hybrids to contribute to the tightly-regulated process of antigenic variation.
The transmission of trypanosomatid parasites to mammalian hosts is facilitated by insect vectors. Parasites need to adapt to the extremely different environments encountered during transmission. To ensure their survival, they differentiate into various specialized forms adapted to each tissue microenvironment. Besides antigenic variation, DOT1B additionally affects the developmental differentiation from the mammalian-infective to the insect stage of Trypanosoma brucei. However, substantially less is known about the influence of chromatin-associated proteins such as DOT1B on survival and adaptation strategies of related Leishmania parasites. To elucidate whether DOT1B’s functions are conserved in Leishmania, phenotypes after gene deletion were analyzed. As in Trypanosoma brucei, generation of a gene deletion mutant demonstrated that DOT1B is not essential for the cell viability in vitro. DOT1B deletion was accompanied with a loss of histone H3 lysine 73 trimethylation (the lysine homologous to trypanosomal H3K76), indicating that Leishmania DOT1B is also solely responsible for catalyzing this post-translational modification. As in T. brucei, dimethylation could only be observed during mitosis/cytokinesis, while trimethylation was detectable throughout the cell cycle in wild-type cells. In contrast to the trypanosome DOT1B, LmxDOT1B was not essential for differentiation in vitro. However, preliminary data indicate that the enzyme is required for effective macrophage infection.
In conclusion, this study demonstrated that the identification of protein networks and the characterization of protein functions of orthologous proteins from related parasites are effective tools to improve our understanding of the parasite survival strategies. Such insights are a necessary step on the road to developing better treatments for the devastating diseases they cause.