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A small percentage (1-5%) of the blood lymphocytes expresses alternative T-cell antigen receptor that uses g and d TCR rearranging genes. A subset of them expresses the Vg9Vd2 TCR. Those cells respond to self-nonpeptide and foreign antigens presented by unknown antigen-presenting molecules. Vg9Vd2 T cells also express Toll-like receptors and natural killer receptors that allow them to respond to other nonpeptide microbial components or to alterations in the expression of stress cell surface ligands such as NKG2D ligands. Vg9Vd2 T cells frequently are regulated by the expression of activating and/or inhibitory NKRs (iNKRs) that can fine-tune their activation threshold and the activating NKG2D receptor is one of the most studied until now. NKG2D, a C-type lectin receptor directed against MICA/MICB and UL16-binding protein (ULBP) molecules, have been reported a powerful co-stimulus for Ag-mediated activation of CD8 and Vg9Vd2 T cells. Indeed, NKG2D is recruited within the Vg9Vd2 TCR immunological synapse and enhances recognition by Vg9Vd2 T cells of Mycobacteria-infected DCs and various MICA/MICB or ULBP hemopoietic and non-hemopoietic tumors. The level of NKG2D is upregulated by inflammatory cytokines (e.g. IL-15), and NKG2D ligands are induced after a physical or genotoxic stress and/or along infection by intracellular pathogens. Therefore, NKG2D is a key stress sensor that strongly enhances recognition of altered or infected self by human gd T cells. Recent progress in the field supports the idea that gd T cells fulfill a role in the innate and adaptative immune response in different way of the conventional ab T cells. We demonstrated direct activation of Vg9Vd2 T cells by NKG2D ligation through the association with DAP10 adapter molecules and independently of TCR-Ag recognition, similar to the NKG2D-mediated activation of NK cells. Culture of peripherical blood mononuclear cells with immobilized NKG2D mAb or NKG2D ligand MICA induces up-regulation of CD69 and CD25 in NK and Vg9Vd2 T cells but not in CD8 T cells. Additionally, the ligation of NKG2D induces in Vg9Vd2 T cells the up-regulation of molecules typical for antigenpresenting cells, such as co-stimulator molecules (CD86) antigen presenting molecules (CD1a, HLA-DR), adhesion molecules (CD54), and activation molecules (CD69). Furthermore, NKG2D ligation in Vg9Vd2 T cells induces the production of cytokines such as TNF-a and chemokines such as, MIP-1a, but cannot induce the production of cytokines such as IL-6 or IFN-g and chemokines such as RANTES, MCP-1 and GM-CSF. In addition, NKG2D triggers the activation of the cytolytic machinery as efficient as CD3 stimulation as shown by measurement of the release of granules with esterase activity (BLT assay), perforin and the up-regulation of CD107a on the surface of Vg9Vd2 T cells. This NKG2D dependent cytolysis has been confirmed using purified Vg9Vd2 T cells, which kill MICA-transduced RMA cells but not the control cells. The TCR independence and NKG2D dependence of this killing is supported by mAb inhibition experiment. Finally, DAP 10, which mediates NKG2D signaling of human NK cells, is found in resting and activated Vg9Vd2 T cells. Moreover, data of intracellular signaling studies suggest an important role of Scr kinases in the NKG2D mediated killing and involvement of DAP-10-PI3K and PLCg 1 pathways as mayor proteins implicated in target cell lysis, and shows remarkable difference with the TCR signaling. The identification of these similarities in NKG2D function between NK and Vg9Vd2 T cells may be of interest for development of new strategies for Vg9Vd2 T cell-based immunotherapy in certain types of cancer and help to understand Vg9Vd2 T cell function in general.
Transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs) or prion diseases are a group of infectious neurodegenerative diseases that are associated with misfolding of the cellular form of the cellular prion protein (PrPC) into a disease associated conformer (PrPSc). No therapy for prion diseases is available at present. So far, anti-PrPC vaccination is hampered by immunological tolerance of the mammalian immune system to endogenous PrPC. The aim of this thesis was to set up a new vaccination strategy based on virus-like particles (VLP) to induce anti-PrPC antibody responses in PrPC-competent mice. In a first step it was assessed whether VLP have the capacity to induce antibody responses that are protective against conventional pathogens. For this purpose, VLP displaying the vesicular stomatitis virus-gylcoprotein (VLP-VSV) were generated and tested for their immunogenicity. Similarly to live vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV), replication deficient VLP-VSV induced T help-independent VSV neutralizing IgM responses that switched to the IgG subclass in a T help-dependent manner. Furthermore, type I IFN receptor (IFNAR) triggering only marginally affected VLP-VSV induced neutralizing IgM responses, whereas it was critically required to promote the IgG switch. The analysis of conditional knockout mice with a lymphocyte-specific IFNAR deletion revealed that IFNAR triggering of lymphocytes did not play a crucial role, neither upon VLP-VSV nor VSV immunization. Collectively, these data verified the high immunogenicity of VLP. Therefore, in a next step VLP were generated displaying the C-terminal half of PrP (residues 121-231aa) fused to the platelet derived growth factor receptor (PDGFR) transmembrane region (VLP-PrPD111) for anti-PrPC immunization. On the surface of such retroparticles, PrPC was expressed at high levels as determined by electron microscopy. VLP-PrPD111 immunization of Prnp-deficient (Prnp0/0) mice resulted in antibody response specifically binding the cellular form of PrPC. Upon intravenous injection of wild-type mice, high PrPC-specific IgM responses were induced, whereas the T cell-dependent switch from the IgM to the IgG subclass was less pronounced. As a consequence, anti-PrPC titers were rather short-lived. The impaired subclass switch was probably related with host T cell tolerance to endogenous PrPC. Attempts to increase anti-PrPC IgG responses in wild-type mice via administration of VLP-PrPD111 emulsified in various different adjuvants failed. Nevertheless, in single individuals low IgG antibodies were induced after immunization of VLP-PrPD111 emulsified in CFA. To circumvent T cell tolerance in wild-type mice, a multitude of different immunization strategies was tested, including priming and boosting protocols with different types of VLP or VLP expressing PrPC together with foreign T helper epitopes. Overall, those efforts did not improve anti-PrPC IgG responses in wild-type mice. Interestingly, anti-PrPC antibodies induced in Prnp0/0 mice reduced PrPSc levels in prion infected cell cultures, whereas serum of vaccinated wild-type mice did not. To assess the protective capacity of VLP-PrPD111 induced immune responses, vaccinated wild-type mice were infected with scrapie (RML 5.0). Unfortunately, vaccinated mice did not show a significant delay in the onset of scrapie. In a last part of the thesis it was studied whether in the absence of T cell help activated “memory” B cells were able to produce anti-PrPC specific antibodies. To address this question, PrPC-specific memory B cells were sorted from vaccinated Prnp0/0 mice and adoptively transferred into wild-type recipient mice. Upon VLP-PrPD111 challenge, no PrPC-specific IgG titers were induced in the recipients. Nevertheless, several VLP-PrPD111 challenged recipient mice were protected against scrapie infection. In conclusion, VLP were characterized as highly immunogenic vaccines that were used to elucidate various questions concerning adaptive immune response and basic mechanisms of PrPC-specific tolerance vs. immunity. Remarkably, VLP-PrPD111 was able to induce native PrPC-specific antibodies in wild-type mice but major difficulties associated with PrPC-specific tolerance made efficacious scrapie vaccination impossible. New vaccination approaches are being tested to overcome these limitations.
The steroid hormones corticosterone/cortisol and aldosterone are synthesized and secreted by the adrenal gland in response to stress or an altered salt-water balance. This is controlled by a negative feedback mechanism referred to as the HPA axis and the RAAS. Actions of these steroid hormones are mediated by the glucocorticoid receptor (GR) and the mineralocorticoid receptor (MR), which reside in the cytoplasm in a complex with heat-shock proteins. Both, the GR and the MR belong to the nuclear receptor superfamily and share a common protein structure consisting of three separate domains. However, they have different affinities for various ligands, their actions depend on hormone concentration, they are modulated by pre-receptor mechanisms such as the 11β-HSD2 and they are differently distributed in several tissues. Aldosterone acts via the MR in epithelial and in non-epithelial cells and regulates sodium-water homeostasis, cardiovascular function, neuronal excitability and adipocyte differentiation. So far the analysis of gene inactivation in vivo was limited to mice, but disease models in rats sometimes more closely reflect the situation encountered in humans. Since embryonic stem cells and thus gene targeting in rats is not available, we generated MR knock-down transgenic rats by lentiviral delivery of a shRNA. The F1 progeny of the founder rats showed a wide range of reduced MR mRNA and protein levels in kidney and hippocampus, the two major sites of MR expression. In contrast, expression of the highly homologous GR was unaltered, indicating specificity of gene inactivation. The two MR target genes, Sgk1 and ENaC, were up-regulated while the mRNA levels of other genes such as IK1 and SCD2 was reduced. Similar to the knock-out mice and human patients, the knock-down rats displayed typical signs of pseudohypoaldosteronism type I such as increased serum levels of aldosterone and renin as well as growth retardation. Importantly, we found a linear relationship between MR mRNA expression in kidney, serum aldosterone levels and body weight. Thus, our MR knock-down rats are amongst the first examples of RNAi in vivo and confirm that this technique allows to accomplish graded levels of gene inactivation that mimick human genetic diseases. Secondly, we investigated the role of the GR and the MR for the immunomodulatory activities of glucocorticoids (GCs) in peritoneal macrophages. GCs are involved in the modulation of macrophage function and thereby control the host’s immune responses to pathogens. Therefore, GCs are widely used for the treatment of inflammation and autoimmune diseases. However, concerning these GC activities neither the role of hormone concentration nor the differential contribution of the GR and the MR are known. At first we confirmed that both receptors but not 11β-HSD2 are expressed in peritoneal macrophages. Next, we showed that low levels of corticosterone enhance NO production as well as mRNA expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines, chemokines and enzymes required for mediator synthesis. In contrast, at high corticosterone concentrations macrophage function was strongly repressed. Importantly, inactivation of the GR by lentiviral delivery of siRNAs abrogated both the immunostimulatory and the immunosuppressive GC actions whereas inactivation of the MR had no effect. Furthermore, removal of endogenous GCs by adrenalectomy in vivo induced a pre-activated state in macrophages that could be modulated by corticosterone. We conclude that GCs exert distinct effects on macrophage function dependent on their concentration, and that they act through the GR despite concomitant expression of the MR. In summary, our results confirm that lentiviral delivery of shRNAs is an efficient means to down-regulation gene expression in primary cells and transgenic rats and thereby allows to perform functional studies on gene function that were previously limited to mice.