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The adult form of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (aADHD) has a prevalence of up to 5% and is the most severe long-term outcome of this common neurodevelopmental disorder. Family studies in clinical samples suggest an increased familial liability for aADHD compared with childhood ADHD (cADHD), whereas twin studies based on self-rated symptoms in adult population samples show moderate heritability estimates of 30–40%. However, using multiple sources of information, the heritability of clinically diagnosed aADHD and cADHD is very similar. Results of candidate gene as well as genome-wide molecular genetic studies in aADHD samples implicate some of the same genes involved in ADHD in children, although in some cases different alleles and different genes may be responsible for adult versus childhood ADHD. Linkage studies have been successful in identifying loci for aADHD and led to the identification of LPHN3 and CDH13 as novel genes associated with ADHD across the lifespan. In addition, studies of rare genetic variants have identified probable causative mutations for aADHD. Use of endophenotypes based on neuropsychology and neuroimaging, as well as next-generation genome analysis and improved statistical and bioinformatic analysis methods hold the promise of identifying additional genetic variants involved in disease etiology. Large, international collaborations have paved the way for well-powered studies. Progress in identifying aADHD risk genes may provide us with tools for the prediction of disease progression in the clinic and better treatment, and ultimately may help to prevent persistence of ADHD into adulthood.
Based on genetic association and functional imaging studies, reduced function of tryptophan hydroxylase-2 (TPH2) has been shown to be critically involved in the pathophysiology of anxiety-disorders and depression. In order to elucidate the impact of a complete neuronal 5-HT deficiency, mice with a targeted inactivation of the gene encoding Tph2 were generated. Interestingly, survival of Tph2-/- mice, the formation of serotonergic neurons and the pathfinding of their projections was not impaired. Within this thesis, I investigated the influence of 5-HT deficiency on the γ-amino butyric acid (GABA) system. The GABAergic system is implicated in the pathophysiology of anxiety disorders. Therefore, measurement of GABA concentrations in different limbic brain regions was carried out. These measurements were combined with immunohistochemical estimation of GABAergic cell subpopulations in the dorsal hippocampus and amygdala. In Tph2-/- mice GABA concentrations were increased exclusively in the dorsal hippocampus. In heterozygous Tph2+/- mice concentrations of GABA were increased in the amygdala compared to Tph2-/- and wt control mice, while the reverse was found in the prefrontal cortex. The changes in GABA concentrations were accompanied by altered cell density of GABAergic neurons within the basolateral complex of the amygdala and parvalbumin (PV) neurons of the dorsal hippocampus and by adaptational changes of 5-HT receptors. Thus, adaptive changes during the development on the GABA system may reflect altered anxiety-like and depressive-like behavior in adulthood. Moreover, chronic mild stress (CMS) rescues the depressive-like effects induced by 5-HT deficiency. In contrast, 5-HT is important in mediating an increased innate anxiety-like behavior under CMS conditions. This is in line with a proposed dual role of 5-HT acting through different mechanisms on anxiety and depressive-like behavior, which is influenced by gene-environment interaction effects. Further research is needed to disentangle these complex networks in the future.
Das Ziel der Studie war es, den vorbeschriebenen Befund des P50-Gating-Defizits bei Schizophrenie, insbesondere die Unterschiede zwischen den verschiedenen Subgruppen nach Leonhard zu replizieren und darüber hinaus diejenigen kortikalen Areale zu detektieren, die während Bedingungen gesteigerten sensorischen Gatings mit signifikanter Aktivierung reagieren. Ferner sollten mögliche Differenzen im Muster kortikaler Aktivierung zwischen gesunden Kontrollen und Patienten aufgedeckt werden, um das kortikale Substrat defizitären sensorischen Gatings zu ermitteln.
A recent genome-wide association study in patients with panic disorder (PD) identified a risk haplotype consisting of two single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) (rs7309727 and rs11060369) located in intron 3 of TMEM132D to be associated with PD in three independent samples. Now we report a subsequent confirmation study using five additional PD case-control samples (n = 1670 cases and n 2266 controls) assembled as part of the Panic Disorder International Consortium (PanIC) study for a total of 2678 cases and 3262 controls in the analysis. In the new independent samples of European ancestry (EA), the association of rs7309727 and the risk haplotype rs7309727-rs11060369 was, indeed, replicated, with the strongest signal coming from patients with primary PD, that is, patients without major psychiatric comorbidities (n 1038 cases and n 2411 controls). This finding was paralleled by the results of the meta-analysis across all samples, in which the risk haplotype and rs7309727 reached P-levels of P = 1.4e-8 and P = 1.1e-8, respectively, when restricting the samples to individuals of EA with primary PD. In the Japanese sample no associations with PD could be found. The present results support the initial finding that TMEM132D gene contributes to genetic susceptibility for PD in individuals of EA. Our results also indicate that patient ascertainment and genetic background could be important sources of heterogeneity modifying this association signal in different populations.
Previous studies consistently reported abnormal recognition of facial expressions in depression. However, it is still not clear whether this abnormality is due to an enhanced or impaired ability to recognize facial expressions, and what underlying cognitive systems are involved. The present study aimed to examine how individuals with elevated levels of depressive symptoms differ from controls on facial expression recognition and to assess attention and information processing using eye tracking. Forty participants (18 with elevated depressive symptoms) were instructed to label facial expressions depicting one of seven emotions. Results showed that the high-depression group, in comparison with the low-depression group, recognized facial expressions faster and with comparable accuracy. Furthermore, the high-depression group demonstrated greater leftwards attention bias which has been argued to be an indicator of hyperactivation of right hemisphere during facial expression recognition.
Basing on the assumption that frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD), schizophrenia and bipolar disorder (BPD) might share common aetiological mechanisms, we analyzed genetic variation in the FTLD risk gene progranulin (GRN) in a German population of patients with schizophrenia (n=271) or BPD (n=237) as compared with 574 age-, gender-and ethnicity-matched controls. Furthermore, we measured plasma progranulin levels in 26 German BPD patients as well as in 61 Italian BPD patients and 29 matched controls. A significantly decreased allelic frequency of the minor versus the wild-type allele was observed for rs2879096 (23.2 versus 34.2%, P<0.001, OR: 0.63, 95% CI: 0.49-0.80), rs4792938 (30.7 versus 39.7%, P=0.005, OR: 0.70, 95% CI: 0.55-0.89) and rs5848 (30.3 versus 36.8, P=0.007, OR: 0.71, 95% CI: 0.56-0.91). Mean +/- SEM progranulin plasma levels were significantly decreased in BPD patients, either Germans or Italians, as compared with controls (89.69 +/- 3.97 and 116.14 +/- 5.80 ng/ml, respectively, versus 180.81 +/- 18.39 ng/ml P<0.001) and were not correlated with age. In conclusion, GRN variability decreases the risk to develop BPD and schizophrenia, and progranulin plasma levels are significantly lower in BPD patients than in controls. Nevertheless, a larger replication analysis would be needed to confirm these preliminary results.
The present cumulative dissertation comprises three neuroimaging studies using different techniques, functional tasks and experimental variables of diverse nature to investigate human prefrontal cortex (PFC) (dys)function as well as methodological aspects of functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS). (1) Both dopamine (DA) availability (“inverted U-model”) and excitatory versus inhibitory DA receptor stimulation (“dual-state theory”) have been linked to PFC processing and cognitive control function. Electroencephalography (EEG) was recorded during a Go/NoGo response inhibition task in 114 healthy controls and 181 adult patients with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). As a neural measure of prefrontal cognitive response control the anteriorization of the P300 centroid in NoGo- relative to Go-trials (NoGo anteriorization, NGA) was investigated for the impact of genetic polymorphisms modulating catechol-O-methyltransferase efficiency (COMT, Val158Met) in degrading prefrontal DA and inhibitory DA receptor D4 sensitivity (DRD4, 48bp VNTR). Single genes and ADHD diagnosis showed no significant impact on the NGA or behavioral measures. However, a significant COMT×DRD4 interaction was revealed as subjects with relatively increased D4-receptor function (DRD4: no 7R-alleles) displayed an “inverted U”-relationship between the NGA and increasing COMT-dependent DA levels, whereas subjects with decreased D4-sensitivity (7R) showed a U-relationship. This interaction was supported by 7R-allele dose-effects and also reflected by an impact on task behavior, i.e. intraindividual reaction time variability. Combining previous theories of PFC DA function, neural stability at intermediate DA levels may be accompanied by the risk of overly decreased neural flexibility if inhibitory DA receptor function is additionally decreased. The findings of COMT×DRD4 epistasis might help to disentangle the genetic basis of dopaminergic mechanisms underlying prefrontal (dys)function. (2) While progressive neurocognitive impairments are associated with aging and Alzheimer's disease (AD), cortical reorganization might delay difficulties in effortful word retrieval, which is one of the earliest cognitive signs of AD. Therefore, cortical hemodynamic responses were measured with fNIRS during phonological and semantic verbal fluency, and investigated in 325 non-demented, healthy subjects (age: 51-82 years). The predictive value of age, sex, verbal fluency performance and years of education for the cortical hemodynamics was assessed using multiple regression analyses. Age predicted bilaterally reduced inferior frontal junction (IFJ) and increased middle frontal and supramarginal gyri activity in both task conditions. Years of education as well as sex (IFJ activation in females > males) partly predicted opposite effects on activation compared to age, while task performance was not a significant predictor. All predictors showed small effect sizes (-.24 < β < .22). Middle frontal and supramarginal gyri activity may compensate for an aging-related decrease in IFJ recruitment during verbal fluency. The findings of aging-related (compensatory) cortical reorganization of verbal fluency processing might, in combination with other (risk) factors and using longitudinal observations, help to identify neurodegenerative processes of Alzheimer's disease, while individuals are still cognitively healthy. (3) Individual anatomical or systemic physiological sources of variance may hamper the interpretation of fNIRS signals as neural correlates of cortical functions and their association with individual personality traits. Using simultaneous fNIRS and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) of hemodynamic responses elicited by an intertemporal choice task in 20 healthy subjects, variability in crossmodal correlations and divergence in associations of the activation with trait "sensitivity to reward" (SR) was investigated. Moreover, an impact of interindividual anatomy and scalp fMRI signal fluctuations on fNIRS signals and activation-trait associations was studied. Both methods consistently detected activation within right inferior/middle frontal gyrus, while fNIRS-fMRI correlations showed wide variability between subjects. Up to 41% of fNIRS channel activation variance was explained by gray matter volume (simulated to be) traversed by near-infrared light, and up to 20% by scalp-cortex distance. Extracranial fMRI and fNIRS time series showed significant temporal correlations at the temple. Trait SR was negatively correlated with fMRI but not fNIRS activation elicited by immediate rewards of choice within right inferior/middle frontal gyrus. Higher trait SR increased the correlation between extracranial fMRI signal fluctuations and fNIRS signals, suggesting that task-evoked systemic arousal-effects might be trait-dependent. Task-related fNIRS signals might be impacted by regionally and individually weighted sources of anatomical and systemic physiological error variance. Traitactivation correlations might be affected or biased by systemic physiological arousal-effects, which should be accounted for in future fNIRS studies of interindividual differences.
Early-life stress has been shown to influence the development of the brain and to increase the risk for psychiatric disorders later in life. Furthermore, variation in the human serotonin transporter (5-HTT, SLC6A4) gene is suggested to exert a modulating effect on the association between early-life stress and the risk for depression. At the basis of these gene x environment (G x E) interactions, epigenetic mechanisms, such as DNA-methylation, seem to represent the primary biological processes mediating early-life programming for stress susceptibility or resilience, respectively. The exact molecular mechanisms however remain to be elucidated, though. In the present study, we used two different stress paradigms to assess the molecular mechanisms mediating the relationship between early-life stress and disorders of emotion regulation later in life. First, a 5-Htt x prenatal stress (PS) paradigm was applied to investigate whether the effects of PS are dependent on the 5-Htt genotype. For this purpose, the effects of PS on cognition and anxiety- / depression-related behavior were examined using a maternal restraint stress paradigm of PS in C57BL/6 wild-type (WT) and heterozygous 5-Htt deficient (5-Htt+/-) mice. Additionally, in female offspring, a genome-wide hippocampal gene expression and DNA methylation profiling was performed using the Affymetrix GeneChip® Mouse Genome 430 2.0 Array and the AffymetrixGeneChip® Mouse Promoter 1.0R Array. Some of the resulting candidate genes were validated by quantitative real-time PCR. Further, the gene expression of these genes was measured in other brain regions of the PS animals as well as in the hippocampus of offspring of another, 5-Htt x perinatal stress (PeS) paradigm, in which pregnant and lactating females were stressed by an olfactory cue indicating infanticide. To assess resilience to PS and PeS, correlation studies between gene expression and behaviour were performed based on an initial performance-based LIMMA analysis of the gene expression microarray. 5-Htt+/- offspring of the PS paradigm showed enhanced memory performance and signs of reduced anxiety as compared to WT offspring. In contrast, exposure of 5-Htt+/- mice to PS was associated with increased depression-like behavior, an effect that tended to be more pronounced in female offspring. Further, 5-Htt genotype, PS and their interaction differentially affected the expression and DNA methylation of numerous genes and related pathways within the female hippocampus. Specifically, MAPK and neurotrophin signaling were regulated by both the 5-Htt+/- genotype and PS exposure, whereas cytokine and Wnt signaling were affected in a 5-Htt genotype x PS manner, indicating a gene x environment interaction at the molecular level. The candidate genes of the expression array could be validated and their expression patterns were partly consistent in the prefrontal cortex and striatum. Furthermore, the genotype effect of XIAP associated factor 1 (Xaf1) was also detected in the mice of the PeS paradigm. Concerning resilience, we found that the expression of growth hormone (Gh), prolactin (Prl) and fos-induced growth factor (Figf) were downregulated in WTPS mice that performed well in the forced swim test (FST). At the same time, the results indicated that Gh and Prl expression correlated positively with adrenal weight, whereas Figf expression correlated positively with basal corticosteron concentration, indicating an intricate relationship between depression-like behavior, hippocampal gene expression and the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis activity. Correlation studies in the PeS animals revealed a link between Gh / Prl expression and anxiety-like behavior. In conclusion, our data suggest that although the 5-Htt+/- genotype shows clear adaptive capacity, 5-Htt+/- mice, particularly females, appear to be more vulnerable to developmental stress exposure when compared to WT offspring. Moreover, hippocampal gene expression and DNA methylation profiles suggest that distinct epigenetic mechanisms at the molecular level mediate the behavioral effects of the 5-Htt genotype, PS exposure, and their interaction. Further, resilience to early-life stress might be conferred by genes whose expression is linked to HPA axis function.
Background: Cytokines such as interleukin 6 (IL-6) have been implicated in dual functions in neuropsychiatric disorders. Little is known about the genetic predisposition to neurodegenerative and neuroproliferative properties of cytokine genes. In this study the potential dual role of several IL-6 polymorphisms in brain morphology is investigated.
Methodology: In a large sample of healthy individuals (N = 303), associations between genetic variants of IL-6 (rs1800795; rs1800796, rs2069833, rs2069840) and brain volume (gray matter volume) were analyzed using voxel-based morphometry (VBM). Selection of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) followed a tagging SNP approach (e. g., Stampa algorigthm), yielding a capture 97.08% of the variation in the IL-6 gene using four tagging SNPs. Principal findings/results In a whole-brain analysis, the polymorphism rs1800795 (-174 C/G) showed a strong main effect of genotype (43 CC vs. 150 CG vs. 100 GG; x = 24, y = -10, z = -15; F(2,286) = 8.54, p(uncorrected) = 0.0002; p(AlphaSim-corrected) = 0.002; cluster size k = 577) within the right hippocampus head. Homozygous carriers of the G-allele had significantly larger hippocampus gray matter volumes compared to heterozygous subjects. None of the other investigated SNPs showed a significant association with grey matter volume in whole-brain analyses.
Conclusions/significance: These findings suggest a possible neuroprotective role of the G-allele of the SNP rs1800795 on hippocampal volumes. Studies on the role of this SNP in psychiatric populations and especially in those with an affected hippocampus (e.g., by maltreatment, stress) are warranted.
Ziel der vorliegenden, experimentellen Arbeit war die Untersuchung der Persönlichkeitseigenschaft der Impulsivität bei adulten Patienten mit ADHS und vergleichbaren Versuchspersonen. Da die Ätiopathogenese erhöhter Impulsivität bei Patienten mit ADHS bislang ungeklärt ist, eine Beeinflussung des dopaminergen Systems durch vorausgehende Studien allerdings nahe liegt, wurden die verwendeten Impulsivitätsmessungen zusätzlich bezüglich einer möglichen Beeinflussung durch den Val158Met-COMT-Polymorphismus analysiert. Die Untersuchung beinhaltet mit 71 adulten Patienten mit ADHS und 54 gesunden Kontrollpersonen, die nach Alter, Geschlecht, IQ, Kopfumfang und Händigkeit vergleichbar waren, eine der aktuell größten Stichproben adulter Patienten mit ADHS. Während einer Stoppsignal-Aufgabe zur Erfassung der Antworthemmungsfähigkeit als Korrelat der Impulsivität wurden die Verhaltensdaten der Stichproben sowie die hirnphysiologischen Veränderungen mittels funktioneller Nahinfrarotspektroskopie aufgezeichnet und ausgewertet. Die erhobenen experimentellen Daten wurden anschließend mit selbstbewerteter Impulsivität des I7-Impulsivitätsfragebogens nach Eysenck verglichen und auf mögliche Zusammenhänge überprüft. Zudem wurden die beobachteten Ergebnisse der vorliegenden Arbeit auf einen möglichen Einfluss durch den Val158Met-COMT-Polymorphismus untersucht. Auf der Verhaltensebene zeigten Patienten mit ADHS im Vergleich zu gesunden Kontrollpersonen sowohl für die SSRZ als auch für die Go-RZ signifikant langsamere Reaktionszeiten. Im Vergleich der funktionellen Daten konnten für Patienten mit ADHS während der erfolgreichen Stopp-Trials signifikant bzw. tendenziell verminderte Aktivierungen im Bereich des IFC und DLPFC in beiden Hemisphären festgestellt werden. Die Untersuchung der selbstbewerteten Impulsivität anhand des I7-Fragebogens ergab ebenfalls einen signifikanten Unterschied zwischen den beiden Stichproben. Bezüglich der Zusammenhänge zwischen den einzelnen Impulsivitätsmessungen konnten für Patienten mit ADHS signifikant bzw. tendenziell negative Zusammenhänge zwischen SSRZ und Oxygenierung im rechten IFC sowie zwischen SSRZ bzw. Go-RZ und I7-Impulsivitätswerten festgestellt werden. In der Untersuchung des Einflusses durch den Val158Met-COMT-Polymorphismus ergab sich ein sehr heterogenes Bild, in dem sich keine eindeutig systematischen Genotyp- oder Interaktionseffekte zeigten. Während die beobachteten Befunde auf Verhaltensebene auf eine generelle Verlangsamung adulter Patienten mit ADHS im Vergleich zu gesunden Kontrollpersonen hindeuten, könnte das verminderte Aktivierungsmuster im Bereich des IFC und DLPFC während der erfolgreichen Stopp-Trials bei Patienten mit ADHS möglicherweise das zugrundeliegende funktionelle Korrelat zu den beobachteten Reaktionsunterschieden zwischen den beiden Stichproben darstellen. Obwohl Patienten mit ADHS im Vergleich zu gesunden Kontrollen aufgrund ihrer erhöhten Impulsivität defizitär erscheinen, deuten die Befunde bezüglich des Zusammenhangs zwischen selbstbewerteter und experimentell erhobener Impulsivität innerhalb der Patientengruppe einen möglichen Vorteil erhöhter I7-Impulsivitätswerte für die Reaktionsfähigkeit in der Stoppsignal-Aufgabe an. Bezüglich der Beeinflussung der erhobenen Daten durch den Val158Met-COMT-Polymorphismus lassen sich anhand der Befunde dieser Arbeit keine klaren Schlussfolgerungen ziehen.
Brain serotonin (5-HT) is implicated in a wide range of functions from basic physiological mechanisms to complex behaviors, including neuropsychiatric conditions, as well as in developmental processes. Increasing evidence links 5-HT signaling alterations during development to emotional dysregulation and psychopathology in adult age. To further analyze the importance of brain 5-HT in somatic and brain development and function, and more specifically differentiation and specification of the serotonergic system itself, we generated a mouse model with brain-specific 5-HT deficiency resulting from a genetically driven constitutive inactivation of neuronal tryptophan hydroxylase-2 (Tph2). Tph2 inactivation (Tph2-/-) resulted in brain 5-HT deficiency leading to growth retardation and persistent leanness, whereas a sex- and age-dependent increase in body weight was observed in Tph2+/- mice. The conserved expression pattern of the 5-HT neuron-specific markers (except Tph2 and 5-HT) demonstrates that brain 5-HT synthesis is not a prerequisite for the proliferation, differentiation and survival of raphe neurons subjected to the developmental program of serotonergic specification. Furthermore, although these neurons are unable to synthesize 5-HT from the precursor tryptophan, they still display electrophysiological properties characteristic of 5-HT neurons. Moreover, 5-HT deficiency induces an up-regulation of 5-HT\(_{1A}\) and 5-HT\(_{1B}\) receptors across brain regions as well as a reduction of norepinephrine concentrations accompanied by a reduced number of noradrenergic neurons. Together, our results characterize developmental, neurochemical, neurobiological and electrophysiological consequences of brain-specific 5-HT deficiency, reveal a dual dose-dependent role of 5-HT in body weight regulation and show that differentiation of serotonergic neuron phenotype is independent from endogenous 5-HT synthesis.
Die Alzheimer Demenz und der Morbus Parkinson als häufigste neurodegenerative Erkrankungen führen zu schwerer Behinderung, zu Pflegebedürftigkeit und meist über Komplikationen zum Tod. Ihr langer Verlauf stellt für Betroffene, Angehörige sowie für das Gesundheitssystem eine enorme Belastung dar. Da die Ätiologie der Alzheimer Demenz und des Morbus Parkinson sowie der meisten neurodegenerativen Krankheiten im Einzelnen nicht bekannt sind und phänotypische Überschneidungen auftreten, sind die Möglichkeiten der eindeutigen Diagnosestellung häufig eingeschränkt oder erst postmortal möglich. Um eine Therapie bei Auftreten der ersten klinischen Symptome zu beginnen oder eine Voraussage der Erkrankungen zu ermöglichen, ist eine sensitive und validierte Frühdiagnostik nötig. Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit war deshalb, auf der Genebene potentielle pathogenetische Verbindungen, mögliche diagnostische Markerproteine sowie Zusammenhänge zum zeitlichen Verlauf beider Krankheiten zu identifizieren. Dafür wurde mit der Real-Time Polymerasekettenreaktion die Expression von 44 Genen anhand von post mortem Gehirngewebe von Patienten mit Alzheimer Demenz, Morbus Parkionson im Vergleich zu Gesunden aus den vier Hirnregionen Hippocampus, Gyrus frontalis medialis, Gyrus temporalis medialis und Kleinhirn untersucht. Im Resultat zeigen die Gene mit einer statistisch signifikant veränderten Expression, z. B. Glutamattransporter, olfaktorische Rezeptoren oder vakuoläre Sortierungsproteine, bei beiden Erkrankungen gehäuft gleichsinnige Änderungen. Anhand dieser Ergebnisse ist eine kausale Verknüpfung des veränderten Genmetabolismus mit der ablaufenden Neurodegeneration zu vermuten. Zusätzlich wird die Hypothese gemeinsamer pathogenetischer Mechanismen beider Erkrankungen untermauert. Zusammenhänge der Genexpression zum zeitlichen Verlauf der Erkrankungen werden nur vereinzelt belegt, bekräftigten dann aber die Annahme einer Assoziation zu den degenerativen Prozessen. Die Identifizierung eines spezifischen Biomarkers für eine der beiden Erkrankungen war ein Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit. Aufgrund seiner Expressionsänderung im Hippocampus bei Patienten mit Alzheimer Demenz könnte das BACE1-Gen (Beta site APP cleaving enzyme 1), das dort eine signifikante Expressionsabnahme zeigt, als solcher für dieses Patientenkollektiv diskutiert werden. Die häufig in dieser Arbeit im Hippocampus detektierten, signifikanten Expressionsänderungen, weisen zudem auf eine besondere Affektion dieser Hirnregion bei der Alzheimer Demenz als auch beim Morbus Parkinson hin. Des Weiteren werden in der vorliegenden Arbeit im Kleinhirn, einer Hirnregion, in der bei beiden Erkrankungen scheinbar kaum oder keine pathologischen Prozesse ablaufen, gehäuft und dann ähnliche Änderungen der Genexpression gemessen, die für eine Beteiligung des Kleinhirns bei beiden Krankheiten sprechen, deren Bedeutung bislang unklar ist.
Background: Panic disorder is common (5% prevalence) and females are twice as likely to be affected as males. The heritable component of panic disorder is estimated at 48%. Glutamic acid dehydrogenase GAD1, the key enzyme for the synthesis of the inhibitory and anxiolytic neurotransmitter GABA, is supposed to influence various mental disorders, including mood and anxiety disorders. In a recent association study in depression, which is highly comorbid with panic disorder, GAD1 risk allele associations were restricted to females. Methodology/Principal Findings: Nineteen single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) tagging the common variation in GAD1 were genotyped in two independent gender and age matched case-control samples (discovery sample n = 478; replication sample n = 584). Thirteen SNPs passed quality control and were examined for gender-specific enrichment of risk alleles associated with panic disorder by using logistic regression including a genotype6gender interaction term. The latter was found to be nominally significant for four SNPs (rs1978340, rs3762555, rs3749034, rs2241165) in the discovery sample; of note, the respective minor/risk alleles were associated with panic disorder only in females. These findings were not confirmed in the replication sample; however, the genotype6gender interaction of rs3749034 remained significant in the combined sample. Furthermore, this polymorphism showed a nominally significant association with the Agoraphobic Cognitions Questionnaire sum score. Conclusions/Significance: The present study represents the first systematic evaluation of gender-specific enrichment of risk alleles of the common SNP variation in the panic disorder candidate gene GAD1. Our tentative results provide a possible explanation for the higher susceptibility of females to panic disorder.
Eine wesentliche Rolle hinsichtlich der Pathophysiologie der ADHS scheint der komplexe Prozess der Signaltransduktion an der neuronalen Synapse innezuhaben. Dieser wird bewerkstelligt durch ein komplexes Zusammenspiel sogenannter SNARE-Proteine, unter anderem dem synaptosomal-assoziiertem Protein SNAP-25. Gegenstand der vorliegenden Arbeit ist die Untersuchung potentiell-funktioneller Varianten des Kandidatengens SNAP-25 auf eine Assoziation mit der ADHS in einer deutschen Stichprobe. Bei den untersuchten Single-Nukleotid-Polymorphsimen handelt es sich dabei um SNP rs6077690 im Promotorbereich und SNP rs363006 in Intron 8 des Kandidatengens SNAP-25, deren Assoziation mit der ADHS in der Fachliteratur beschrieben ist. Desweiteren wurde ein bis lang nicht untersuchter SNP,rs6039769 in diese Studie miteinbezogen.
Background: There is increasing evidence that glial cells play a role in the pathomechanisms of mood disorders and the mode of action of antidepressant drugs.
Methods: To examine whether there is a direct effect on the expression of different genes encoding proteins that have been implicated in the pathophysiology of affective disorders, primary astrocyte cell cultures from rats were treated with two different antidepressant drugs, imipramine and escitalopram, and the RNA expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (Bdnf), serotonin transporter (5Htt), dopamine transporter (Dat), and endothelial nitric oxide synthase (Nos3) was examined.
Results: Stimulation of astroglial cell culture with imipramine, a tricyclic antidepressant, led to a significant increase of the Bdnf RNA level whereas treatment with escitalopram did not. In contrast, 5Htt was not differentially expressed after antidepressant treatment. Finally, neither Dat nor Nos3 RNA expression was detected in cultured astrocytes.
Conclusion: These data provide further evidence for a role of astroglial cells in the molecular mechanisms of action of antidepressants.
Elektrophysiologische Korrelate der Konfliktverarbeitung bei hierarchischen Stimuli mit drei Ebenen
(2012)
Diese Studie untersucht den Einfluss des Aufmerksamkeitsfokus und des Interferenzgrades dreidimensionaler Stimuli auf Verhaltensdaten (Anzahl korrekter Antworten, Reaktionszeiten) und elektrophysiologische Daten. Wir orientierten uns hierbei an einem von Blasi gestalteten dreidimensionalen Pfeilbild- Paradigma (Blasi et al., 2005, 2007). Blasis Paradigma darf man insofern als sehr innovativ bezeichnen, da er der einer der wenigen war, der im Bereich der Interferenzforschung dreidimensionales Stimulusmaterial zum Einsatz brachte. Jedoch sind wir der Meinung, dass Blasis Entwurf des Paradigmas sich trotz aller Innovativität nicht in vollem Ausmaß dazu eignet, valide Aussagen über Interferenz und Aufmerksamkeit zu treffen. Der mögliche Einfluss des visuellen Erscheinungsbildes eines Stimulus, die Möglichkeit von Lateralitätseffekten, die Beschränkung auf nur einzelne Pfeilstimuli, sowie die mangelnde Trennung von Interferenz- und Aufmerksamkeitsprozessen fanden dort keine kritische Beachtung. Im Gegensatz zu Blasi führten wir unsere Untersuchungen nicht mit dem fMRI, sondern mittels ereigniskorrelierter Potentiale (P1, P2, N2, P3) durch. Zahlreiche andere Studien vor uns untersuchten bereits die Auswirkungen von Interferenz und Aufmerksamkeitsfokus auf ebendiese Potentiale, da EKPs eine genauere zeitliche Information liefern. Das Besondere an unserem Vorgehen war, dass – soweit in der Literatur bekannt – zum ersten Mal der Einfluss von Aufmerksamkeit und Interferenz völlig unabhängig von dem optischen Erscheinungsbild des Stimulus, ohne einen zu erwartetem Lateralitätseffet und ohne Konfundation von Interferenz- und Aufmerksamkeitsprozessen diskutiert werden konnte.
Intrazerebrale stereotaktische Eingriffe werden zu einem großen Teil ohne direkte Sichtkontrolle durchgeführt. Ein Operateur muss sich deshalb bei der räumlichen Festlegung von Strukturen und beim Anfahren dieser Strukturen auf Hilfsmittel wie stereotaktische Geräte und auf Atlanten, über welche die stereotaktischen Geräte gesteuert werden, verlassen. Trotz großer Fortschritte bei den bildgebenden Verfahren während der letzten dreißig Jahre, ist es gegenwärtig noch nicht möglich, zuverlässig alle subkortikalen Strukturen mit computertomographischen (CT) oder magnetresonanztomographischen (MRT) zu identifizieren oder begrenzen. Eine ganze Reihe zytoarchitektonischer beziehungsweise immunhistochemischer Atlanten wurde veröffentlicht. Dennoch ist es nicht gelungen, die Ergebnisse und Abbildungen dieser Atlanten mit bildgebenden Verfahren bis in die gewünschten Details zu kombinieren, um auf diese Weise das immer noch geringe Auflösungsvermögen radiologischer Methoden zu erhöhen. Deformationen bei der Gewebsentnahme des Gehirns, bei der anschließenden Einbettung, bei der alkoholischen Dehydrierung des Gewebes, Verformungen beim Schneiden und Färben der Schnitte überfordern selbst hoch komplexe mathematische Verfahren und Algorithmen beim Versuch, zytoarchitektonische und immunhistochemische Schnitte mit der gewünschten Präzision den radiologischen Ergebnissen und Bildern und damit indirekt auch den Verhältnissen in vivo anzupassen. Als Alternative verwendeten wir ungewöhnlich dicke (350 – 440 µm) Gallozyanin- (Nissl) gefärbte Serienschnitte durch die Gehirne (ZNS) von drei Personen im Alter von 56, 68 und 36 Jahren. Bei einem Fall wurde das ZNS post mortem mit einem Kernspintomographen vor der Entnahme gescannt. Die Serienschnitte durch dieses Gehirn und das eines zweiten und dritten nicht-gescannten Falles wurden mit Gallozyanin gefärbt, die zytoarchitektonischen Grenzen des Thalamuskomplexes und seiner Unterkerne wurden nach Hassler (1982) identifiziert, jede ihrer Grenzen mit dem Cursor eines Graphiktabletts umfahren und die Gestalt des Thalamuskomplexes und seiner Unterkerne mit Hilfe von Photoshop CS5® und eines computergestützten 3D-Rekonstruktionsprogramms (Amira®) dargestellt. Im Fall 3 ließen sich nach Dunkelfeldbeleuchten die Verteilung markhaltiger Fasern studieren und die zytoarchitektonischen mit myeloarchitektonischen Befunden erweitern und ergänzen. Zusätzlich konnten im Fall 1 die histologischen Serienschnitte und ihre 3D Rekonstruktion mit dem post mortem in cranio MRT registriert werden. Insgesamt kann dieser methodische Ansatz als eine robuste und relativ einfache wenn auch mit umfangreicherer manueller Tätigkeit verbundene Technik zur sehr detailreichen unverformten Korrelation zytoarchitektonischer und kernspinotomographsicher Darstellung des Thalamuskomplexus und seiner Unterkerne angesehen werden. Sie könnte als Grundlage für die Herausgabe eines multimedialen 3D stereotaktischen Atlas des menschlichen Gehirns dienen.
Multiple fluorescence in situ hybridization is the method of choice for studies aimed at determining simultaneous production of signal transduction molecules and neuromodulators in neurons. In our analyses of the monoamine receptor mRNA expression of peptidergic neurons in the rat telencephalon, double tyramide-signal-amplified fluorescence in situ hybridization delivered satisfactory results for coexpression analysis of neuropeptide Y (NPY) and serotonin receptor 2C (5-HT2C) mRNA, a receptor subtype expressed at high-to-moderate abundance in the regions analyzed. However, expression of 5-HT1A mRNA, which is expressed at comparatively low abundance in many telencephalic areas, could not be unequivocally identified in NPY mRNA-reactive neurons due to high background and poor signal-to-noise ratio in fluorescent receptor mRNA detections. Parallel chromogenic in situ hybridization provided clear labeling for 5-HT1A mRNA and additionally offered the possibility to monitor the chromogen deposition at regular time intervals to determine the optimal signal-to-noise ratio. We first developed a double labeling protocol combining fluorescence and chromogenic in situ hybridization and subsequently expanded this variation to combine double fluorescence and chromogenic in situ hybridization for triple labelings. With this method, we documented expression of 5-HT2C and/or 5-HT1A in subpopulations of telencephalic NPY-producing neurons. The method developed in the present study appears suitable for conventional light and fluorescence microscopy, combines advantages of fluorescence and chromogenic in situ hybridization protocols and thus provides a reliable non-radioactive alternative to previously published multiple labeling methods for coexpression analyses in which one mRNA species requires highly sensitive detection.
Multiple fluorescence in situ hybridization is the method of choice for studies aimed at determining simultaneous production of signal transduction molecules and neuromodulators in neurons. In our analyses of the monoamine receptor mRNA expression of peptidergic neurons in the rat telencephalon, double tyramide-signal-amplified fluorescence in situ hybridization delivered satisfactory results for coexpression analysis of neuropeptide Y (NPY) and serotonin receptor 2C (5-HT2C) mRNA, a receptor subtype expressed at high-to-moderate abundance in the regions analyzed. However, expression of 5-HT1A mRNA, which is expressed at comparatively low abundance in many telencephalic areas, could not be unequivocally identified in NPY mRNA-reactive neurons due to high background and poor signal-to-noise ratio in fluorescent receptor mRNA detections. Parallel chromogenic in situ hybridization provided clear labeling for 5-HT1A mRNA and additionally offered the possibility to monitor the chromogen deposition at regular time intervals to determine the optimal signal-to-noise ratio. We first developed a double labeling protocol combining fluorescence and chromogenic in situ hybridization and subsequently expanded this variation to combine double fluorescence and chromogenic in situ hybridization for triple labelings. With this method, we documented expression of 5-HT2C and/or 5-HT1A in subpopulations of telencephalic NPY-producing neurons. The method developed in the present study appears suitable for conventional light and fluorescence microscopy, combines advantages of fluorescence and chromogenic in situ hybridization protocols and thus provides a reliable non-radioactive alternative to previously published multiple labeling methods for coexpression analyses in which one mRNA species requires highly sensitive detection.