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Institute
- Abteilung für Funktionswerkstoffe der Medizin und der Zahnheilkunde (155) (remove)
Sonstige beteiligte Institutionen
Ziel dieser Arbeit war die Herstellung fluoreszent markierter Präpolymere sowie deren Optimierung, die kontrollierte und reproduzierbare Synthese von redox-sensitiven und nicht redox-sensitiven NG mit und ohne Fluoreszenzmarkierung in einem durchschnittlichen Partikelgrößenbereich von 150 – 300 nm und mit einer Konzentration > 10*10 Partikel/ml, die Charakterisierung der NG, ihre Untersuchung bezüglich ihrer Stabilität und des Assoziationsverhaltens zu BSA sowie die Erlangung von Erkenntnissen bezüglich des Aufnahmemechanismus der NG in Abhängigkeit vom Transportpeptid Tat.
Abschließend kann zusammenfassend gesagt werden:
1. Das große Potential von PG-basierten NG für biologische bzw. medizinische Einsatzgebiete konnte weiter untermauert werden.
2. Das mit Cy5-Alkin markierte PG PG-SH-Cy5 erscheint aufgrund des relativ hohen erreichten Markierungsgrades bei der Herstellung als aussichtsreichster Kandidat für weitere Untersuchungen. Diese Umsetzung besitzt noch Optimierungspotentiale bezüglich einer Verringerung des Polymerverlusts bei der Aufarbeitung, des erreichbaren Markierungsgrades und der Markierungsausbeute. Möglichkeiten, dies zu erreichen, wurden diskutiert.
3. Klare Aussagen über den Einfluss des esterhaltigen bzw. esterfreien Ausgangspolymers PG-SH auf die Konzentration und die Partikelgröße konnten aufgrund einer nicht ausreichenden Datenlage nicht getroffen werden.
4. Die esterhaltigen PG-SH-Moleküle erscheinen aufgrund ihrer Labilität gegenüber Hydrolyse für die NP-Synthese weniger geeignet (geringere Stabilität).
5. Die Charakterisierung der aus den markierten und unmarkierten Ausgangspolymeren hergestellten NG, welche teilweise zusätzlich mit dem Transportpeptid Tat funktionalisiert wurden, erfolgte mittels NTA und zeigt für die meisten Spezies relativ schmale, gut definierte, monomodale Größenverteilungen mit einem Maximum um 100-200 nm im Bereich von ca. 40 – max. 400 nm mit Partikelkonzentrationen im Bereich von 1010 - 1011 Partikeln/ml.
6. Insgesamt konnte gezeigt werden, dass der untersuchte, von PG-SH abgeleitete NP-Typ (z. B. NG_3, redox-sensitiv unmarkiert) aufgrund seiner Einheitlichkeit, Partikelgröße und der Reproduzierbarkeit der Herstellung als gut geeignet für den geplanten Einsatz in biologischen Systemen erscheint. Von den weiter derivatisierten NG erscheinen die folgenden aufgrund der oben geschilderten Kriterien als besonders geeignet für den geplanten Einsatz in biologischen Systemen und weiterer Untersuchungen wert: NG680_(TAT)_1-4 (redox-sensitiv, markiert), NGCy5_(TAT)_1 (redox-sensitiv, markiert), NG_MA_2 (nicht redox-sensitiv, unmarkiert), NGCy7_MA_1 (nicht redox-sensitiv, markiert). Aufgrund des relativ hohen erreichbaren Markierungsgrades bei der Markierung der Ausgangspolymere erscheinen die mit Cy5-markierten Verbindungen als besonders vorteilhaft.
7. Die esterfreien, redox-sensitiven NP erwiesen sich bei 14-tägiger Lagerung unter physiologischen Bedingungen als stabil. Ihre Konzentration nahm über 14 Tage um ca. 60 % vom Ausgangswert ab. Gleichzeitig nahm der Teilchendurchmesser während des Beobachtungszeitraums um ca. 25 % zu. Die Abnahme der Teilchenzahl ist - zumindest teilweise - durch eine Vergrößerung des mittleren Teilchendurchmessers und mögliche Adsorptionseffekte an die Gefäßwände des Versuchsaufbaus zu erklären.
8. Die Konzentration der esterfreien, nicht redox-sensitiven NP verringert sich bei 14-tägiger Inkubation unter physiologischen Bedingungen deutlich auf ca. 10 % des Ausgangswerts. Der mittlere Durchmesser der Partikel bleibt innerhalb des Untersuchungszeitraums innerhalb der Fehlergrenzen konstant. Die starke Abnahme der Partikelkonzentration ist wahrscheinlich auf die Hydrolyse des verwendeten esterhaltigen Crosslinkers PEGDA zurückzuführen. Desweiteren sind Adsorptionsphänomene an Oberflächen des Versuchsaufbaus nicht auszuschließen. Insgesamt hervorzuheben ist die wesentlich höhere Stabiliät der redox-sensitiven NP unter den Versuchsbedingungen. Diese Substanzklasse sollte daher weiter verfolgt werden.
9. Es wurde gezeigt, dass sowohl die NG, die das Aufnahmeprotein Tat enthalten, als auch die NG ohne Tat mit Fluoreszenz-markiertem BSA (8,3 µg/ml) wechselwirken und zusammen mit diesem bei der Zentrifugation abgeschieden werden. Über die Art der Wechselwirkung kann keine Aussage getroffen werden.
10. Durch in vitro Zellaufnahmeuntersuchungen an Hela-Zellen konnte gezeigt werden, dass die mit Tat funktionalisierten, redox-sensitiven, Fluoreszenz-markierten NP von den Zellen aufgenommen werden. Die Aufnahme erfolgt über eine deutlich erkennbare Vesikelbildung, die an der Plasmamembran verstärkt beobachtet werden kann. Im Gegensatz hierzu konnte bei den nicht mit Tat funktionalisierten NP keine vergleichbare in vitro Zellaufnahme beobachtet werden.
Die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit bestätigen insgesamt das große Potential der von Thiol-funktionalisierten PG abgeleiteten NG für die medizinische Forschung und zukünftige Anwendungen in der Diagnostik und Therapie. Es wird eine Reihe von Ansatzpunkten aufgezeigt, auf deren Basis weitere vertiefende Untersuchungen zur Charakterisierung und Optimierung sowie zu zukünftigen nutzbringenden Anwendungen vorgenommen werden sollten.
Magnesiumphosphatschäume nehmen auf Grund ihrer guten Resorbierbarkeit, unter physiologischen Bedingungen, einen immer größeren Stellenwert als Knochenersatzmaterial ein. Ein weiterer Vorteil ist der neutrale pH-Wert den das entstehende Material besitzt. Magnesiumphosphatschäume besitzen eine hochporöse offenporige Struktur um zum einen den Knochen nachzuahmen und zum anderen die Steuerung und Bildung von Knochengewebe zu ermöglichen. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurden die mechanischen Eigenschaften als auch die Zytokompatibilität der hergestellten Schäume untersucht.
Es wurden unterschiedliche Herstellungsverfahren genutzt um Magnesiumphosphatschäume zu erhalten. Zum einen das Replika- Verfahren, die dabei entstandenen Farringtonit Schäume (Mg3(PO4)2, Farringtonit) wurden zu Struvit ((NH4)Mg(PO4)•6H2O) umgewandelt bzw. mit PLGA infiltriert und auf ihre mechanische Eigenschaften hin untersucht. Zum anderen wurde ein proteinbasierter Schaumbildner verwendet. Die Zytokompatibilitätsprüfung wurde mit der Osteosarkomzelllinie MG-63 durchgeführt. Es erfolgte die Untersuchung der Zellproliferation und der Zellaktivität (WST). Zudem wurden Proben mittels Licht- und Elektronenmikroskopie analysiert. Die Feststellung der Proteinexpression erfolgte nach gelelektrophoretischer Auftrennung mittels Western Blot und PCR Analyse.
Thermoplastic polymers have a history of decades of safe and effective use in the clinic as implantable medical devices. In recent years additive manufacturing (AM) saw increased clinical interest for the fabrication of customizable and implantable medical devices and training models using the patients’ own radiological data. However, approval from the various regulatory bodies remains a significant hurdle. A possible solution is to fabricate the AM scaffolds using materials and techniques with a clinical safety record, e.g. melt processing of polymers. Melt Electrowriting (MEW) is a novel, high resolution AM technique which uses thermoplastic polymers. MEW produces scaffolds with microscale fibers and precise fiber placement, allowing the control of the scaffold microarchitecture. Additionally, MEW can process medical-grade thermoplastic polymers, without the use of solvents paving the way for the production of medical devices for clinical applications. This pathway is investigated in this thesis, where the layout is designed to resemble the journey of a medical device produced via MEW from conception to early in vivo experiments. To do so, first, a brief history of the development of medical implants and the regenerative capability of the human body is given in Chapter 1. In Chapter 2, a review of the use of thermoplastic polymers in medicine, with a focus on poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL), is illustrated, as this is the polymer used in the rest of the thesis. This review is followed by a comparison of the state of the art, regarding in vivo and clinical experiments, of three polymer melt AM technologies: melt-extrusion, selective laser sintering and MEW. The first two techniques already saw successful translation to the bedside, producing patient-specific, regulatory-approved AM implants. To follow in the footsteps of these two technologies, the MEW device parameters need to be optimized. The MEW process parameters and their interplay are further discussed in Chapter 3 focusing on the importance of a steady mass flow rate of the polymer during printing. MEW reaches a balance between polymer flow, the stabilizing electric field and moving collector to produce reproducible, high-resolution scaffolds. An imbalance creates phenomena like fiber pulsing or arcing which result in defective scaffolds and potential printer damage. Chapter 4 shows the use of X-ray microtomography (µCT) as a non-destructive method to characterize the pore-related features: total porosity and the pore size distribution. MEW scaffolds are three-dimensional (3D) constructs but have long been treated in the literature as two-dimensional (2D) ones and characterized mainly by microscopy, including stereo- and scanning electron microscopy, where pore size was simply reported as the distance between the fibers in a single layer. These methods, together with the trend of producing scaffolds with symmetrical pores in the 0/90° and 0/60/120° laydown patterns, disregarded the lateral connections between pores and the potential of MEW to be used for more complex 3D structures, mimicking the extracellular matrix. Here we characterized scaffolds in the aforementioned symmetrical laydown patterns, along with the more complex 0/45/90/135° and 0/30/60/90/120/150° ones. A 2D pore size estimation was done first using stereomicroscopy, followed by and compared to µCT scanning. The scaffolds with symmetrical laydown patterns resulted in the predominance of one pore size, while those with more complex patterns had a broader distribution, which could be better shown by µCT scans. Moreover, in the symmetrical scaffolds, the size of 3D pores was not able to reach the value of the fiber spacing due to a flattening effect of the scaffold, where the thickness of the scaffold was less than the fiber spacing, further restricting the pore size distribution in such scaffolds. This method could be used for quality assurance of fabricated scaffolds prior to use in in vitro or in vivo experiments and would be important for a clinical translation. Chapter 5 illustrates a proof of principle subcutaneous implantation in vivo experiment. MEW scaffolds were already featured in small animal in vivo experiments, but to date, no analysis of the foreign body reaction (FBR) to such implants was performed. FBR is an immune reaction to implanted foreign materials, including medical devices, aimed at protecting the host from potential adverse effects and can interfere with the function of some medical implants. Medical-grade PCL was used to melt electrowrite scaffolds with 50 and 60 µm fiber spacing for the 0/90° and 0/60/120° laydown patterns, respectively. These implants were implanted subcutaneously in immunocompetent, outbred mice, with appropriate controls, and explanted after 2, 4, 7 and 14 days. A thorough characterization of the scaffolds before implantation was done, followed by a full histopathological analysis of the FBR to the implants after excision. The scaffolds, irrespective of their pore geometry, induced an extensive FBR in the form of accumulation of foreign body giant cells around the fiber walls, in a manner that almost occluded available pore spaces with little to no neovascularization. This reaction was not induced by the material itself, as the same reaction failed to develop in the PCL solid film controls. A discussion of the results was given with special regard to the literature available on flat surgical meshes, as well as other hydrogel-based porous scaffolds with similar pore sizes. Finally, a general summary of the thesis in Chapter 6 recapitulates the most important points with a focus on future directions for MEW.
Adipose tissue defects and related pathologies still represent major challenges in reconstructive surgery. Based on to the paradigm ‘replace with alike’, adipose tissue is considered the ideal substitute material for damaged soft tissue [1-3]. Yet the transfer of autologous fat, particularly larger volumes, is confined by deficient and unpredictable long term results, as well as considerable operative morbidity at the donor and recipient site [4-6], calling for innovative treatment options to improve patient care.
With the aim to achieve complete regeneration of soft tissue defects, adipose tissue engineering holds great promise to provide functional, biologically active adipose tissue equivalents. Here, especially long-term maintenance of volume and shape, as well as sufficient vascularization of engineered adipose tissue represent critical and unresolved challenges [7-9]. For adipose tissue engineering approaches to be successful, it is thus essential to generate constructs that retain their initial volume in vivo, as well as to ensure their rapid vascularization to support cell survival and differentiation for full tissue regeneration [9,10]. Therefore, it was the ultimate goal of this thesis to develop volume-stable 3D adipose tissue constructs and to identify applicable strategies for sufficient vascularization of engineered constructs. The feasibility of the investigated approaches was verified by translation from in vitro to in vivo as a critical step for the advancement of potential regenerative therapies.
For the development of volume-stable constructs, the combination of two biomaterials with complementary properties was successfully implemented. In contrast to previous approaches in the field using mainly non-degradable solid structures for mechanical protection of developing adipose tissue [11-13], the combination of a cell-instructive hydrogel component with a biodegradable porous support structure of adequate texture was shown advantageous for the generation of volume-stable adipose tissue. Specifically, stable fibrin hydrogels previously developed in our group [14] served as cell carrier and supported the adipogenic development of adipose-derived stem cells (ASCs) as reflected by lipid accumulation and leptin secretion. Stable fibrin gels were thereby shown to be equally supportive of adipogenesis compared to commercial TissuCol hydrogels in vitro. Using ASCs as a safe source of autologous cells [15,16] added substantial practicability to the approach. To enhance the mechanical strength of the engineered constructs, porous biodegradable poly(ε caprolactone)-based polyurethane (PU) scaffolds were introduced as support structures and shown to exhibit adequately sized pores to host adipocytes as well as interconnectivity to allow coherent tissue formation and vascularization. Low wettability and impaired cell attachment indicated that PU scaffolds alone were insufficient in retaining cells within the pores, yet cytocompatibility and differentiation of ASCs were adequately demonstrated, rendering the PU scaffolds suitable as support structures for the generation of stable fibrin/PU composite constructs (Chapter 3).
Volume-stable adipose tissue constructs were generated by seeding the pre-established stable fibrin/PU composites with ASCs. Investigation of size and weight in vitro revealed that composite constructs featured enhanced stability relative to stable fibrin gels alone. Comparing stable fibrin gels and TissuCol as hydrogel components, it was found that TissuCol gels were less resilient to degradation and contraction. Composite constructs were fully characterized, showing good cell viability of ASCs and strong adipogenic development as indicated by functional analysis via histological Oil Red O staining of lipid vacuoles, qRT-PCR analysis of prominent adipogenic markers (PPARγ, C/EBPα, GLUT4, aP2) and quantification of leptin secretion. In a pilot study in vivo, investigating the suitability of the constructs for transplantation, stable fibrin/PU composites provided with a vascular pedicle gave rise to areas of well-vascularized adipose tissue, contrasted by insufficient capillary formation and adipogenesis in constructs implanted without pedicle. The biomaterial combination of stable fibrin gels and porous biodegradable PU scaffolds was thereby shown highly suitable for the generation of volume-stable adipose tissue constructs in vivo, and in addition, the effectiveness of immediate vascularization upon implantation to support adipose tissue formation was demonstrated (Chapter 4).
Further pursuing the objective to investigate adequate vascularization strategies for engineered adipose tissue, hypoxic preconditioning was conducted as a possible approach for in vitro prevascularization. In 2D culture experiments, analysis on the cellular level illustrated that the adipogenic potential of ASCs was reduced under hypoxic conditions when applied in the differentiation phase, irrespective of the oxygen tension encountered by the cells during expansion. Hypoxic treatment of ASCs in 3D constructs prepared from stable fibrin gels similarly resulted in reduced adipogenesis, whereas endothelial CD31 expression as well as enhanced leptin and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) secretion indicated that hypoxic treatment indeed resulted in a pro-angiogenic response of ASCs. Especially the observed profound regulation of leptin production by hypoxia and the dual role of leptin as adipokine and angiogenic modulator were considered an interesting connection advocating further study. Having confirmed the hypothesis that hypoxia may generate a pro-angiogenic milieu inside ASC-seeded constructs, faster vessel ingrowth and improved vascularization as well as an enhanced tolerance of hypoxia-treated ASCs towards ischemic conditions upon implanatation may be expected, but remain to be verified in rodent models in vivo (Chapter 5).
Having previously been utilized for bone and cartilage engineering [17-19], as well as for revascularization and wound healing applications [20-22], stromal-vascular fraction (SVF) cells were investigated as a novel cell source for adipose tissue engineering. Providing cells with adipogenic differentiation as well as vascularization potential, the SVF was applied with the specific aim to promote adipogenesis and vascularization in engineered constructs in vivo. With only basic in vitro investigations by Lin et al. addressing the SVF for adipose repair to date [23], the present work thoroughly investigated SVF cells for adipose tissue construct generation in vitro, and in particular, pioneered the application of these cells for adipose tissue engineering in vivo.
Initial in vitro experiments compared SVF- and ASC-seeded stable fibrin constructs in different medium compositions employing preadipocyte (PGM-2) and endothelial cell culture medium (EGM-2). It was found that a 1:1 mixture of PGM-2 and EGM-2, as previously established for co-culture models of adipogenesis [24], efficiently maintained cells with adipogenic and endothelial potential in SVF-seeded constructs in short and long-term culture setups. Observations on the cellular level were supported by analysis of mRNA expression of characteristic adipogenic and endothelial markers. In preparation of the evaluation of SVF-seeded constructs under in vivo conditions, a whole mount staining (WMS) method, facilitating the 3D visualization of adipocytes and blood vessels, was successfully established and optimized using native adipose tissue as template (Chapter 6).
In a subcutaneous nude mouse model, SVF cells were, for the first time in vivo, elucidated for their potential to support the functional assembly of vascularized adipose tissue. Investigating the effect of adipogenic precultivation of SVF-seeded stable fibrin constructs in vitro prior to implantation on the in vivo outcome, hormonal induction was shown beneficial in terms of adipocyte development, whereas a strong vascularization potential was observed when no adipogenic inducers were added. Via histological analysis, it was proven that the developed structures were of human origin and derived from the implanted cells. Applying SVF cells without precultivation in vitro but comparing two different fibrin carriers, namely stable fibrin and TissuCol gels, revealed that TissuCol profoundly supported adipose formation by SVF cells in vivo. This was contrasted by only minor SVF cell development and a strong reduction of cell numbers in stable fibrin gels implanted without precultivation. Histomorphometric analysis of adipocytes and capillary structures was conducted to verify the qualitative results, concluding that particularly SVF cells in TissuCol were highly suited for adipose regeneration in vivo. Employing the established WMS technique, the close interaction of mature adipocytes and blood vessels in TissuCol constructs was impressively shown and via species-specific human vimentin staining, the expected strong involvement of implanted SVF cells in the formation of coherent adipose tissue was confirmed (Chapter 7).
With the development of biodegradable volume-stable adipose tissue constructs, the application of ASCs and SVF cells as two promising cell sources for functional adipose regeneration, as well as the thorough evaluation of strategies for construct vascularization in vitro and in vivo, this thesis provides valuable solutions to current challenges in adipose tissue engineering. The presented findings further open up new perspectives for innovative treatments to cure soft tissue defects and serve as a basis for directed approaches towards the generation of clinically applicable soft tissue substitutes.
Was vor einigen Jahren undenkbar erschien, könnte zukünftig möglich sein: Krankes Gewebe mit Gesundem ersetzen, das in vitro mit modernsten Biofabrikationstechniken hergestellt wird. Dabei werden bisherige Grenzen überschritten: Während lichtbasierte Biodruckverfahren wie die Zwei-Photonen-Polymerisation Auflösungen bis in den Nanometerbereich erzielen, ermöglicht der Volumetrische Biodruck (VB) den Druck zentimetergroßer Konstrukte in wenigen Sekunden. Diese Geschwindigkeiten erweisen sich unter Biodruckverfahren als konkurrenzlos und werden erreicht, da das Bioharz nicht konsekutiv, sondern zugleich vernetzt wird. Einschränkend gilt bislang nur der Mangel an geeigneten Bioharzen für den VB. Daher beschäftigt sich vorliegende Arbeit mit der Charakterisierung und Modifikation eines dafür geeigneten Bioharzes: Gelatine-Methacrylat (GelMA). Dank seiner Zusammensetzung ähnelt das etablierte Hydrogelsystem der Extratrazellularmatrix: Der Gelatine-Anteil ermöglicht Biokompatibilität und Bioaktivität durch zelladhäsive sowie degradierbare Aminosäure-Sequenzen. Zugleich können durch photovernetzbare Methacryloyl-Substituenten Konstrukte mit einer Formstabilität bei 37 °C erzeugt werden.
Zunächst wurde das Bioharz zellbiologisch charakterisiert, indem mit der embryonalen Mausfibroblasten-Zelllinie NIH-3T3 beladene GelMA-Zylinder gegossen, photopolymerisiert und kultiviert wurden. Im Verlauf einer Woche wurde die Zytokompatibilität der Gele anhand der Proliferationsfähigkeit (PicoGreen-Assay), des Metabolismus (CCK-8-Assay) und der Vitalität (Live/Dead-Assay) der Zellen beurteilt. Dabei wurden Polymerkonzentrationen von 6 – 8 % sowie GelMA-Harze zweier verschiedener Molekulargewichte verglichen. Alle hergestellten Gele erwiesen sich als zytokompatibel, 6 % ige Gele ließen im Inneren jedoch zusätzlich eine beginnende Zellspreizung zu und ein niedriges GelMA-Molekulargewicht verstärkte die gemessene Proliferation. Die sich anschließende mechanische und physikalische Charakterisierung belegte, dass höher konzentrierte Gele einen größeren E-Modul aufwiesen und damit steifer waren. Eine Modifikation der Gele mit Fibronektin beeinflusste die Zellverträglichkeit weder positiv noch negativ und die Zugabe von Kollagen war wegen Entmischungseffekten nicht bewertbar. Es liegt die Vermutung nah, dass eine weitere Reduktion der Polymerkonzentration und damit Verringerung der Gelsteifigkeit der Schlüssel für mehr Zellspreizung und -wachstum ist. Da jedoch die Druckbarkeit des Bioharzes die weitere Senkung des GelMA-Gehalts limitiert, sollten zunächst Methoden entwickelt werden, welche die Netzwerkdichte des GelMAs anderweitig herabsetzen.
The aim of this thesis was the application of the functional prepolymer NCO-sP(EO-stat-PO) for the development of new biomaterials. First, the influence of the star-shaped polymers on the mechanical properties of biocements and bone adhesives was investigated. 3-armed star-shaped macromers were used as an additive for a mineral bone cement, and the influence on the mechanical properties was studied. Additionally, a previously developed bone adhesive was examined regarding cytocompatibility. The second topic was the examination of novel functionalization steps which were performed on the surface of electrospun fibers modified with NCO-sP(EO-stat-PO). This established method of functionalizing electrospun meshes was advanced regarding the modification with proteins which was then demonstrated in a biological application. Two different kinds of antibodies were immobilized on the fiber surface in a consecutive manner and the influence of these proteins on the cell behavior was investigated. The final topic involved the quantification of surface-bound peptide sequences. By functionalization of the peptides with the UV-reactive molecule 2-mercaptopyridine it was possible to quantify this compound via UV measurements by cleavage of disulfide bridges and indirectly draw conclusions about the number of immobilized peptides.
In the field of mineral biocements and bone adhesives, NCO-sP(EO-stat-PO) was able to influence the setting behavior and mechanical performance of mineral bone cements based on calcium phosphate chemistry. The addition of NCO-sP(EO-stat-PO) resulted in a pseudo-ductile fracture behavior due to the formation of a hydrogel network in the cement, which was then mineralized by nanosized hydroxyapatite crystals following cement setting. Accordingly, a commercially available aluminum silicate cement from civil engineering could be modified.
In addition, it could be shown that the use of NCO-sP(EO-stat-PO) is beneficial for adjusting specific material properties of bone adhesives. Here, the crosslinking behavior of the prepolymer in an aqueous medium was exploited to form an interpenetrating network (IPN) together with a photochemically curing poly(ethylene glycol) dimethacrylate (PEGDMA) matrix. This could be used for the development of a bone adhesive with an improved adhesion to bone in a wet environment. The developed bone adhesive was further investigated in terms of possible influences of the initiator systems. In addition, the material system was tested for cytocompatibility by using different cell lines.
Moreover, the preparation of electrospun fiber meshes via solution electrospinning consisting of poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) as a backbone polymer and NCO-sP(EO-stat-PO) as functional additive is an established method for the application of the meshes as a replacement of the native extracellular matrix (ECM). In general, these fibers reveal diameters in the nanometer range, are protein and cell repellent due to the hydrophilic properties of the prepolymer and show a specific biofunctionalization by immobilization of peptide sequences. Here, the isocyanate groups presented on the fiber surface after electrospinning were used to carry out various functionalization steps, while retaining the properties of protein and cell repellency. The modification of the electrospun fibers involved the immobilization of analogs or antagonists of tumor necrosis factor (TNF) and the indirect detection of these by interaction with a light-producing enzyme. Here, a multimodal modification of the fiber surface with RGD to mediate cell adhesion and two different antibodies could be achieved. After culturing the cell line HT1080, the pro- or anti-inflammatory response of cells could be detected by IL-8 specific ELISA measurements.
Furthermore, the quantification of molecules on the surface of electrospun fibers was investigated. It was tested whether the detection by means of super-resolution microscopy would be possible. Therefore, experiments were performed with short amino acid sequences such as RGD for quantification by fluorescence microscopy. Based on earlier results, in which a UV-spectrometrically active molecule was used to detect the quantification of RGD, it was shown that short peptides can also be quantified in a small scale on flat functional substrates (2D) such as NCO-sP(EO-stat-PO) hydrogel coatings, and modified electrospun fibers produced from PLGA and NCO-sP(EO-stat-PO) (3D). In addition, a collagen sequence was used to prove that a successful quantification can be carried out as well for longer peptide chains.
These studies have revealed that NCO-sP(EO-stat-PO) can serve as a functional additive for many applications and should be considered for further studies on the development of novel biomaterials. The rapid crosslinking reaction, the resulting hydrogel formation and the biocompatibility are to be mentioned as positive properties, which makes the prepolymer interesting for future applications.
Bei der Implantatversorgung von Patienten mit Osteoporose besteht weiterhin eine hohe Komplikationsrate vor allem durch aseptische Prothesenlockerungen. Eine vielversprechende Möglichkeit diese zu minimieren stellt eine Funktionalisierung der Implantate mit Strontium dar.
Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit war es dabei die Wirkung lokal verfügbaren Strontiums auf osteoklastäre und osteoblastäre Zellen zu untersuchen.
Mittels elektrochemischer Abscheidung erfolgte die Beschichtung von Titanproben mit strontiumdotiertem Struvit, wobei sieben verschiedene Dotierkonzentrationen zwischen 6 µg und 487 µg Strontium pro Probe hergestellt wurden. Die Untersuchungen an osteoklastären RAW 264.7 Zellen erfolgten mittels Bestimmung von Zellzahl und -aktivität, verschiedener mikroskopischer Methoden sowie auf genetischer Ebene. Osteoblastäre MG63-Zellen wurden orientierend anhand von Zellzahl und Zellaktivität untersucht.
Zellbiologisch konnte ein hemmender Einfluss von Strontium auf Differenzierung sowie Proliferation und Aktivität osteoklastärer Zellen gezeigt werden. Die Dotierkonzentration mit den günstigsten Eigenschaften war unter vorliegenden Versuchsbedingungen 487 µg Strontium pro Probe, da sich hierbei zudem eine erhaltene ostoblastäre Proliferation und Aktivität zeigte.
In Tissue Engineering, scaffolds composed of natural polymers often show a distinct lack in stability. The natural polymer gelatin is highly fragile under physiological conditions, nevertheless displaying a broad variety of favorable properties. The aim of this study was to fabricate electrospun gelatin nanofibers, in situ functionalized and stabilized during the spinning process with highly reactive star polymer NCO-sP(EO-stat-PO) (“sPEG”). A spinning protocol for homogenous, non-beaded, 500 to 1000 nm thick nanofibers from different ratios of gelatin and sPEG was successfully established. Fibers were subsequently characterized and tested with SEM imaging, tensile tests, water incubation, FTIR, EDX, and cell culture. It was shown that adding sPEG during the spinning process leads to an increase in visible fiber crosslinking, mechanical stability, and stability in water. The nanofibers were further shown to be biocompatible in cell culture with RAW 264.7 macrophages.
Background: Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) and metastatic triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) with PTEN mutations often lead to brain dissemination with poor patient outcome, thus new therapeutic targets are needed. To understand signaling, controlling the dynamics and mechanics of brain tumor cell migration, we implemented GBM and TNBC cell lines and designed 3D aligned microfibers and scaffolds mimicking brain structures. Methods: 3D microfibers and scaffolds were printed using melt electrowriting. GBM and TNBC cell lines with opposing PTEN genotypes were analyzed with RHO-ROCK-PTEN inhibitors and PTEN rescue using live-cell imaging. RNA-sequencing and qPCR of tumor cells in 3D with microfibers were performed, while scanning electron microscopy and confocal microscopy addressed cell morphology. Results: In contrast to the PTEN wildtype, GBM and TNBC cells with PTEN loss of function yielded enhanced durotaxis, topotaxis, adhesion, amoeboid migration on 3D microfibers and significant high RHOB expression. Functional studies concerning RHOB-ROCK-PTEN signaling confirmed the essential role for the above cellular processes. Conclusions: This study demonstrates a significant role of the PTEN genotype and RHOB expression for durotaxis, adhesion and migration dependent on 3D. GBM and TNBC cells with PTEN loss of function have an affinity for stiff brain structures promoting metastasis. 3D microfibers represent an important tool to model brain metastasizing tumor cells, where RHO-inhibitors could play an essential role for improved therapy.
Es erfolgte eine elektrochemische Abscheidung von Bruschitschichten auf Titan in Gegenwart von Kristallisationsinhibitoren. Dabei wurden die Kristallisationsinhibitoren Zitronensäure, treta-Natriumdiphosphat-Decahydrat und Phytinsäure verwendet und die entstandenen Schichten mit denen ohne Inhibitorzugabe verglichen. Um das Ausmaß der Inhibierung zu verifizieren, wurde die Masse aller Schichten gemessen, welche für die Inhibition mit Zitronensäure und Phytinsäure abnahm und für Natriumdiphosphat zunahm. Die kristallographische Zusammensetzung der mit und ohne Inhibierung abgeschiedenen Schichten wurde mit Hilfe der Röntgendiffraktometrie bestimmt und zeigte, dass sich reine Bruschitschichten mit unterschiedlichem amorphem Anteil abschieden. Die daraus entstandenen Werte lieferten zugleich die Informationen über die einzelnen Kristallitgrößen innerhalb der Schichten. Über den Einfluss der Inhibitoren auf die Schichtmorphologie gaben rasterelektronenmikroskopische Aufnahmen weiteren Aufschluss. Die Inhibition verursachte teils mit Rissen durchzogene Schichten, deren Kristallformationen sich von Standardelektrolyt unterschieden. Ausgewählte Proben wurden unter verschiedenen Bedingungen desinfiziert bzw. sterilisiert und nachfolgend erneut gewogen und mittels Röntgendiffraktogrammetrie und Rasterelektronenmikroskopie analysiert. Nach der Desinfektion entstanden reine Bruschitschichten, die an Masse verloren aber trotzdem die typischen Kristallformationen zeigten. Die Sterilisation führte zur Umwandlung von Bruschit in Monetit und Hydroxylapatit. Des Weiteren wurde die biologische Reaktion der Schichten auf humane fötale Osteoblasten-Zelllinien zur Überprüfung der Zellverträglichkeit ermittelt. Die entstandenen Ergebnisse waren nicht verwertbar und enthielt sehr hohe Standardabweichungen.
Objective
As native cartilage consists of different phenotypical zones, this study aims to fabricate different types of neocartilage constructs from collagen hydrogels and human mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) genetically modified to express different chondrogenic factors.
Design
Human MSCs derived from bone-marrow of osteoarthritis (OA) hips were genetically modified using adenoviral vectors encoding sex-determining region Y-type high-mobility-group-box (SOX)9,transforming growth factor beta (TGFB) 1or bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) 2cDNA, placed in type I collagen hydrogels and maintained in serum-free chondrogenic media for three weeks. Control constructs contained unmodified MSCs or MSCs expressing GFP. The respective constructs were analyzed histologically, immunohistochemically, biochemically, and by qRT-PCR for chondrogenesis and hypertrophy.
Results
Chondrogenesis in MSCs was consistently and strongly induced in collagen I hydrogels by the transgenesSOX9,TGFB1andBMP2as evidenced by positive staining for proteoglycans, chondroitin-4-sulfate (CS4) and collagen (COL) type II, increased levels of glycosaminoglycan (GAG) synthesis, and expression of mRNAs associated with chondrogenesis. The control groups were entirely non-chondrogenic. The levels of hypertrophy, as judged by expression of alkaline phosphatase (ALP) and COL X on both the protein and mRNA levels revealed different stages of hypertrophy within the chondrogenic groups (BMP2>TGFB1>SOX9).
Conclusions
Different types of neocartilage with varying levels of hypertrophy could be generated from human MSCs in collagen hydrogels by transfer of genes encoding the chondrogenic factorsSOX9,TGFB1andBMP2. This technology may be harnessed for regeneration of specific zones of native cartilage upon damage.
Background
Mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) based-treatments of cartilage injury are promising but impaired by high levels of hypertrophy after chondrogenic induction with several bone morphogenetic protein superfamily members (BMPs). As an alternative, this study investigates the chondrogenic induction of MSCs via adenoviral gene-delivery of the transcription factor SOX9 alone or in combination with other inducers, and comparatively explores the levels of hypertrophy and end stage differentiation in a pellet culture system in vitro.
Methods
First generation adenoviral vectors encoding SOX9, TGFB1 or IGF1 were used alone or in combination to transduce human bone marrow-derived MSCs at 5 x 10\(^2\) infectious particles/cell. Thereafter cells were placed in aggregates and maintained for three weeks in chondrogenic medium. Transgene expression was determined at the protein level (ELISA/Western blot), and aggregates were analysed histologically, immunohistochemically, biochemically and by RT-PCR for chondrogenesis and hypertrophy.
Results
SOX9 cDNA was superior to that encoding TGFB1, the typical gold standard, as an inducer of chondrogenesis in primary MSCs as evidenced by improved lacuna formation, proteoglycan and collagen type II staining, increased levels of GAG synthesis, and expression of mRNAs associated with chondrogenesis. Moreover, SOX9 modified aggregates showed a markedly lower tendency to progress towards hypertrophy, as judged by expression of the hypertrophy markers alkaline phosphatase, and collagen type X at the mRNA and protein levels.
Conclusion
Adenoviral SOX9 gene transfer induces chondrogenic differentiation of human primary MSCs in pellet culture more effectively than TGFB1 gene transfer with lower levels of chondrocyte hypertrophy after 3 weeks of in vitro culture. Such technology might enable the formation of more stable hyaline cartilage repair tissues in vivo.
In this study, we evaluate hydrogels based on oxidized hyaluronic acid, cross-linked with adipic acid dihydrazide, for their suitability as bioinks for 3D bioprinting. Aldehyde containing hyaluronic acid (AHA) is synthesized and cross-linked via Schiff Base chemistry with bifunctional adipic acid dihydrazide (ADH) to form a mechanically stable hydrogel with good printability. Mechanical and rheological properties of the printed and casted hydrogels are tunable depending on the concentrations of AHA and ADH cross-linkers.
In recent decades, hybrid characterization systems have become pillars in the study of cellular biomechanics. Especially, Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) is combined with a variety of optical microscopy techniques to discover new aspects of cell adhesion. AFM, however, is limited to the early-stage of cell adhesion, so that the forces of mature cell contacts cannot be addressed. Even though the invention of Fluidic Force Microscopy (FluidFM) overcomes these limitations by combining the precise force-control of AFM with microfluidics, the correlative investigation of detachment forces arising from spread mammalian cells has been barely achieved. Here, a novel multifunctional device integrating Fluorescence Microscopy (FL) into FluidFM technology (FL-FluidFM) is introduced, enabling real-time optical tracking of entire cell detachment processes in parallel to the undisturbed acquisition of force-distance curves. This setup, thus, allows for entailing two pieces of information at once. As proof-of-principle experiment, this method is applied to fluorescently labeled rat embryonic fibroblast (REF52) cells, demonstrating a precise matching between identified force-jumps and visualized cellular unbinding steps. This study, thus, presents a novel characterization tool for the correlated evaluation of mature cell adhesion, which has great relevance, for instance, in the development of biomaterials or the fight against diseases such as cancer.
This thesis aimed the development of a correlated device which combines FluidFM® with Fluorescence Microscopy (FL) (FL-FluidFM®) and enables the simultaneous quantification of adhesion forces and fluorescent visualization of mature cells. The implementation of a PIFOC was crucial to achieve a high-resolution as well as a stable but dynamic focus level. The functionality of SCFS after hardware modification was verified by comparing two force-curves, both showing the typical force progression and measured with the optimized and conventional hardware, respectively. Then, the integration of FL was examined by detaching fluorescently labeled REF52 cells. The fluorescence illumination of the cytoskeleton showed the expected characteristic force profile and no evidence of interference effects. Afterwards a corresponding correlative data analysis was addressed including manual force step fitting, the identification of visualized cellular unbinding, and a time-dependent correlation. This procedure revealed a link between the area of cytoskeletal unbinding and force-jumps. This was followed by a comparison of the detachment characteristics of intercellular connected HUVECs and individual REF52 cells. HUVECs showed maximum detachment forces in the same order of magnitude as the ones of single REF52 cells. This contrasted with the expected strong cohesiveness of endothelial cells and indicated a lack of cell-cell contact formation. The latter was confirmed by a comparison of HUVECs, primary HBMVECs, and immortalized EA.hy926 cells fluorescently labeled for two marker proteins of intercellular junctions. This unveiled that both the previous cultivation duration and the cell type have a major impact on the development of intercellular junctions. In summary, the correlative FL FluidFM® represents a powerful novel approach, which enables a truly contemporaneous performance and, thus, has the potential to reveal new insights into the mechanobiological properties of cell adhesion.
Background
There is a need to establish more cell lines from breast tumors in contrast to immortalized cell lines from metastatic effusions in order to represent the primary tumor and not principally metastatic biology of breast cancer. This investigation describes the simultaneous isolation, characterization, growth and function of primary mammary epithelial cells (MEC), mesenchymal cells (MES) and adipose derived stem cells (ADSC) from four normal breasts, one inflammatory and one triple-negative ductal breast tumors.
Methods
A total of 17 cell lines were established and gene expression was analyzed for MEC and MES (n = 42) and ADSC (n = 48) and MUC1, pan-KRT, CD90 and GATA-3 by immunofluorescence. DNA fingerprinting to track cell line identity was performed between original primary tissues and isolates. Functional studies included ADSC differentiation, tumor MES and MEC invasion co-cultured with ADSC-conditioned media (CM) and MES adhesion and growth on 3D-printed scaffolds.
Results
Comparative analysis showed higher gene expression of EPCAM, CD49f, CDH1 and KRTs for normal MEC lines; MES lines e.g. Vimentin, CD10, ACTA2 and MMP9; and ADSC lines e.g. CD105, CD90, CDH2 and CDH11. Compared to the mean of all four normal breast cell lines, both breast tumor cell lines demonstrated significantly lower ADSC marker gene expression, but higher expression of mesenchymal and invasion gene markers like SNAI1 and MMP2. When compared with four normal ADSC differentiated lineages, both tumor ADSC showed impaired osteogenic and chondrogenic but enhanced adipogenic differentiation and endothelial-like structures, possibly due to high PDGFRB and CD34. Addressing a functional role for overproduction of adipocytes, we initiated 3D-invasion studies including different cell types from the same patient. CM from ADSC differentiating into adipocytes induced tumor MEC 3D-invasion via EMT and amoeboid phenotypes. Normal MES breast cells adhered and proliferated on 3D-printed scaffolds containing 20 fibers, but not on 2.5D-printed scaffolds with single fiber layers, important for tissue engineering.
Conclusion
Expression analyses confirmed successful simultaneous cell isolations of three different phenotypes from normal and tumor primary breast tissues. Our cell culture studies support that breast-tumor environment differentially regulates tumor ADSC plasticity as well as cell invasion and demonstrates applications for regenerative medicine.
The human body has very good self-healing capabilities for numerous different injuries to a variety of different tissues. This includes the main human mechanical framework, the skeleton. The skeleton is limited in its healing without additional aid by medicine mostly by the defect size. When the defect reaches a size above 2.5 cm the regeneration of the defect ends up faulty. Here is where implants, defect fillers and other support approaches developed in medicine can help the body to heal the big defect still successfully.
Usually sturdy implants (auto-/allo-/xenogenic) are implanted in the defect to bridge the distance, but for auto- and allogenic implants a suitable donor site must be found and for all sources the implant needs to be shaped into the defect specific site to ensure a perfect fit, the best support and good healing. This shaping is very time consuming and prone to error, already in the planning phase. The use of a material that is moldable and sets in the desired shape shortly after applying negates these disadvantages. Cementitious materials offer exactly this property by being in a pasty stage after the powder and liquid components have been mixed and the subsequently hardening to a solid implant. These properties also enable the extrusion, and therefore may also enable the injection, of the cement via a syringe in a minimal invasive approach.
To enable a good injection of the cement modifications are necessary. This work aimed to modify commonly used calcium phosphate-based cement systems based on α-TCP (apatitic) and β-TCP (brushitic). These have been modified with sodium phytate and phytic acid, respectively. Additionally, the α-TCP system has been modified with sodium pyrophosphate, in a second study, to create a storable aqueous paste that can be activated once needed with a highly concentrated sodium orthophosphate solution.
The powder phase of the α-TCP cement system consisted of nine parts α-TCP and one part CDHA. These were prepared to have different particle sizes and therefore enable a better powder flowability through the bimodal size distribution. α-TCP had a main particle size of 20 μm and CDHA of 2.6 μm. The modification with sodium phytate led to an adsorption of phytate ions on the surface of the α-TCP particles, where they started to form complexes with the Ca2+ ions in the solution. This adsorption had two effects. The first was to make the calcium ions unavailable, preventing supersaturation and ultimately the precipitation of CDHA what would lead to the cement hardening. The second was the increase of the absolute value of the surface charge, zeta potential, of the powder in the cement paste. Here a decrease from +3 mV to -40 mV could be measured. A strong value for the zeta potential leads to a higher repulsion of similarly charged particles and therefore prevents powder agglomeration and clogging on the nozzle during injection. These two modifications (bimodal particles size distribution and phytic acid) lead to a significant increase in the paste injectability. The unmodified paste was injectable for 30 % only, where all modified pastes were practically fully injectable ~90 % (the residual paste remained in the nozzle, while the syringe plunger already reached the end of the syringe).
A very similar observation could be made for the β-TCP system. This system was modified with phytic acid. The zeta potential was decreased even stronger from -10 ± 1.5 mV to -71.5 ± 12 mV. The adsorption of the phytate ions and subsequent formation of chelate complexes with the newly dissolved Ca2+ ions also showed a retarding effect in the cements setting reaction. Where the unmodified cement was not measurable in the rheometer, as the reaction was faster than the measurement setup (~1.5 min), the modified cements showed a transition through the gel point between 3-6 min. This means the pastes stayed between 2 and 4 times longer viscous than without the modification. Like with the first cement system also here the effects of the phytate addition showed its beneficial influence in the injectability measurement. The unmodified cement was not injectable at all, due to the same issue already encountered at the rheology measurements, but all modified pastes were fully injectable for at least 5 min (lowest phytate concentration) and at least 10 min (all other concentrations) after the mixing of powder and liquid.
The main goal of the last modification with sodium pyrophosphate was to create a paste that was stable in aqueous environment without setting until the activation takes place, but it should still show good injectability as this was the desired way of application after activation. Like before also the zeta potential changed after the addition of pyrophosphate. It could be lowered from -22 ± 2mV down to -61 to -68 ± 4mV (depending on the pyrophosphate concentration). The pastes were stored in airtight containers at room temperature and checked for their phase composition over 14 days. The unmodified paste showed a beginning phase conversion to hydroxyapatite between 7 and 14 days. All other pastes were still stable and unreacted. The pastes were activated with a high concentrated (30 wt%) sodium orthophosphate solution. After the activation the pastes were checked for their injectability and showed an increase from -57 ± 11% for the unmodified paste to -89 ± 3% (practically fully injectable as described earlier) for the best modified paste (PP005).
It can be concluded that the goal of enabling full injection of conventional calcium phosphate bone cement systems was reached. Additional work produced a storage stable paste that still ensures full injectability. Subsequent work already used the storable paste and modified it with hyaluronic acid to create an ink for 3D extrusion printing. The first two cement systems have also already been investigated in cell culture for their influence on osteoblasts and osteoclasts. The next steps would have to go more into the direction of translation. Figuring out what properties still need to be checked and where the modification needs adjustment to enable a clinical use of the presented systems.
A method is reported for making hollow channels within hydrogels decorated with cell‐adhesion peptides exclusively at the channel surface. Sacrificial fibers of different diameters are used to introduce channels within poly(ethylene glycol) hydrogels crosslinked with maleimide‐thiol chemistry, which are backfilled with a cysteine‐containing peptide solution which is conjugated to the lumen with good spatial efficiency. This allows for peptide patterning in only the areas of the hydrogel where they are needed when used as cell‐guides, reducing the amount of required peptide 20‐fold when compared to bulk functionalization. The power of this approach is highlighted by successfully using these patterned hydrogels without active perfusion to guide fibroblasts and olfactory ensheathing cells—the latter having unique potential in neural repair therapies.
Das Ziel der experimentellen Studie war die Erprobung der (bereits in vitro erfolgreich getesteten) Ca(OH)2-Beschichtung In vivo unter dem Aspekt, ob und inwieweit die antibakteriellen und somit auch antiinflammatorischen bzw. entzündungsmoderierenden Eigenschaften der Ca(OH)2-Beschichtung eine sinnvolle und effektive Ergänzung zu den bisher erfolgreich eingesetzten Calciumphosphat(CaP)-Beschichtungen mit bewiesenen, guten proosseointegrativen Eigenschaften bei lasttragenden Implantaten sein können.
Zusammenfassend kann festgestellt werden, dass die Ergebnisse der In vitro Untersuchung durch die In vivo Versuche in den Bereichen 0-100 KBE grundsätzlich als gestützt gelten können. Die Zuverlässigkeit der Wirkung durch Ca(OH)2 nimmt jedoch mit steigender KBE-Zahl ab, sodass weitere Testreihen sinnvoll sind.
Macrophages are key players of the innate immune system that can roughly be divided into the pro-inflammatory M1 type and the anti-inflammatory, pro-healing M2 type. While a transient initial pro-inflammatory state is helpful, a prolonged inflammation deteriorates a proper healing and subsequent regeneration. One promising strategy to drive macrophage polarization by biomaterials is precise control over biomaterial geometry. For regenerative approaches, it is of particular interest to identify geometrical parameters that direct human macrophage polarization. For this purpose, we advanced melt electrowriting (MEW) towards the fabrication of fibrous scaffolds with box-shaped pores and precise inter-fiber spacing from 100 μm down to only 40 μm. These scaffolds facilitate primary human macrophage elongation accompanied by differentiation towards the M2 type, which was most pronounced for the smallest pore size of 40 μm. These new findings can be important in helping to design new biomaterials with an enhanced positive impact on tissue regeneration.
Erstellung eines genregulatorischen Netzwerkes zur Simulation der Entstehung von Zahnhartsubstanz
(2020)
In dieser Dissertation beschreibt der Autor die Erstellung eines grundlegenden bioinformatischen Modelles der menschlichen Zahnschmelzreifung. Mithilfe der KEGG Pathway-Datenbank wurde ein genregulatorisches Netzwerk (GRN) erstellt, welches maßgeblich auf den Signaltransduktionswegen Apoptose, Zellzyklus, Hedgehog-Signalweg, MAP-Kinase-Weg, mTOR-Signalweg Notch-Signalweg Signalweg, TGF-β-Signalweg und Wnt-Signalweg basiert. Im Weiteren wurde dieses Netzwerk durch zahlreiche verifizierte Wechselwirkungen erweitert und die zahnspezifischen Gene AMELX, AMELY, AMBN, ENAM und DSPP implementiert. In der anschließenden Simulation des Netzwerks mit dem Simulations-Tool Jimena konnten sechs stabile Zustände identifiziert werden. Diese wurden genauer untersucht und den Erkenntnissen eines GEO-Datensatzes gegenübergestellt. Langfristiges Ziel ist es, durch konsequente Optimierung des bioinformatischen Netzwerks Rückschlüsse auf die Odontogenese des Menschen zu ziehen.
The bioprinting roadmap
(2020)
This bioprinting roadmap features salient advances in selected applications of the technique and highlights the status of current developments and challenges, as well as envisioned advances in science and technology, to address the challenges to the young and evolving technique. The topics covered in this roadmap encompass the broad spectrum of bioprinting; from cell expansion and novel bioink development to cell/stem cell printing, from organoid-based tissue organization to bioprinting of human-scale tissue structures, and from building cell/tissue/organ-on-a-chip to biomanufacturing of multicellular engineered living systems. The emerging application of printing-in-space and an overview of bioprinting technologies are also included in this roadmap. Due to the rapid pace of methodological advancements in bioprinting techniques and wide-ranging applications, the direction in which the field should advance is not immediately clear. This bioprinting roadmap addresses this unmet need by providing a comprehensive summary and recommendations useful to experienced researchers and newcomers to the field.
In the treatment of bone non-unions, an alternative to bone autografts is the use of bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs), e.g., BMP–2, BMP–7, with powerful osteoinductive and osteogenic properties. In clinical settings, these osteogenic factors are applied using absorbable collagen sponges for local controlled delivery. Major side effects of this strategy are derived from the supraphysiological doses of BMPs needed, which may induce ectopic bone formation, chronic inflammation, and excessive bone resorption. In order to increase the efficiency of the delivered BMPs, we designed cryostructured collagen scaffolds functionalized with hydroxyapatite, mimicking the structure of cortical bone (aligned porosity, anisotropic) or trabecular bone (random distributed porosity, isotropic). We hypothesize that an anisotropic structure would enhance the osteoconductive properties of the scaffolds by increasing the regenerative performance of the provided rhBMP–2. In vitro, both scaffolds presented similar mechanical properties, rhBMP–2 retention and delivery capacity, as well as scaffold degradation time. In vivo, anisotropic scaffolds demonstrated better bone regeneration capabilities in a rat femoral critical-size defect model by increasing the defect bridging. In conclusion, anisotropic cryostructured collagen scaffolds improve bone regeneration by increasing the efficiency of rhBMP–2 mediated bone healing.
The key hypothesis of this work represented the question, if mimicking the zonal composition and structural porosity of musculoskeletal tissues influences invading cells positively and leads to advantageous results for tissue engineering. Conventional approaches in tissue engineering are limited in producing monolithic “scaffolds” that provide locally variating biological key signals and pore architectures, imitating the alignment of collagenous fibres in bone and cartilage tissues, respectively. In order to fill this gap in available tissue engineering strategies, a new fabrication technique was evolved for the production of scaffolds to validate the hypothesis.
Therefore, a new solidification based platform procedure was developed. This process comprises the directional solidification of multiple flowable precursors that are “cryostructured” to prepare a controlled anisotropic pore structure. Porous scaffolds are attained through ice crystal removal by lyophilisation. Optionally, electrostatic spinning of polymers may be applied to provide an external mesh on top or around the scaffolds. A consolidation step generates monolithic matrices from multi zonal structures. To serve as matrix for tissue engineering approaches or direct implantation as medical device, the scaffold is sterilized.
An Adjustable Cryostructuring Device (ACD) was successively developed; individual parts were conceptualized by computer aided design (CAD) and assembled. During optimisation, a significant performance improvement of the ACDs accessible external temperature gradient was achieved, from (1.3 ± 0.1) K/mm to (9.0 ± 0.1) K/mm. Additionally, four different configurations of the device were made available that enabled the directional solidification of collagenous precursors in a highly controlled manner with various sample sizes and shapes.
By using alginate as a model substance the process was systematically evaluated. Cryostructuring diagraphs were analysed yielding solidification parameters, which were associated to pore sizes and alignments that were determined by image processing. Thereby, a precise control over pore size and alignment through electrical regulation of the ACD could be demonstrated.
To obtain tissue mimetic scaffolds for the musculoskeletal system, collagens and calcium phosphates had to be prepared to serve as raw materials. Extraction and purification protocols were established to generate collagen I and collagen II, while the calcium phosphates brushite and hydroxyapatite were produced by precipitation reactions.
Besides the successive augmentation of the ACD also an optimization of the processing steps was crucial. Firstly, the concentrations and the individual behaviour of respective precursor components had to be screened. Together with the insights gained by videographic examination of solidifying collagen solutions, essential knowledge was gained that facilitated the production of more complex scaffolds. Phenomena of ice crystal growth during cryostructuring were discussed. By evolutionary steps, a cryostructuring of multi-layered precursors with consecutive anisotropic pores could be achieved and successfully transferred from alginate to collagenous precursors. Finally, very smooth interfaces that were hardly detectable by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) could be attained. For the used collagenous systems, a dependency relation between adjustable processing parameters and different resulting solidification morphologies was created.
Dehydrothermal-, diisocyanate-, and carbodiimide- based cross linking methods were evaluated, whereby the “zero length” cross linking by carbodiimide was found to be most suitable. Afterwards, a formulation for the cross linking solution was elaborated, which generated favourable outcomes by application inside a reduced pressure apparatus. As a consequence, a pore collapse during wet chemical cross linking could be avoided.
Complex monolithic scaffolds featuring continuous pores were fabricated that mimicked structure and respective composition of different areas of native tissues by the presence of biochemical key stimulants. At first, three types of bone scaffolds were produced from collagen I and hydroxyapatite with appropriate sizes to fit critical sized defects in rat femurs. They either featured an isotropic or anisotropic porosity and partly also contained glycosaminoglycans (GAGs). Furthermore, meniscus scaffolds were prepared by processing two precursors with biomimetic contents of collagen I, collagen II and GAGs. Here, the pore structures were created under boundary conditions, which allowed an ice crystal growth that was nearly orthogonal to the external temperature gradient. Thereby, the preferential alignment of collagen fibres in the natural meniscus tissue could be mimicked. Those scaffolds owned appropriate sizes for cell culture in well plates or even an authentic meniscus shape and size. Finally, osteochondral scaffolds, sized to either fit well plates or perfusion reactors for cell culture, were fabricated to mimic the composition of subchondral bone and different cartilage zones. Collagen I and the resorbable calcium phosphate brushite were used for the subchondral zone, whereas the cartilage zones were composed out of collagen I, collagen II and tissue mimetic contents of GAGs. The pore structure corresponded to the one that is dominating the volume of natural osteochondral tissue.
Energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) and SEM were used to analyse the composition and pore structure of the individual scaffold zones, respectively. The cross section pore diameters were determined to (65 ± 25) µm, (88 ± 35) µm and(93 ± 42) µm for the anisotropic, the isotropic and GAG containing isotropic bone scaffolds. Furthermore, the meniscus scaffolds showed pore diameters of (93 ± 21) µm in the inner meniscus zone and (248 ± 63) µm inside the outer meniscus zone. Pore sizes of (82 ± 25) µm, (83 ± 29) µm and (85 ± 39) µm were present inside the subchondral, the lower chondral and the upper chondral zone of osteochondral scaffolds. Depending on the fabrication parameters, the respective scaffold zones were also found to feature a specific micro- and nanostructure at their inner surfaces.
Degradation studies were carried out under physiological conditions and resulted in a mean mass loss of (0.52 ± 0.13) %, (1.56 ± 0.10) % and (0.80 ± 0.10) % per day for bone, meniscus and osteochondral scaffolds, respectively. Rheological measurements were used to determine the viscosity changes upon cooling of different precursors. Micro computer tomography (µ-CT) investigations were applied to characterize the 3D microstructure of osteochondral scaffolds. To obtain an osteochondral scaffold with four zones of tissue mimetic microstructure alignment, a poly (D, L-lactide-co-glycolide) mesh was deposited on the upper chondral zone by electrostatic spinning. In case of the bone scaffolds, the retention / release capacity of bone morphogenetic protein 2 (BMP-2) was evaluated by an enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Due to the high presence of attractive BMP binding sites, only less than 0.1 % of the initially loaded cytokine was released. The suitability of combining the cryostructuring process with 3D powder printed calcium phosphate substrates was evaluated with osteochondral scaffolds, but did not appear to yield more preferable results than the non-combined approach.
A new custom build confined compression setup was elaborated together with a suitable evaluation procedure for the mechanical characterisation under physiological conditions. For bone and cartilage scaffolds, apparent elastic moduli of (37.6 ± 6.9) kPa and (3.14 ± 0.85) kPa were measured. A similar behaviour of the scaffolds to natural cartilage and bone tissue was demonstrated in terms of elastic energy storage. Under physiological frequencies, less than 1.0 % and 0.8 % of the exerted energy was lost for bone and cartilage scaffolds, respectively. With average relaxation times of (0.613 ± 0.040) sec and (0.815 ± 0.077) sec, measured for the cartilage and bone scaffolds, they respond four orders of magnitude faster than the native tissues. Additionally, all kinds of produced scaffolds were able to withstand cyclic compression at un-physiological frequencies as high as 20 Hz without a loss in structural integrity.
With the presented new method, scaffolds could be fabricated whose extent in mimicking of native tissues exceeded the one of scaffolds producible by state of the art methods. This allowed a testing of the key hypothesis: The biological evaluation of an anisotropic pore structure in vivo revealed a higher functionality of immigrated cells and led finally to advantageous healing outcomes. Moreover, the mimicking of local compositions in combination with a consecutive anisotropic porosity that approaches native tissue structures could be demonstrated to induce zone specific matrix remodelling in stem cells in vitro. Additionally, clues for a zone specific chondrogenic stem cell differentiation were attained without the supplementation of growth factors.
Thereby, the hypothesis that an increased approximation of the hierarchically compositional and structurally anisotropic properties of musculoskeletal tissues would lead to an improved cellular response and a better healing quality, could be confirmed. With a special focus on cell free in situ tissue engineering approaches, the insights gained within this thesis may be directly transferred to clinical regenerative therapies.
Gegenstand der vorliegenden Arbeit war eine systematische Analyse der Ver-arbeitbarkeit, Abbindedauer, pH Wert- und Temperatur-Verläufe während des Abbindens und der Eigenschaften der ausgehärteten Zementpaste, welche je-weils aus Farringtonit (Mg3(PO4)2) unterschiedlicher Reaktivität bestand und mit Diammoniumhydrogenphosphat und Polyacrylsäure zur Reaktion gebracht und konventionellen wässrigen Zementsystemen gegenübergestellt wurde.
Ein besonderer Fokus wurde hierbei auf die Beurteilbarkeit der Eignung dieser Zementsysteme als injizierbare Zementpasten in möglicherweise lasttragenden Bereichen gelegt. Eine Reaktivierung von Farringtonit und anschließendes Ab-binden mit Wasser konnte durch Hochenergiemahlung für 2 h bis 24 h erzielt werden. Mechanisch aktiviertes Farringtonit mit Polyacrylsäure (100.000 g/mol) bzw. kurzzeitig gemahlenes Farringtonit mit höher molekulargewichtiger Polyac-rylsäure führte auf Grund der zum Teil summierten Reaktivität in der sauren Umgebung der Polyacrylsäure zu einer schlechten Verarbeitbarkeit und unzu-reichenden Druckfestigkeiten. Um chelatisiertes Farringtonit mit angemessenen Festigkeiten zu erhalten, zeigte sich die Anwesenheit von Ammoniumionen als vielversprechende Strategie. Als hydratisierte Produkte wurden je nach Formu-lierung Struvit (MgNH4PO4·6H2O), Newberyit (MgHPO4·3H2O) oder Mag-nesiumphosphathydrat (Mg3(PO4)2·22H2O) gewonnen. Besonders die Kombina-tion von kurzzeitig gemahlenem Farringtonit mit 17,5 Gew.%iger Poly-acrylsäure Lösung und 23,1 Gew.%iger Diammoniumhydrogenphos-phat Lösung mit einem Pulver-zu-Flüssigkeitsverhältnis von 1,5 g/ml führte zu Zementpasten, die hinsichtlich ihres Abbindeverhaltens und der mechanischen Eigenschaften denen der Einzelbestandteile überlegen waren.
Die entwickelten Zementsysteme zeigten 60 min nach Beginn des Abbindevor-gangs einen pH-Wert von 4,7 bis 6,4 und Temperaturmaxima von 28,5 °C bis 52 °C je nach Zusammensetzung. Der Mischzement, für welchen maximale Druckfestigkeiten von 15,0±4,1 MPa gemessen wurden, zeigte ein deutlich we-niger sprödes Bruchverhalten im Vergleich zu den reinen Verdünnungen. Da der spröde Charakter klassischer mineralische Knochenzemente einen limitie-renden Faktor für die Anwendung in lasttragenden Bereichen darstellt, kann dies als deutliche Verbesserung der mechanischen Eigenschaften beurteilt wer-den. Immerhin lagen die erzielten Festigkeitswerte in der Größenordnung der humanen Spongiosa. Besonders hervorzuheben ist außerdem der synergisti-sche Effekt, welcher bei Zementformulierungen aus kurzzeitig gemahlenem Farringtonit mit 17,5 Gew.%iger Polyacrylsäure Lösung und 23,1 Gew.%iger Diammoniumhydrogenphosphat Lösung mit einem Pulver-zu-Flüssigkeitsver-hältnis von 1,5 g/ml beobachtet werden konnte. Diese Formulierung wies bis zu vierfach höhere Festigkeitswerte als die Einzelbestandteile auf. Somit bildet das entwickelte Mischzement-System eine gute Basis für weitere Entwicklungen hin zu mechanisch lasttragenden Defekten.
Zur Erhöhung der mechanischen Stabilität mineralischer Knochenzemente aus Calciumorthophosphaten (CPC) wurde in einem TTCP/DCPA-System das Zementedukt TTCP mit verschiedenen biokompatiblen Oxiden (SiO2, TiO2, ZrO2) während des Herstellungsprozesses dotiert. Dies führte zur Bildung von Calciummetallaten und einer Herabsetzung der Löslichkeit der TTCP-Komponente des Zements. Gegenüber einem oxidfreien Zement konnte die Druckfestigkeit von 65 MPa auf 80 MPa (SiO2) bzw. 100 MPa (TiO2) gesteigert werden.
In einem zweiten Ansatz zur Verbesserung der Injizierbarkeit wurden die Wechselwirkungen der Partikeloberflächen mit der flüssigen Zementphase betrachtet. Durch biokompatible Additive sollte eine repulsive elektrostatische Wechselwirkung eingestellt werden, um Partikelagglomerate effektiv zu dispergieren und eine verflüssigende Wirkung zu erreichen. Die Injizierbarkeit eines TTCP/DCPA-Zements durch eine Kanüle mit 800 µm Durchmesser konnte durch die Verwendung von 500 mM tri-Natriumzitrat-Lösung aufgrund einer deutlichen Herabsetzung der Viskosität der Zementpaste signifikant gesteigert werden (>95%, P/L 3,3/1, Kraftaufwand 20 N).
Abschließend wurde der Einfluss der Partikelgrößenverteilung auf die Festigkeit und Injizierbarkeit einer auf monomodaler Partikelgrößenverteilung basierten Zementmatrix untersucht. Hierzu wurden einem mechanisch aktivierten a-TCP-System unreaktive, feinkörnige Füllstoffpopulationen (TiO2, CaHPO4, CaCO3) zugesetzt und systematisch deren Effekt in Verbindung mit einer Partikelaufladung durch tri-Natriumzitrat auf die rheologischen und mechanischen Eigenschaften untersucht.
Erst die Kombination einer bimodalen Partikelgrößenverteilung mit tri-Natriumzitrat-Lösung führte zu einer starken Erniedrigung der Viskosität, damit zur nahezu vollständigen Injizierbarkeit der Zemente und einer teilweise signifikanten Steigerung der mechanischen Festigkeiten (z.B. 72 MPa reiner a-TCP-Zement auf 142 MPa mit Zusatz von CaHPO4).
The objective of this thesis was the synthesis and characterisation of two linear multifunctional PEG-alternatives for bioconjugation and hydrogel formation: i) Hydrophilic acrylate based copolymers containing peptide binding units and ii) hydrophilic polyether based copolymers containing different functional groups for a physical crosslinking.
In section 3.1 the successful synthesis of water soluble and linear acrylate based polymers containing oligo(ethylene glycol) methyl ether acrylate with either linear thioester functional 2-hydroxyethyl acrylate, thiolactone acrylamide, or vinyl azlactone via the living radical polymerisation technique Reversible Addition Fragmentation Chain Transfer (RAFT) and via free-radical polymerisation is described. The obtained polymers were characterized via GPC, 1H NMR, IR and RAMAN spectroscopy.
The RAFT end group was found to be difficult to remove from these short polymer chains and accordingly underwent the undesired side reaction aminolysis with the peptide during the conjugation studies. Besides that, polymers without RAFT end groups did not show any binding of the peptide at the thioester groups, which can be improved in future by using higher reactant concentrations and higher amount of binding units at the polymer. Polymers containing the highly reactive azlactone group showed a peptide binding of 19 %, but unfortunately this function also underwent spontaneous hydrolysis before the peptide could even be bound. In all cases, oligo(ethylene glycol) methyl ether acrylate was used with a relatively high molecular weight (Mn = 480 Da) was used, which eventually was efficiently shielding the introduced binding units from the added peptide. In future, a shorter monomer with Mn = 300 Da or less or hydrophilic N,N’-dialkyl acrylamide based polymers with less steric hindrance could be used to improve this bioconjugation system. Additionally, the amount of monomers containing peptide binding units in the polymer can be increased and have an additional spacer to achieve higher loading efficiency.
The water soluble, linear and short polyether based polymers, so called polyglycidols, were successfully synthesized and modified as described in section 3.2. The obtained polymers were characterized using GPC, 1H NMR, 31P{1H} NMR, IR, and RAMAN spectroscopy. The allyl groups which were present up to 20 % were used for radical induced thiol-ene chemistry for the introduction of functional groups intended for the formation of the physically crosslinking hydrogels. For the positively charged polymers, first a chloride group had to be introduced for the subsequent nucleophilic substitution with the imidazolium compound. There, degrees of modifications were found in the range 40-97 % due to the repulsion forces of the charges, decreased concentration of active chloride groups, and limiting solution concentrations of the polymer for this reaction. For the negatively charged polymers, first a protected phosphonamide moiety was introduced with a deprotection step afterwards showing 100 % conversion for all reactions. Preliminary hydrogel tests did not show a formation of a three-dimensional network of the polymer chains which was attributed to the short backbone length of the used polymers, but the gained knowledge about the synthetic routes for the modification of the polymer was successfully transferred to longer linear polyglycidols. The same applies to the introduction of electron rich and electron poor compounds showing π-π stacking interactions by UV-vis spectroscopy.
Finally, long linear polyglycidyl ethers were synthesised successfully up to molecular weights of Mn ~ 30 kDa in section 3.3, which was also proven by GPC, 1H NMR, IR and RAMAN spectroscopy. This applies to the homopolymerisation of ethoxyethyl glycidyl ether, allyl glycidyl ether and their copolymerisation with an amount of the allyl compound ~ 10 %. Attempts for higher molecular weights up to 100 kDa showed an uncontrolled polymerisation behaviour and eventually can be improved in future by choosing a lower initiation temperature. Also, the allyl side groups were modified via radical induced thiol-ene chemistry to obtain positively charged functionalities via imidazolium moieties (85 %) and negatively charged functionalities via phosphonamide moieties (100 %) with quantitative degree of modifications. Hydrogel tests have still shown a remaining solution by using long linear polyglycidols carrying negative charges with long/short linear polyglycidols carrying positive charges. The addition of calcium chloride led to a precipitate of the polymer instead of a three-dimensional network formation representing a too high concentration of ions and therefore shielding water molecules with prevention from dissolving the polymer. These systems can be improved by tuning the polymers structure like longer polymer chains, longer spacer between polymer backbone and charge, and higher amount of functional groups.
The objective of the thesis was partly reached containing detailed investigated synthetic routes for the design and characterisation of functional polymers which could be used in future with improvements for bioconjugation and hydrogel formation tests.
The reliability of implantable blood sensors is often hampered by unspecific adsorption of plasma proteins and blood cells. This not only leads to a loss of sensor signal over time, but can also result in undesired host vs. graft reactions. Within this study we evaluated the hemocompatibility of isocyanate conjugated star shaped polytheylene oxide-polypropylene oxide co-polymers NCO-sP(EO-stat-PO) when applied to gold surfaces as an auspicious coating material for gold sputtered blood contacting sensors. Quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) sensors were coated with ultrathin NCO-sP(EO-stat-PO) films and compared with uncoated gold sensors. Protein resistance was assessed by QCM measurements with fibrinogen solution and platelet poor plasma (PPP), followed by quantification of fibrinogen adsorption. Hemocompatibility was tested by incubation with human platelet rich plasma (PRP). Thrombin antithrombin-III complex (TAT), beta-thromboglobulin (beta-TG) and platelet factor 4 (PF4) were used as coagulation activation markers. Furthermore, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used to visualize platelet adhesion to the sensor surfaces. Compared to uncoated gold sensors, NCO-sP(EO-stat-PO) coated sensors revealed significant better resistance against protein adsorption, lower TAT generation and a lower amount of adherent platelets. Moreover, coating with ultrathin NCO-sP(EO-stat-PO) films creates a cell resistant hemocompatible surface on gold that increases the chance of prolonged sensor functionality and can easily be modified with specific receptor molecules.
Hyaluronic acid (HA)-based hydrogels are very commonly applied as cell carriers for different approaches in regenerative medicine. HA itself is a well-studied biomolecule that originates from the physiological extracellular matrix (ECM) of mammalians and, due to its acidic polysaccharide structure, offers many different possibilities for suitable chemical modifications which are necessary to control, for example, network formation. Most of these chemical modifications are performed using the free acid function of the polymer and, additionally, lead to an undesirable breakdown of the biopolymer’s backbone. An alternative modification of the vicinal diol of the glucuronic acid is oxidation with sodium periodate to generate dialdehydes via a ring opening mechanism that can subsequently be further modified or crosslinked via Schiff base chemistry. Since this oxidation causes a structural destruction of the polysaccharide backbone, it was our intention to study a novel synthesis protocol frequently applied to selectively oxidize the C6 hydroxyl group of saccharides. On the basis of this TEMPO/TCC oxidation, we studied an alternative hydrogel platform based on oxidized HA crosslinked using adipic acid dihydrazide as the crosslinker.
In the field of biofabrication, biopolymer-based hydrogels are often used as bulk materials with defined structures or as bioinks. Despite their excellent biocompatibility, biopolymers need chemical modification to fulfill mechanical stability.
In this thesis, the primary alcohol of hyaluronic acid was oxidized using TEMPO/TCC oxidation to generate aldehyde groups without ring-opening mechanism of glycol cleavage using sodium periodate. For crosslinking reaction of the aldehyde groups, adipic acid dihydrazide was used as bivalent crosslinker for Schiff Base chemistry. This hydrogel system with fast and reversible crosslinking mechanism was used successfully as bulk hydrogel for chondrogenic differentiation with human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSC).
Gelatin was modified with pentenoic acid for crosslinking reaction via light controllable thiol-ene reaction, using thiolated 4-arm sPEG as multivalent crosslinker. Due to preservation of the thermo responsive property of gelatin by avoiding chain degradation during modification reaction, this gelatin-based hydrogel system was successfully processed via 3D printing with low polymer concentration. Good cell viability was achieved using hMSC in various concentrations after 3D bioprinting and chondrogenic differentiation showed promising results.
A multitude of human tissues, such as bones, tendons, or muscles, are characterized by a hierarchical and highly ordered structure. In many cases, the loss of these tissues requires reconstruction using biocompatible replacement materials. In the field of bone replacement, the pore structure of the material has a crucial influence. Anisotropic porosity would have the advantage of facilitating the ingrowth of cells and newly formed blood vessels as well as the transport of nutrients.
In this thesis, scaffolds with a highly ordered and anisotropic pore structure were fabricated using unidirectional freezing.
Systematic investigations were carried out on biopolymer solutions (alginate and chitosan) to gain a deeper understanding of the freeze-structuring process. The knowledge gained was then applied to the development of anisotropically structured bone substitute materials. Here, the previously existing material platform for anisotropically structured calcium phosphates was extended to low-temperature phases such as calcium deficient hydroxyapatite (CDHA) or the secondary phosphates monetite and brushite.
After the implantation of a biomaterial, the inevitably triggered initial immune response plays a key role in the success of a graft, with immune cells such as neutrophils or macrophages being of particular importance. In this thesis, the influence of anisotropically structured alpha-TCP and CDHA scaffolds as well as their unstructured references on human monocytes/macrophages was investigated. Macrophages produced extracellular traps (ETs) due to mineral nanoparticles formed by the binding of phosphate and calcium ions to human platelet lysate. In particular, incubation of alpha-TCP samples in lysate containing cell culture medium resulted in pronounced particle formation and enhanced release of ETs.
Herein, it is aimed to highlight the importance of the process parameter choice during directional solidification of polymer solutions, as they have a significant influence on the pore structure and orientation. Biopolymer solutions (alginate and chitosan) are directionally frozen, while systematically varying parameters such as the external temperature gradient, the temperature of the overall system, and the temperatures of the cooling surfaces.
In addition, the effect of material properties such as molecular weight, solution concentration, or viscosity on the sample morphology is investigated. By selecting appropriate temperature gradients and cooling surface temperatures, aligned pores ranging in size between (50 ± 22) μm and (144 ± 56) μm are observed in the alginate samples, whereas the pore orientation is influenced by altering the external temperature gradient.
As this gradient increases, the pores are increasingly oriented perpendicular to the sample surface. This is also observed in the chitosan samples. However, if the overall system is too cold, that is, using temperatures of the lower cooling surface down to −60 °C combined with low temperatures of the upper cooling surface, control over pore orientation is lost. This is also found when viscosity of chitosan solutions is above ≈5 Pas near the freezing point.
The current study aims to extend the material platform for anisotropically structured calcium phosphates to low-temperature phases such as calcium-deficient hydroxyapatite (CDHA) or the secondary phosphates monetite and brushite. This is achieved by the phase conversion of highly porous α-tricalcium phosphate (α-TCP) scaffolds fabricated by ice-templating into the aforementioned phases by hydrothermal treatment or incubation in phosphoric acid. Prior to these steps, α-TCP scaffolds are either sintered for 8 h at 1400 °C or remain in their original state. Both nonsintered and sintered α-TCP specimens are converted into CDHA by hydrothermal treatment, while a transformation into monetite and brushite is achieved by incubation in phosphoric acid. Hydrothermal treatment for 72 h at 175 °C increases the porosity in nonsintered samples from 85% to 88% and from 75% to 88% in the sintered ones. An increase in the specific surface area from (1.102 ± 0.005) to (9.17 ± 0.01) m2 g−1 and from (0.190 ± 0.004) to (2.809 ± 0.002) m2 g−1 due to the phase conversion is visible for both the nonsintered and sintered samples. Compressive strength of the nonsintered samples increases significantly from (0.76 ± 0.11) to (5.29 ± 0.94) MPa due to incubation in phosphoric acid.
Entwicklung einer biofunktionalen Beschichtung für mit Silber dotierte Titandioxid-Nanopartikel
(2020)
Ziel dieser Arbeit war es, eine erfolgreiche Beschichtung der verschiedenen TiO2 Nanopartikel mit aufsteigendem Silberanteil herzustellen, um eine ausgeprägte Stabilisierung und Biokompatibilität der Partikel zu erreichen. Anschließend wurde ihre Wirkung gegenüber gesunden Zellen und Tumorzellen anhand von Zellversuchen untersucht.
Zunächst mussten die TiO2 Aggregate nach ihrer Redispergierung in Wasser, Toluol oder Tris Base gespalten werden, damit anschließend eine kontrollierte Beschichtung einzelner Nanopartikel durchgeführt werden konnte. Der Einfluss von Ultraschall in Form einer zweiminütigen Ultraschalltipbehandlung lieferte hierbei die niedrigsten Partikelgrößen in der DLS-Messung.
Die Beschichtungen wurden mit APTES, Dopamin und PEG-SH unter Einfluss von unterschiedlichen Ultraschalltipzeiten, Konzentrationen, Temperaturen, pH-Werten, Salzen sowie verschiedenen Magnetrührtechniken und Waschprozessen entwickelt. Durch die Charakterisierungsmethoden via dynamischer Lichtstreuung, Zetapotentialmessung, Infrarotspektroskopie, REM und STEM wurde jede Beschichtung analysiert und auf diese Weise ihre optimale Herstellungsmethode erarbeitet.
Schlussendlich wurde der Einfluss unbeschichteter sowie mit APTES, PDA und PEG-SH beschichteter TiO2 Nanopartikel mit steigendem Silberanteil anhand gesunder Zellen und Tumorzellen in vitro untersucht. Die Zellen wurden für 24 h mit den Partikeln inkubiert und anschließend mittels Durchflusszytometrie charakterisiert. Generell wurde nur eine geringfügige Auswirkung der Partikel auf die Zellen beobachtet. Die in der Literatur beworbene Aussage, dass silberdotierte TiO2 in der Lage sind, entartete Zellen zu töten, während gesunde Zellen ausgespart werden, konnte nicht bestätigt werden. Dennoch besaßen einige Faktoren einen Einfluss auf die Vitalität und Zellzahl. So spielte der steigende Silberanteil bei den Zellen eine Rolle, die einen Effekt auf die TiO2 Nanopartikel zeigten. Mit steigendem Ag-Anteil sanken Zellzahl und Vitalität stärker. Auch eine ansteigende Konzentration der beschichteten Partikel wirkte sich positiv auf das Absinken der Zellzahl aus. Besonders die adhärent wachsende Tumorzelllinie Panc02 zeigte sich sensibel gegenüber den beschichteten und unbeschichteten Partikeln. Die Beschichtung, welche die größte Auswirkung auf die Zellzahl- und Vitalitätsminderung der Zellen hatte, war eindeutig die PDA-Beschichtung.
The aim of the work was the development of thiol-ene cross-linked hydrogels based on functionalized poly(glycidol)s (PG) and hyaluronic acid (HA) for extrusion based 3D bioprinting. Additionally, the functionalization of the synthesized PG with peptides and the suitability of these polymers for physically cross-linked gels were investigated, in a proof of principle study in order to demonstrate the versatile use of PG polymers in hydrogel development.
First, the precursor polymers of the different hydrogel systems were synthesized. For thiol-ene cross-linked hydogels, linear allyl-functionalized PG (P(AGE-co-G)) and three different thiol-(SH-)functionalized polymers, ester-containing PG-SH (PG SHec), ester-free PG-SH (PG-SHef) and HA-SH were synthesized and analysed, The degree of functionalization of these polymers was adjustable.
For physically cross-linked hydrogels, peptide-functionalized PG (P(peptide-co-G)), was synthesized through polymer analogue thiol-ene modification of P(AGE-co-G).
Subsequently, thiol-ene cross-linked hydrogels were prepared with the synthesized thiol- and allyl-functionalized polymers. Depending on the origin of the used polymers, two different systems were obtained: on the one hand synthetic hydrogels consisting of PG-SHec/ef and P(AGE-co-G) and on the other hand hybrid gels, consisting of HA-SH and P(AGE-co-G). In synthetic gels, the degradability of the gels was determined by the applied PG-SH. The use of PG-SHec resulted in hydrolytically degradable hydrogels, whereas the cross-linking with PG-SHef resulted in non-degradable gels.
The physical properties of these different hydrogel systems were determined by swelling, mechanical and diffusion studies and subsequently compared among each other. In swelling studies the differences of degradable and non-degradable synthetic hydrogels as well as the differences of synthetic compared to hybrid hydrogels were demonstrated.
Next, the stiffness and the swelling ratios (SR) of the established hydrogel systems were examined in dependency of different parameters, such as incubation time, polymer concentration and UV irradiation. In general, these measurements revealed the same trends for synthetic and hybrid hydrogels: an increased polymer concentration as well as prolonged UV irradiation led to an increased network density. Moreover, it was demonstrated that the incorporation of additional non-bound HMW HA hampered the hydrogel cross-linking resulting in gels with decreased stiffness and increased SR. This effect was strongly dependent on the amount of additional HMW HA.
The diffusion of different molecular weight fluorescein isothiocyanate-dextran (FITC-dextran) through hybrid hydrogels (with/without HMW HA) gave information about the mesh size of these gels. The smallest FITC-dextran (4 kDa) completely diffused through both hydrogel systems within the first week, whereas only 55 % of 40 kDa and 5-10 % HMW FITC-dextrans (500 kDa and 2 MDa) could diffuse through the networks.
The applicability of synthetic and hybrid hydrogels for cartilage regeneration purpose was investigated through by biological examinations. It was proven that both gels support the survival of embedded human mesenchymal stromal cells (hMSCs) (21/28 d in vitro culture), however, the chondrogenic differentiation was significantly improved in hybrid hydrogels compared to synthetic gels. The addition of non-bound HMW HA resulted in a slightly less distinct chondrogenesis.
Lastly the printability of the established hydrogel systems was examined. Therefore, the viscoelastic properties of the hydrogel solutions were adjusted by incorporation of non-bound HMW HA. Both systems could be successfully printed with high resolution and high shape fidelity.
The introduction of the double printing approach with reinforcing PCL allowed printing of hydrogel solutions with lower viscosities. As a consequence, the amount of additional HMW HA necessary for printing could be reduced allowing successful printing of hybrid hydrogel solutions with embedded cells. It was demonstrated that the integrated cells survived the printing process with high viability measured after 21 d. Moreover, by this reinforcing technique, robust hydrogel-containing constructs were fabricated.
In addition to thiol-ene cross-linked hydrogels, hydrogel cross-linking via ionic interactions was investigated with a hybrid hydrogel based on HMW HA and peptide-functionalized PG. Rheological measurements revealed an increase in the viscosity of a 2 wt.% HMW HA solution by the addition of peptide-functionalized PG. The increase in viscosity could be attributed to the ionic interactions between the positively charge PG and the negatively charge HMW HA.
In conclusion, throughout this thesis thiol-ene chemistry and PG were introduced as promising cross-linking reaction and polymer precursor for the field of biofabrication. Furthermore, the differences of hybrid and synthetic hydrogels as well as chemically and physically cross-linked hydrogels were demonstrated.
Moreover, the double printing approach was demonstrated to be a promising tool for the fabrication of robust hydrogel-containing constructs. It opens the possibility of printing hydrogels that were not printable yet, due to too low viscosities.
Implants elicit an immunological response after implantation that results in the worst case in a complete implant rejection. This biomaterial-induced inflammation is modulated by macrophages and can be influenced by nanotopographical surface structures such as titania nanotubes or fractal titanium nitride (TiN) surfaces. However, their specific impact on a distinct macrophage phenotype has not been identified. By using two different levels of nanostructures and smooth samples as controls, the influence of tubular TiO2 and fractal TiN nanostructures on primary human macrophages with M1 or M2-phenotype was investigated. Therefore, nanotopographical coatings were either, directly generated by physical vapor deposition (PVD) or by electrochemical anodization of titanium PVD coatings. The cellular response of macrophages was quantitatively assessed to demonstrate a difference in biocompatibility of nanotubes in respect to human M1 and M2-macrophages. Depending on the tube diameter of the nanotubular surfaces, low cell numbers and impaired cellular activity, was detected for M2-macrophages, whereas the impact of nanotubes on M1-polarized macrophages was negligible. Importantly, we could confirm this phenotypic response on the fractal TiN surfaces. The results indicate that the investigated topographies specifically impact the macrophage M2-subtype that modulates the formation of the fibrotic capsule and the long-term response to an implant.
Metals are the most used materials for implant devices, especially in orthopedics, but despite their long history of application issues such as material failure through wear and corrosion remain unsolved leading to a certain number of revision surgeries. Apart from the problems associated with insufficient material properties, another serious issue is an implant associated infection due to the formation of a biofilm on the surface of the material after implantation. Thus, improvements in implant technology are demanded, especially since there is a projected rise of implants needed in the future. Surface modification methods such as physical vapour deposition (PVD), oxygen diffusion hardening and electrochemical anodization have shown to be efficient methods to improve the surfaces of metallic bulk materials regarding biomedical issues. This thesis was focused on the development of functional PVD coatings that are suitable for further treatment with surface modification techniques originally developed for bulk metals. The aim was to precisely adjust the surface properties of the implant according to the targeted application to prevent possible failure mechanisms such as coating delamination, wear or the occurrence of post-operative infections.
Initially, tantalum layers with approx 5 µm thickness were deposited at elevated substrate temperatures on cp Ti by RF magnetron sputtering. Due to the high affinity of tantalum to oxygen, these coatings are known to provide a self healing capacity since the rapid oxide formation is known to close surface cracks. Here, the work aimed to reduce the abrupt change of mechanical properties between the hard and brittle coating and the ductile substrate by creating an oxygen diffusion zone. It was found that the hardness and adhesion could be significantly increased when the coatings were treated afterwards by oxygen diffusion hardening in a two step process. Firstly, the surface was oxidized at a pressure of 6.7•10-3 mbar at 350 450 °C, followed by 1-2 h annealing in oxygen-free atmosphere at the same temperature leading to a diffusion of oxygen atoms into deeper parts of the substrate as proved by X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis. The hereby caused mechanical stress in the crystal lattice led to an increase in Vickers hardness of the Ta layers from 570 HV to over 900 HV. Investigations into the adhesion of oxygen diffusion treated samples by Rockwell measurements demonstrated an increase of critical force for coating delamination from 12 N for untreated samples up to 25 N for diffusion treated samples.
In a second approach, the development of modular targets aimed to produce functional coatings by metallic doping of titanium with biologically active agents. This was demonstrated by the fabrication of antimicrobial Ti(Ag) coatings using a single magnetron sputtering source equipped with a titanium target containing implemented silver modules under variation of bias voltage and substrate temperature. The deposition of both Ti and Ag was confirmed by X-ray diffraction and a clear correlation between the applied sputtering parameters and the silver content of the coatings was demonstrated by ICP-MS and EDX. Surface-sensitive XPS measurements revealed that higher substrate temperatures led to an accumulation of Ag in the near-surface region, while the application of a bias voltage had the opposite effect. SEM and AFM microscopy revealed that substrate heating during film deposition supported the formation of even and dense surface layers with small roughness values, which could even be enforced by applying a substrate bias voltage. Additional elution measurements using ICP-MS showed that the release kinetics depended on the amount of silver located at the film surface and hence could be tailored by variation of the sputter parameters.
In a final step, the applied Ti and Ti(Ag) coatings deposited on cp Ti, stainless steel (316L) and glass substrates were subsequently nanostructured using a self-ordering process induced by electrochemical anodization in aqueous fluoride containing electrolytes. SEM analysis showed that nanotube arrays could be grown from the Ti and Ti(Ag) coatings deposited at elevated temperatures on any substrate, whereby no influence of the substrate on nanotube morphology could be observed. EDX measurements indicated that the anodization process led to the selective etching of Ti from Ti(Ag) coating. Further experiments on coatings deposited on glass surfaces revealed that moderate substrate temperatures during deposition resulting in smooth Ti layers as determined by AFM measurements, are favorable for the generation of highly ordered nanotube arrays. Such arrays exhibited superhydrophilic behavior as proved by contact angle measurements. XRD analysis revealed that the nanostructured coatings were amorphous after anodization but could be crystallized to anatase structure by thermal treatment at temperatures of 450°C.
Chemoselective poly(oxazolines) (POx) and poly[(oligo ethylene glycol) acrylates] were synthesized. An initiator was produced for the preparation of poly(oxazoline)s capable of participating in click chemistry reactions which allows the functionalization of the polymer at the α terminus which was confirmed by 1H NMR spectroscopy. The initiator was used for the polymerization of hydrophilic 2 methyl 2 oxazoline (MeOx), whereby chemoselective, alkyne functionalized polymers could be prepared for Cu-catalyzed azide–alkyne cycloaddition. The desired molecular weight could be achieved through the living, ring opening cationic polymerization and was confirmed by 1H NMR, SEC and MALDI ToF measurements. Polymers were terminated with piperidine if no further functionalization was needed, or with an ester derivate for enabling amine attachment in a subsequent step. In addition, polymers were functionalized by termination with NaN3 in order to provide the counterpart to the azide–alkyne reaction. IR spectroscopy was suitable for the azide detection. The coupling of polymers showed the reactivity and could be confirmed by SEC, 1H NMR and IR spectroscopy.
The composition of cysteine functionalized POx was completed by thiol–ene chemistry. Since the commercially available iso 2 propyl 2 oxazoline is not available for the cationic polymerization, 2 butenyl and 2 decenyl 2 oxazoline (ButenOx and DecenOx) were first prepared. The synthesis of both copolymers, based on MeOx could be confirmed by 1H NMR as well as with SEC, whereby narrow distributions with dispersities of 1.06 could be achieved. The cysteine functionalization of the copolymers was enabled by the creation of a thiazolidine component which could be synthesized by acetal and formyl protection of cysteine and subsequent functionalization with a thiol. The component enabled the reaction with a polymer by thiol–ene reaction which was started by the addition of dimethoxyphenyl-acetophenone and was catalyzed by irradiation with UV light. Both copolymers, with a shorter (polymers with BuenOx) and longer (polymers with DecenOx) hydrophobic sidechain could be functionalized. 1H NMR spectroscopic analysis showed a quantitative reaction with the thiazolidine derivate. After deprotection by acidic workup the desired, cysteine functionalized polymer could be isolated. Quantification of cysteine functions was ensured by a modified TNBSA assay, whereby the thiols were first oxidized in order to confirm an independent measurement of amine functions. Both, the TNBSA assay as well as the NMR measurement showed the desired number of cysteine residues.
The cytotoxicity of functionalized polymers with different compositions was tested by a luminescent cell viability assay (LCVA). Both, the amount of cysteine functions (5–10%) in the copolymers as well as the length of the hydrophobic side chain were varied. All polymers did not show cytotoxicity up to concentrations of 10 mg∙mL-1. The cell activity and cell numbers only decreased below 50% and 20% respectively, when copolymers with 5% cysteine and longer sidechains were measured, which was attributed to a contamination of the sample itself. The cooperation partner performed Native Chemical Ligation (NCL) with model peptides and purified the products by HPLC. A sterically non demanding peptide was synthesized, consisting of an aromatic amino acid and four glycine units. The aromatic unit was used for the quantification of the polymer–peptide conjugate in the 1H NMR spectroscopy. A polymer having five cysteine side chains has been fully implemented by NCL to a conjugate of one polymer with five peptides. A sterically more demanding peptide was additionally used and MALDI ToF measurements confirmed the successful conjugation.
Furthermore the cysteine functionalized polymer was used for nanogel synthesis. The thiol of the cysteine function was oxidized in an inverse mini-emulsion by H2O2, resulting in nanogels (~500 nm) which could be confirmed by SEM, AFM, DLS and NTA measurements.
Besides POx, oligo (ethylene glycol)acrylates (OEGA) were polymerized; by copolymerization with the reactive pentafluorophenyl acrylate (PFPA) reactive and amphiphilic polymers were obtained. The synthesis of PFPA could be confirmed spectroscopically by 1H , 19F NMR, and by FT IR. Copolymers were synthesized by RAFT polymerization with narrow dispersities. Functionalization with an amine functionalized thiazolidine led to a hydrophilic cysteine functionalized polymer after acidic deprotection. Apart from this polymer, a thioester functionalization was successfully performed by reaction of the active polymer with a cyclic amine functionalized thioester which does not release a toxic by product (such as the resulting thiol) during NCL and thus features a very high potential to replace former thioester.
Identification of articular cartilage progenitor cells (ACPCs) has opened up new opportunities for cartilage repair. These cells may be used as alternatives for or in combination with mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) in cartilage engineering. However, their potential needs to be further investigated, since only a few studies have compared ACPCs and MSCs when cultured in hydrogels. Therefore, in this study, we compared chondrogenic differentiation of equine ACPCs and MSCs in agarose constructs as monocultures and as zonally layered co-cultures under both normoxic and hypoxic conditions. ACPCs and MSCs exhibited distinctly differential production of the cartilaginous extracellular matrix (ECM). For ACPC constructs, markedly higher glycosaminoglycan (GAG) contents were determined by histological and quantitative biochemical evaluation, both in normoxia and hypoxia. Differential GAG production was also reflected in layered co-culture constructs. For both cell types, similar staining for type II collagen was detected. However, distinctly weaker staining for undesired type I collagen was observed in the ACPC constructs. For ACPCs, only very low alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity, a marker of terminal differentiation, was determined, in stark contrast to what was found for MSCs. This study underscores the potential of ACPCs as a promising cell source for cartilage engineering.
Bioprinting offers the opportunity to fabricate precise 3D tumor models to study tumor pathophysiology and progression. However, the choice of the bioink used is important. In this study, cell behavior was studied in three mechanically and biologically different hydrogels (alginate, alginate dialdehyde crosslinked with gelatin (ADA–GEL), and thiol-modified hyaluronan (HA-SH crosslinked with PEGDA)) with cells from breast cancer (MDA-MB-231 and MCF-7) and melanoma (Mel Im and MV3), by analyzing survival, growth, and the amount of metabolically active, living cells via WST-8 labeling. Material characteristics were analyzed by dynamic mechanical analysis. Cell lines revealed significantly increased cell numbers in low-percentage alginate and HA-SH from day 1 to 14, while only Mel Im also revealed an increase in ADA–GEL. MCF-7 showed a preference for 1% alginate. Melanoma cells tended to proliferate better in ADA–GEL and HA-SH than mammary carcinoma cells. In 1% alginate, breast cancer cells showed equally good proliferation compared to melanoma cell lines. A smaller area was colonized in high-percentage alginate-based hydrogels. Moreover, 3% alginate was the stiffest material, and 2.5% ADA–GEL was the softest material. The other hydrogels were in the same range in between. Therefore, cellular responses were not only stiffness-dependent. With 1% alginate and HA-SH, we identified matrices that enable proliferation of all tested tumor cell lines while maintaining expected tumor heterogeneity. By adapting hydrogels, differences could be accentuated. This opens up the possibility of understanding and analyzing tumor heterogeneity by biofabrication.
Der steigende Bedarf an Knochenersatzmaterialien (KEM) in Medizin und Zahnmedizin verdeutlicht die Notwendigkeit der Etablierung weiterer alloplastischer, also synthetisch hergestellter, KEMs. Additive Fertigung ermöglicht die Herstellung patientenspezifischer Implantate. Hierfür wird auf Basis von 3D Bildgebung eines Knochendefekts, ein Implantat mittels CAD geplant und anschließend mittels additiver Fertigung, zum Beispiel durch 3D Pulverdruck hergestellt.
Ziel dieser Arbeit war die Untersuchung des osteogenen Potentials in vitro von Calciummagnesiumphosphatkeramiken mit der allgemeinen Strukturformel CaxMg(3-x)(PO4)2 mit x = 0; 0,25; 0,75; 1,5; 3 aus additiver Fertigung. Hierfür wurden Prüfkörper mittels 3D Pulverdruck gedruckt, anschließend durch Hochtemperatursinterung verfestigt und durch Behandlung mit reaktiven Lösungen nachgehärtet. Abhängig von der reaktiven Lösung wandelte sich die Keramik teilweise in Struvit, Bruschit und Newberyit um. Die biologische Testung in vitro erfolgte mit hFOB 1.19 Zellen und ergab eine gute Biokompatibilität sowie die Ausdifferenzierung osteogener Progenitorzellen für fast alle Keramikphasen, wobei die newberyithaltigen Keramiken tendenziell bessere Ergebnisse erzielten.
Calcium phosphate biocements are inherently brittle materials due to their ceramic nature. Hence, currently applied cement formulations are only indicated for non-load bearing application sites. An approach to reduce cement brittleness is based on the use of cement – polymer composites, which combine the flexibility of a polymeric phase with the hardness and compression strength of a cement matrix. Here, a relatively new strategy is the use of “dual-setting” cements, in which the polymeric phase is simultaneously build up from monomers or prepolymers during cement setting. This approach largely maintains basic properties of the fresh paste such as rheology or setting time. Previous works on such dual setting cements were dealing with a radical polymerization reaction to create the polymeric network. This type of reaction requires the addition of a suitable initiator system (e.g. a tertiary amine in conjunction with ammonium peroxosulfate), which are often cytotoxic and may interfere with the cement setting conditions. The current thesis dealt with alternative strategies, in which the cross-linking and gelation of the second (polymeric or inorganic) cement phase is initiated by the chemical conditions of the setting reaction such that no additional initiator has to be added to the cement paste.
In a first approach a six armed star molecule functionalized with isocyanate groups as reactive termini (NCO–sP(EO-stat-PO)) was used to build up a hydrogel matrix, which was then subsequently mineralized with hydroxyapatite nanocrystals following the hydrolysis of incorporated -tricalcium phosphate particles. The stimulus to initiate hydrogel cross-linking are water molecules, which subsequently hydrolyzed isocyanate groups to amines, which then cross-linked with unreacted isocyanate to form urea-bonds. Here, it was possible to show the advantages features of a dual setting system in comparison to the simple combination of hydrogels with unreactive filler particles. By the formation of the cement matrix within the hydrogel a strength improvement by the factor of 30 could be observed. Furthermore, by applying a dual setting system higher mineral concentrations are realizable. The mechanical properties such as elasticity, compression strength and E-modulus of a composite with 30 wt% NCO–sP(EO-stat-PO) were found to be similar to the properties of cancellous bone.
With the motivation to develop a dual setting and resorbable cement, a brushite (CaHPO4·2H2O) forming cement was modified with a second inorganic silica based precursor. The latter was obtained by pre-hydrolysing tetraethyl orthosilicate (TEOS) under acidic conditions. This silica precursor was mixed with a cement powder composed of ß-tricalcium phosphate and monocalcium phosphate, whereas cement setting occurred by a dissolution–precipitation process to form a matrix of brushite. Simultaneously, the increase of the pH during setting from initially 1-2 to values > 4 initiated the condensation reaction of the hydrolysed TEOS. This resulted in an interpenetrating phase composite material in which the micropores of the cement were filled with the nanoporous silica gel. This resulted in a higher density and a compressive strength of 24 MPa, which is approximately 5-10 times higher than the CPC reference at the same powder to liquid ratio. The microporous character of the composites also altered the release of vancomycin as a model drug, whereby in contrast to the quantitative release from the CPC reference, approx. 25 % of the immobilised drug remained in the composite matrix. It was also observed, that a variation of the TEOS content in the composite enabled a control over cement phase composition to form either brushite, anhydrous monetite or a biphasic mixture of both. Cytocompatibility tests revealed that composites with the highest silicate content showed an increased cell proliferation compared to the silica-free brushite reference. Proliferation was found to be similar to a hydroxyapatite reference with a significant higher activity per cell. Mechanistically, the improved biological response could not be attributed to the released silicate ions, but to a decreased release of phosphate and adsorption of magnesium ions from the cell culture medium.
Finally, an investigated dual setting cement system was based on the combination of a brushite forming cement powder with an aqueous silk fibroin solution. Here, changes of both ion concentration and pH during cement setting were shown to build up an interpenetrating fibroin – brushite composite with combined properties of the elastic polymer and the rigid cement. Mechanistically, the low pH of the cement paste (2) as well as the free Ca2+ ions during setting resulted in a conformation change of the dissolved fibroin from random coil to ß-sheet structure. This leads to a rapid gelation and contraction of the fibroin phase with a self-densifying effect on the cement paste. The set composites showed typical ductile fracture behavior under dry testing conditions and a high elasticity under wet conditions with a mechanical strength nearly an order of magnitude higher than the fibroin free cement reference. Cell number and activity against MG63 cells were strongly increased on silk fibroin cement composite surfaces at later time points, which could be again attributed to a decreased ion release and adsorption compared to the fibroin free cements. This in turn slowed down the in vitro degradation of the CPC phase in such composites.
2D electrophysiology is often used to determine the electrical properties of neurons, while in the brain, neurons form extensive 3D networks. Thus, performing electrophysiology in a 3D environment provides a closer situation to the physiological condition and serves as a useful tool for various applications in the field of neuroscience. In this study, we established 3D electrophysiology within a fiber-reinforced matrix to enable fast readouts from transfected cells, which are often used as model systems for 2D electrophysiology. Using melt electrowriting (MEW) of scaffolds to reinforce Matrigel, we performed 3D electrophysiology on a glycine receptor-transfected Ltk-11 mouse fibroblast cell line. The glycine receptor is an inhibitory ion channel associated when mutated with impaired neuromotor behaviour. The average thickness of the MEW scaffold was 141.4 ± 5.7µm, using 9.7 ± 0.2µm diameter fibers, and square pore spacings of 100 µm, 200 µm and 400 µm. We demonstrate, for the first time, the electrophysiological characterization of glycine receptor-transfected cells with respect to agonist efficacy and potency in a 3D matrix. With the MEW scaffold reinforcement not interfering with the electrophysiology measurement, this approach can now be further adapted and developed for different kinds of neuronal cultures to study and understand pathological mechanisms under disease conditions.
Untersuchungen zum Abbindeverhalten und der Injizierbarkeit von Magnesiumphosphat-Knochenzementen
(2018)
Ziel dieser Arbeit war die experimentelle Untersuchung von selbsthärtenden Magnesiumphosphat Zementen als Knochenersatzmaterial bezüglich der Verarbeitungsqualität, der Temperaturentwicklung beim Abbinden, der Injizierbarkeit und der mechanischen Eigenschaften. Der Schwerpunkt wurde dabei auf die Anpassung der rheologischen Eigenschaften der Zementpaste für eine minimal–invasive Applikation gelegt. Durch eine elektrische Aufladung der Partikeloberfläche von Farringtonit nach Adsorption von Citrat–Ionen und Zusatz der biokompatiblen Füllstoffe Struvit oder TiO2 für die Einstellung einer bimodalen Partikelgrößenverteilung, war es möglich, die Viskosität der Pasten zu erniedrigen und den filter–pressing−Effekt während der Injektion zu unterdrücken. Die Modifikation des Mg3(PO4)2 Pulvers und der flüssigen Phase erlaubte bei einer Verarbeitungszeit von ca. 10 min die nahezu quantitative Injektion des Zements durch eine 40 mm lange Kanüle mit einem inneren Durchmesser von ca. 800 μm. Zemente mit dem P/L–Verhältnis von 2,0 g/ml erreichten so eine Festigkeit von über 50 MPa nach 24 h Aushärtung. Obwohl die exotherme Abbindereaktion der Zemente teilweise zu einer Erwärmung auf bis zu 67 °C führte, geben literaturbekannte in vivo Studien keinen Hinweis auf Nebenwirkungen innerhalb des umliegenden Hart- bzw. Weichgewebes, was den Verdacht einer möglichen thermischen Nekrose aufgrund der exothermen Abbindereaktion ausschließt. Dies liegt eventuell auch darin begründet, dass die Temperaturmessungen in dieser Arbeit mit einer verhältnismäßig großen Menge an Zementpaste (∼15 g) durchgeführt wurden, während in vivo doch eher geringere Mengen (< 5 g) appliziert werden.
Intercellular adhesion plays a major role in tissue development and homeostasis. Yet, technologies to measure mature cell-cell contacts are not available. We introduce a methodology based on fluidic probe force microscopy to assess cell-cell adhesion forces after formation of mature intercellular contacts in cell monolayers. With this method we quantify that L929 fibroblasts exhibit negligible cell-cell adhesion in monolayers whereas human endothelial cells from the umbilical artery (HUAECs) exert strong intercellular adhesion forces per cell. We use a new in vitro model based on the overexpression of Muscle Segment Homeobox 1 (MSX1) to induce Endothelial-to-Mesenchymal Transition (EndMT), a process involved in cardiovascular development and disease. We reveal how intercellular adhesion forces in monolayer decrease significantly at an early stage of EndMT and we show that cells undergo stiffening and flattening at this stage. This new biomechanical insight complements and expands the established standard biomolecular analyses. Our study thus introduces a novel tool for the assessment of mature intercellular adhesion forces in a physiological setting that will be of relevance to biological processes in developmental biology, tissue regeneration and diseases like cancer and fibrosis.
Elektrochemisch gestützte Abscheidung kupfer- und zinkdotierter Magnesiumphosphatschichten auf Titan
(2020)
Zur Entwicklung von Implantaten, welche eine komplikationsärmere Einheilung aufweisen, wurde eine dünne, homogene Beschichtung von Titanprobenkörpern mit Struvit mithilfe elektrochemischer Abscheidung generiert. Hierbei wurden dem Basiselektrolyt in den Versuchsreihen unterschiedliche Konzentrationen an Kupfer-(II)-nitrat-3-hydrat- und/oder Zinknitrat-6-hydratlösung hinzugefügt. Die experimentelle Freisetzung erfolgte in drei unterschiedlichen physiologischen Nährmedien: simulated body fluid (SBF), fetal calf serum (FCS) und Dulbecco’s Modified Eagle Medium (DMEM). Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass eine antibakteriell wirkende Menge an Kupfer- und Zinkionen freigesetzt wurde. Zusammenfassend stellt die elektrochemische Abscheidung von mit Kupfer- und Zink-dotierten Struvit auf Titanoberflächen einen vielversprechenden Ansatz in der Implantologie hinsichtlich der Einheilzeit im Knochen sowie der Risikominimierung des Verlustes dar.
Bisher getestete Knochenkleber zeigen häufig geringe Klebeeigenschaften auf Knochen bei Zutritt von Feuchtigkeit. Gegenstand dieser Arbeit war es, die Haftfähigkeit im feuchten Milieu zu verbessern. Hierfür wurde der Einfluss sternförmiger, mit Isocyanaten funktionalisierter Poly(ethylenglykol) Moleküle (NCO-sP(EO-stat-PO)) auf die Klebefestigkeit und Alterungsbeständigkeit einer photopolymerisierbaren Poly(ethylenglykol)dimethacrylat-Basis (PEGDMA) untersucht. Die Polymerisation mittels energiereicher Strahlung erlaubt hohe Reaktionsraten bei Körpertemperatur sowie zeitliche und örtliche Kontrolle über die Polymerisationsreaktion. Durch den Zusatz degradierbarer, keramischer Füllstoffe auf Calciumsulfat- und Magnesiumphosphat-Basis in die Matrix sollten durch Lösungsprozesse Poren geschaffen werden. Diese könnten das Einwachsen neuer Knochensubstanz in das ausgehärtete Material ermöglichen. Die Veränderungen der kristallinen Strukturen wurden mittels Röntgendiffraktometrie beobachtet. Zudem wurden die Proben infrarotspektroskopisch und mikroskopisch untersucht. Die Klebefestigkeit auf kortikalem Rinderknochen im Abscherversuch ebenso wie die Biegefestigkeit vor und nach Lagerung in feuchter Umgebung wurde unter Variation des NCO-sP(EO-stat-PO)-Gehaltes ermittelt. Anschließend sollten die mikroskopische Analyse und energiedispersive Röntgenspektrometrie (EDX) Aufschluss über das Bruchverhalten des Materials beim Klebeversuch geben.
Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass durch die Zugabe von 20 bis 40 Gew.-% NCO sP(EO-stat-PO) zur Matrix die Klebefestigkeit auf Knochen von initial etwa 0,15 bis 0,2 MPa auf etwa 0,3 bis 0,5 MPa gesteigert werden kann. Während alle Referenzproben ihre Haftung an Knochen innerhalb von weniger als 24 Stunden verloren, zeigten Proben mit NCO sP(EO-stat-PO) auch nach 7-tägiger Lagerung noch Festigkeiten von 0,18 bis 0,25 MPa. Die höchste Festigkeit nach 7 Tagen war bei Proben mit dem Füllstoff Newberyit und einem NCO-sP(EO-stat-PO)-Anteil von 40 Gew.-% zu verzeichnen. Diese Proben wiesen auch in der mikroskopischen Analyse und im EDX eindeutig ein rein kohäsives Versagen auf. 20%-ige Proben zeigten zumindest in geringem Maße auch adhäsives Versagen.
Die 3-Punkt Biegefestigkeit lag initial bei 3,5 bis 5,5 MPa. Durch die Lagerung in PBS sank die Festigkeit auf ~1 MPa. Die Zugabe von NCO-sP(EO-stat-PO) und die Art des eingesetzten Füllstoffes hatten kaum einen Einfluss auf diese.
Dual setting cements composed of an in situ forming hydrogel and a reactive mineral phase combine high compressive strength of the cement with sufficient ductility and bending strength of the polymeric network. Previous studies were focused on the modification with non-degradable hydrogels based on 2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate (HEMA). Here, we describe the synthesis of suitable triblock degradable poly(ethylene glycol)-poly(lactide) (PEG-PLLA) cross-linker to improve the resorption capacity of such composites. A study with four different formulations was established. As reference, pure hydroxyapatite (HA) cements and composites with 40 wt% HEMA in the liquid cement phase were produced. Furthermore, HEMA was modified with 10 wt% of PEG-PLLA cross-linker or a test series containing only 25% cross-linker was chosen for composites with a fully degradable polymeric phase. Hence, we developed suitable systems with increased elasticity and 5-6 times higher toughn ess values in comparison to pure inorganic cement matrix. Furthermore, conversion rate from alpha-tricalcium phosphate (alpha-TCP) to HA was still about 90% for all composite formulations, whereas crystal size decreased. Based on this material development and advancement for a dual setting system, we managed to overcome the drawback of brittleness for pure calcium phosphate cements.
Synthetic bone replacement materials have their application in non-load bearing defects with the function of (re-)construction or substitution of bone. This tissue itself represents a biological composite material based on mineralized collagen fibrils and combines the mechanical strength of the mineral with the ductility of the organic matrix. By mimicking these outstanding properties with polymer-cement-composites, an imitation of bone is feasible. A promising approach for such replacement materials are dual setting systems, which are generated by dissolution-precipitation reaction with cement setting in parallel to polymerization and gelation of the organic phase forming a coherent hydrogel network. Hereby, the high brittleness of the pure inorganic network was shifted to a more ductile and elastic behavior.
The aim of this thesis was focused on the development of different dual setting systems to modify pure calcium phosphate cements’ (CPCs’) mechanical performance by incorporation of a hydrogel matrix.
A dual setting system based on hydroxyapatite (HA) and cross-linked 2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate (HEMA) via radical polymerization was advanced by homogenous incorporation of a degradable cross-linker composed of poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) as well as poly(lactic acid) (PLA) with reactive terminal methacrylate functionalities (PEG-PLLA-DMA). By integration of this high molecular weight structure in the HEMA-hydrogel network, a significant increase in energy absorption (toughness) under 4-point bending testing was observed. An addition of only 10 wt% hydrogel precursor (referred to the liquid phase) resulted in a duplication of stress over a period of 8 days. Additionally, the calculated elasticity was positively affected and up to six times higher compared to pure HA. With a constantly applied force during compressive strength testing, a deformation and thus strain levels of about 10 % were reached immediately after preparation.
For higher degradability, the system was modified in a second approach regarding organic as well as inorganic phase. The latter component was changed by brushite forming cement that is resorbable in vivo due to solubility processes. This CPC was combined with a hydrogel based on PEG-PLLA-DMA and other dimethacrylated PEGs with different molecular weights and concentrations. Hereby, new reaction conditions were created including a shift to acidic conditions. On this ground, the challenge was to find a new radical initiator system. Suitable candidates were ascorbic acid and hydrogen peroxide. that started the polymerization and successful gelation in this environment. These highly flexible dual set composites showed a very high ductility with an overall low strength compared to HA-based models. After removal of the applied force during compressive strength testing, a complete shape recovery was observed for the samples containing the highest polymeric amount (50 wt%) of PEG-PLLA-DMA.
Regarding phase distribution in the constructs, a homogenously incorporated hydrogel network was demonstrated in a decalcifying study with ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid. Intact, coherent hydrogels remained after dissolution of the inorganic phase via calcium ion complexation.
In a third approach, the synthetic hydrogel matrix of the previously described system was replaced by the natural biopolymer gelatin. Simultaneously to brushite formation, physical as well as chemical cross-linking by the compound genipin was performed in the dual setting materials. Thanks to the incorporation of gelatin, elasticity increased significantly, in which concentrations up to 10.0 w/v% resulted in a certain cohesion of samples after compressive strength testing. They did not dissociate in little pieces but remained intact cuboid specimens though having cracks or fissures. Furthermore, the drug release of two active pharmaceutical ingredients (vancomycin and rifampicin) was investigated over a time frame of 5 weeks. The release exponent was determined according to Korsmeyer-Peppas with n = 0.5 which corresponds to the drug liberation model of Higuchi. A sustained release was observed for the antibiotic vancomycin encapsulated in composites with a gelatin concentration of 10.0 w/v% and a powder-to-liquid ratio of 2.5 g/mL.
With respect to these developments of different dual setting systems, three novel approaches were successfully established by polymerization of monomers and cross-linking of precursors forming an incorporated, homogenous hydrogel matrix in a calcium phosphate network. All studies showed an essential transfer of mechanical performance in direction of flexibility and bendability.
Supplement-free induction of cellular differentiation and polarization solely through the topography of materials is an auspicious strategy but has so far significantly lagged behind the efficiency and intensity of media-supplementation-based protocols. Consistent with the idea that 3D structural motifs in the extracellular matrix possess immunomodulatory capacity as part of the natural healing process, it is found in this study that human-monocyte-derived macrophages show a strong M2a-like prohealing polarization when cultured on type I rat-tail collagen fibers but not on collagen I films. Therefore, it is hypothesized that highly aligned nanofibrils also of synthetic polymers, if packed into larger bundles in 3D topographical biomimetic similarity to native collagen I, would induce a localized macrophage polarization. For the automated fabrication of such bundles in a 3D printing manner, the strategy of “melt electrofibrillation” is pioneered by the integration of flow-directed polymer phase separation into melt electrowriting and subsequent selective dissolution of the matrix polymer postprocessing. This process yields nanofiber bundles with a remarkable structural similarity to native collagen I fibers, particularly for medical-grade poly(ε-caprolactone). These biomimetic fibrillar structures indeed induce a pronounced elongation of human-monocyte-derived macrophages and unprecedentedly trigger their M2-like polarization similar in efficacy as interleukin-4 treatment.