Refine
Has Fulltext
- yes (62)
Is part of the Bibliography
- yes (62)
Year of publication
- 2014 (62) (remove)
Document Type
- Doctoral Thesis (62)
Keywords
- T-Lymphozyt (8)
- Maus (6)
- Thrombozyt (5)
- Escherichia coli (3)
- Structural Biology (3)
- Thrombose (3)
- Transkriptionsfaktor (3)
- Arteriosklerose (2)
- Aufmerksamkeits-Defizit-Syndrom (2)
- Blutstillung (2)
Institute
- Graduate School of Life Sciences (62) (remove)
Sonstige beteiligte Institutionen
Bacterial mastitis is caused by invasion of the udder, bacterial multiplication and induction of
inflammatory responses in the bovine mammary gland. Disease severity and the cause of disease are
influenced by environmental factors, the cow’s immune response as well as bacterial traits. Escherichia coli (E. coli) is one of the main causes of acute bovine mastitis, but although pathogenic E. coli strains can be classified into different pathotypes, E. coli causing mastitis cannot unambiguously be distinguished from commensal E. coli nor has a common set of virulence factors
been described for mastitis isolates. This project focussed on the characterization of virulence-
associated traits of E. coli mastitis isolates in comprehensive analyses under conditions either
mimicking initial pathogenesis or conditions that E. coli mastitis isolates should encounter while entering the udder. Virulence-associated traits as well as fitness traits of selected bovine mastitis or faecal E. coli strains were identified and analyzed in comparative phenotypic assays. Raw milk whey was introduced to
test bacterial fitness in native mammary secretion known to confer antimicrobial effects.
Accordingly, E. coli isolates from bovine faeces represented a heterogeneous group of which some
isolates showed reduced ability to survive in milk whey whereas others phenotypically resembled
mastitis isolates that represented a homogeneous group in that they showed similar survival and
growth characteristics in milk whey. In contrast, mastitis isolates did not exhibit such a uniform phenotype when challenged with iron shortage, lactose as sole carbon source and lingual
antimicrobial peptide (LAP) as a main defensin of milk. Reduced bacterial fitness could be related to LAP suggesting that bacterial adaptation to an intramammary lifestyle requires resistance to host
defensins present in mammary secretions, at least LAP.
E. coli strain 1303 and ECC-1470 lack particular virulence genes associated to mastitis isolates. To find out whether differences in gene expression may contribute to the ability of E. coli variants to cause mastitis, the transcriptome of E. coli model mastitis isolates 1303 and ECC-1470 were analyzed to
identify candidate genes involved in bacterium-host interaction, fitness or even pathogenicity during bovine mastitis.
DNA microarray analysis was employed to assess the transcriptional response of E. coli 1303 and
ECC-1470 upon cocultivation with MAC-T immortalized bovine mammary gland epithelial cells to
identify candidate genes involved in bacterium-host interaction. Additionally, the cell adhesion and invasion ability of E. coli strain 1303 and ECC-1470 was investigated. The transcriptonal response to the presence of host cells rather suggested competition for nutrients and oxygen between E. coli and MAC-T cells than marked signs of adhesion and invasion. Accordingly, mostly fitness traits that may also contribute to efficient colonization of the E. coli primary habitat, the gut, have been utilized by the mastitis isolates under these conditions. In this study, RNA-Seq was employed to assess the bacterial transcriptional response to milk whey.
According to our transcriptome data, the lack of positively deregulated and also of true virulence-associated determinants in both of the mastitis isolates indicated that E. coli might have adapted by other means to the udder (or at least mammary secretion) as an inflammatory site. We identified traits that promote bacterial growth and survival in milk whey. The ability to utilize citrate promotes fitness and survival of E. coli that are thriving in mammary secretions. According to our results, lactoferrin has only weak impact on E. coli in mammary secretions. At the same time bacterial determinants involved in iron assimilation were negatively regulated, suggesting that, at least during the first hours, iron assimilation is not a challenge to E. coli colonizing the mammary gland. It has been hypothesized that cellular iron stores cause temporary independency to extracellular accessible iron. According to our transcriptome data, this hypothesis was supported and places iron uptake
systems beyond the speculative importance that has been suggested before, at least during early
phases of infection. It has also been shown that the ability to resist extracytoplasmic stress, by oxidative conditions as well as host defensins, is of substantial importance for bacterial survival in mammary secretions.
In summary, the presented thesis addresses important aspects of host-pathogen interaction and
bacterial conversion to hostile conditions during colonization of the mastitis inflammatory site, the mammary gland.
Phospholamban (PLN) reguliert in der Herzmuskelzelle die Aktivität der Kalzium-ATPase SERCA2a und damit maßgeblich die Kinetik des myozytären Kalzium-Kreislaufs. PLN liegt im Herz in Form von Monomeren und Pentameren vor, wobei angenommen wird, dass nur die Monomere die Aktivität der SERCA2a durch direkte Interaktion hemmen. Die Funktion der Pentamere ist noch immer unklar. In der vorliegenden Arbeit sollte untersucht werden, ob PLN-Pentamere für die PKA-abhängige Phosphorylierung des PLN und damit für die Regulation der PLN-Aktivität von Bedeutung sein können.
Mit Hilfe transfizierter HEK293AD-Zellen und verschiedener PLN-Mutanten wurde gezeigt, dass sowohl PLN-Monomere als auch -Pentamere durch die PKA phosphoryliert werden, wobei die Phosphorylierung der Monomere in Anwesenheit von Pentameren geringer ist und verzögert abläuft. Ohne Pentamer war die Phosphorylierung der Monomere dagegen bereits basal und nach moderater PKA-Stimulation stärker. Ursache dafür schien eine höhere Affinität der PKA für PLN-Pentamere als für Monomere zu sein. Darüber hinaus konnte gezeigt werden, dass nicht nur PLN-Monomere sondern auch das PLN-Pentamer mit der SERCA2a interagieren und das Oligomer im Gegensatz zum PLN-Monomer nach PLN-Phosphorylierung zu einem kleinen Anteil an die SERCA2a gebunden bleibt. Auch spiegelten sich die unterschiedlichen Phosphorylierungsmuster von PLN-Pentamer und Monomer in den SERCA2a-Aktivitäten wieder. Messungen der SERCA2a-Aktivität in Mäuseherzen mit (Wildtyp und TgPLN) und ohne (TgAFA-PLN) PLN-Pentamere zeigten, dass Wildtyp-PLN und TgPLN die SERCA2a stärker inhibieren als TgAFA-PLN, was auf die stärkere basale Phosphorylierung des TgAFA-PLN zurückzuführen war. Nach PKA-Stimulation war der Anstieg der Enzymaktivität in Anwesenheit von TgPLN fast dreimal höher als in TgAFA-PLN. Analog zeigte TgPLN eine deutlichere Steigerung der Phosphorylierung der PLN-Monomere als TgAFA-PLN.
Zusammenfassend konnte gezeigt werden, dass PLN-Pentamere durch Hemmung der Monomer-Phosphorylierung deren Aktivität erhöhen mit der Folge einer verstärkten Inhibition der SERCA2a. Da die inhibitorische Wirkung durch PKA-Stimulation vollständig aufgehoben werden kann, erhöhen die Pentamere die Regulationsmöglichkeiten der SERCA2a-Aktivität.
Der Meniskus, ein scheibenförmiger Faserknorpel, spielt im Kniegelenk eine bedeutende Rolle, weil er Kräfte und Druck im Kniegelenk gleichmäßig verteilt, Stöße dämpft sowie der Kraftübertragung und Stabilisierung dient. Durch die Entfernung des Gewebes, der sogenannten Totalmeniskektomie, nach einer Meniskusverletzung oder einem Riss, verändern sich die mechanischen Eigenschaften des Gelenks stark und verursachen durch die erhöhte Belastung der Gelenkflächen Arthrose. Arthrose ist weltweit die Häufigste aller Gelenkerkrankungen. Der Erhalt der körperlichen Leistungsfähigkeit und Mobilität bis ins hohe Alter sowie die Bewahrung der Gesundheit von Herz-Kreislauf- und Stoffwechselorganen zählen aufgrund des demografischen Wandels zu den großen medizinischen Herausforderungen. Die Erkrankung des muskuloskelettalen Systems stellte 2010 im Bundesgebiet die am häufigsten vorkommende Krankheitsart dar.
Während Risse in den äußeren Teilen des Meniskus aufgrund des Anschlusses an das Blutgefäßsystem spontan heilen können, können sie dies in tieferen Zonen nicht. Durch die begrenzte Heilungsfähigkeit des Knorpels bleibt langfristig der Einsatz eines Ersatzgewebes die einzige therapeutische Alternative.
In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde als therapeutische Alternative erfolgreich ein vaskularisiertes Meniskusersatzgewebe mit Methoden des Tissue Engineering entwickelt. Es soll in Zukunft als Implantat Verwendung finden. Tissue Engineering ist ein interdisziplinäres Forschungsfeld, in dem Gewebe außerhalb des Körpers generiert werden. Schlüsselkomponenten sind Zellen, die aus einem Organismus isoliert werden, und Trägerstrukturen, die mit Zellen besiedelt werden. Die Biomaterialien geben den Zellen eine geeignete Umgebung, die die Extrazelluläre Matrix (EZM) ersetzen soll, um die Funktion der Zellen beizubehalten, eigene Matrix zu bilden. Zum Erhalt eines funktionelles Gewebes werden oftmals dynamische Kultursysteme, sogenannte Bioreaktoren, verwendet, die natürliche Stimuli wie beispielsweise den Blutfluss oder mechanische Kompressionskräfte während der in vitro Reifungsphase des Gewebes, zur Verfügung stellen. Das Gewebekonstrukt wurde auf Basis natürlicher Biomaterialien aufgebaut, unter Verwendung ausschließlich primärer Zellen, die später direkt vom Patienten gewonnen werden können und damit Abstoßungsreaktionen auszuschließen sind. Da der Meniskus teilvaskularisiert ist und die in vivo Situation des Gewebes bestmöglich nachgebaut werden sollte, wurden Konstrukte mit mehreren Zelltypen, sogenannte Ko-Kulturen aufgebaut. Neben mikrovaskulären Endothelzellen (mvEZ) und Meniskuszellen (MZ) erfolgten Versuche mit mesenchymalen Stammzellen (MSZ).
Zur Bereitstellung einer zelltypspezifischen Matrixumgebung, diente den mvEZ ein Stück Schweinedarm mit azellularisierten Gefäßstrukturen (BioVaSc®) und den MZ diente eine geeig- nete Kollagenmatrix (Kollagen Typ I Hydrogel). Die Validierung und Charakterisierung des aufgebauten 3D Meniskuskonstrukts, welches in einem dynamischen Perfusions-Bioreaktorsystem kultiviert wurde, erfolgte mit knorpeltypischen Matrixmarkern wie Aggrekan, Kollagen Typ I, II und X sowie mit den Transkriptionsfaktoren RunX2 und Sox9, die in der Knorpelentstehung von großer Bedeutung sind. Zusätzlich erfolgten Auswertungen mit endothelzellspezifischen Markern wie vWF, CD31 und VEGF, um die Vaskularisierung im Konstrukt nachzuweisen. Analysiert wurden auch die Zellvitalitäten in den Konstrukten.
Aufgrund einer nur geringen Verfügbarkeit von MZ wurden Kulturansätze mit alternativen Zellquellen, den MSZ, durchgeführt. Dafür erfolgte zunächst deren Isolation und Charakterisierung und die Auswahl einer geeigneten 3D Kollagenmatrix. Die beste Zellintegration der MSZ konnte auf einer eigens hergestellten elektrogesponnenen Matrix beobachtet werden. Die Matrix besteht aus zwei unterschiedlichen Kollagentypen, die auf insgesamt fünf Schichten verteilt sind. Die Fasern besitzen weiter unterschiedliche Ausrichtungen. Während die Kollagen Typ I Fasern in den äußeren Schichten keiner Ausrichtung zugehören, liegen die Kollagen Typ II Fasern in der mittleren Schicht parallel zueinander. Der native Meniskus war für den Aufbau einer solchen Kollagen-Trägerstruktur das natürliche Vorbild, das imitiert werden sollte. Nach der Besiedelung der Matrix mit MSZ, konnte eine Integration der Zellen bereits nach vier Tagen bis in die Mittelschicht sowie eine spontane chondrogene Differenzierung nach einer insgesamt dreiwöchigen Kultivierung gezeigt werden. Das Biomaterial stellt in Hinblick auf die Differenzierung der Zellen ohne die Zugabe von Wachstumsfaktoren eine relevante Bedeutung für klinische Studien dar.
Zur Kultivierung des 3D Meniskuskonstrukts wurde ein Bioreaktor entwickelt. Mit diesem können neben Perfusion der Gefäßsysteme zusätzlich Kompressionskräfte sowie Scherspannungen auf das Ersatzgewebe appliziert und die Differenzierung von MZ bzw. MSZ während der in vitro Kultur über mechanische Reize stimuliert werden. Ein anderes Anwendungsfeld für den neuartigen Bioreaktor ist seine Verwendung als Prüftestsystem für die Optimierung und Qualitätssicherung von Gewebekonstrukten.
The infection of a eukaryotic host cell by a bacterial pathogen is one of the most intimate examples of cross-kingdom interactions in biology. Infection processes are highly relevant from both a basic research as well as a clinical point of view. Sophisticated mechanisms have evolved in the pathogen to manipulate the host response and vice versa host cells have developed a wide range of anti-microbial defense strategies to combat bacterial invasion and clear infections. However, it is this diversity and complexity that makes infection research so challenging to technically address as common approaches have either been optimized for bacterial or eukaryotic organisms. Instead, methods are required that are able to deal with the often dramatic discrepancy between host and pathogen with respect to various cellular properties and processes. One class of cellular macromolecules that exemplify this host-pathogen heterogeneity is given by their transcriptomes: Bacterial transcripts differ from their eukaryotic counterparts in many aspects that involve both quantitative and qualitative traits. The entity of RNA transcripts present in a cell is of paramount interest as it reflects the cell’s physiological state under the given condition. Genome-wide transcriptomic techniques such as RNA-seq have therefore been used for single-organism analyses for several years, but their applicability has been limited for infection studies.
The present work describes the establishment of a novel transcriptomic approach for infection biology which we have termed “Dual RNA-seq”. Using this technology, it was intended to shed light particularly on the contribution of non-protein-encoding transcripts to virulence, as these classes have mostly evaded previous infection studies due to the lack of suitable methods. The performance of Dual RNA-seq was evaluated in an in vitro infection model based on the important facultative intracellular pathogen Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium and different human cell lines. Dual RNA-seq was found to be capable of capturing all major bacterial and human transcript classes and proved reproducible. During the course of these experiments, a previously largely uncharacterized bacterial small non-coding RNA (sRNA), referred to as STnc440, was identified as one of the most strongly induced genes in intracellular Salmonella. Interestingly, while inhibition of STnc440 expression has been previously shown to cause a virulence defect in different animal models of Salmonellosis, the underlying molecular mechanisms have remained obscure. Here, classical genetics, transcriptomics and biochemical assays proposed a complex model of Salmonella gene expression control that is orchestrated by this sRNA. In particular, STnc440 was found to be involved in the regulation of multiple bacterial target mRNAs by direct base pair interaction with consequences for Salmonella virulence and implications for the host’s immune response. These findings exemplify the scope of Dual RNA-seq for the identification and characterization of novel bacterial virulence factors during host infection.
The number of newly detected autoantibodies (AB) targeting synaptic proteins in neurological disorders of the central nervous system (CNS) is steadily increasing. Direct interactions of AB with their target antigens have been shown in first studies but the exact pathomecha-nisms for most of the already discovered AB are still unclear. The present study investigates pathophysiological mechanisms of AB-fractions that are associated with the enigmatic CNS disease Stiff person syndrome (SPS) and target the synaptically located proteins amphiphysin or glutamate decarboxylase 65 (GAD65).
In the first part of the project, effects of AB to the presynaptic endocytic protein amphiphysin were investigated. Ultrastructural investigations of spinal cord presynaptic boutons in an es-tablished in-vivo passive-transfer model after intrathecal application of human anti-amphiphysin AB showed a defect of endocytosis. This defect was apparent at high synaptic activity and was characterized by reduction of the synaptic vesicle pool, clathrin coated vesi-cles (CCVs), and endosome like structures (ELS) in comparison to controls. Molecular inves-tigation of presynaptic boutons in cultured murine hippocampal neurons with dSTORM microscopy after pretreatment with AB to amphiphysin revealed that marker proteins involved in vesicle exocytosis (synaptobrevin 2 and synaptobrevin 7) had an altered expression in GA-BAergic presynapses. Endophilin, a direct binding partner of amphiphysin also displayed a disturbed expression pattern. Together, these results point towards an anti-amphiphysin AB-induced defective organization in GABAergic synapses and a presumably compensatory rearrangement of proteins responsible for CME.
In the second part, functional consequences of SPS patient derived IgG fractions containing AB to GAD65, the rate limiting enzyme for GABA synthesis, were investigated by patch clamp electrophysiology and immunohistology. GABAergic neurotransmission at low and high activity as well as short term plasticity appeared normal but miniature synaptic potentials showed an enhanced frequency with constant amplitudes. SPS patient IgG after preabsorption of GAD65-AB using recombinant GAD65 still showed specific synaptic binding to neu-rons and brain slices supporting the hypothesis that additional, not yet characterized AB are present in patient IgG responsible for the exclusive effect on frequency of miniature potentials.
In conclusion, the present thesis uncovered basal pathophysiological mechanisms underlying paraneoplastic SPS induced by AB to amphiphysin leading to disturbed presynaptic architec-ture. In idiopathic SPS, the hypothesis of a direct pathophysiological role of AB to GAD65 was not supported and additional IgG AB are suspected to induce distinct synaptic malfunction.
Cardiac healing after myocardial infarction (MI) represents the cardinal prerequisite for proper replacement of the irreversibly injured myocardium. In contrast to innate immunity, the functional role of adaptive immunity in postinfarction healing has not been systematically addressed. The present study focused on the influence of CD4+ T lymphocytes on wound healing and cardiac remodeling after experimental myocardial infarction in mice. Both conventional and Foxp3+ regulatory CD4+ T cells (Treg cells) became activated in heart draining lymph nodes after MI and accumulated in the infarcted myocardium. T cell activation was strictly antigen-dependant as T cell receptor-transgenic OT-II mice in which CD4+ T cells exhibit a highly limited T cell
receptor repertoire did not expand in heart-draining lymph nodes post-MI. Both OT-II and major histocompatibility complex class II-deficient mice lacking a CD4+ T cell compartment showed a fatal clinical postinfarction outcome characterized by disturbed scar tissue construction that resulted in impaired survival due to a prevalence of left-ventricular ruptures. To assess the contribution of anti-inflammatory Treg cells on wound healing after MI, the Treg cell compartment was depleted using DEREG mice that specifically express the human diphtheria toxin receptor in Foxp3-positive cells, resulting in Treg cell ablation after diphtheria toxin administration. In a parallel line of experiments, a second model of anti-CD25 antibody-mediated Treg cell immuno-depletion was used. Treg cell ablation prior to MI resulted in adverse postinfarction left-ventricular dilatation associated with cardiac deterioration. Mechanistically, Treg cell depletion resulted in an increased recruitment of pro-inflammatory neutrophils and Ly-6Chigh monocytes into the healing myocardium. Furthermore, Treg cell-ablated mice exhibited an adverse activation of conventional non-regulatory CD4+ and CD8+ T cells that
showed a reinforced infiltration into the infarct zone. Increased synthesis of TNFα and IFNγ by conventional CD4+ and CD8+ T cells in hearts of Treg cell-depleted mice provoked an M1-like macrophage polarization characterized by heightened expression of healing-compromising induced NO synthase, in line with a reduced synthesis of healing-promoting transglutaminase factor XIII (FXIII), osteopontin (OPN) and transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGFβ1).
Therapeutic Treg cell activation by a superagonistic anti-CD28 monoclonal antibody stimulated Treg cell accumulation in the infarct zone and led to an increased expression of mediators inducing an M2-like macrophage polarization state, i.e. interleukin-10, interleukin-13 and TGFβ1. M2-like macrophage differentiation in the healing infarct was associated with heightened expression of scar-forming procollagens as well as scar-stabilizing FXIII and OPN, resulting in improved survival due to a reduced incidence of left-ventricular ruptures. Therapeutic Treg cell activation and the induction of a beneficial M2-like macrophage polarization was further achieved by employing a treatment modality of high clinical potential, i.e. by therapeutic administration of IL-2/ anti-IL-2 monoclonal antibody complexes. The findings of the present study suggest that therapeutic Treg cell activation and the resulting improvement of healing may represent a suitable strategy to attenuate adverse infarct expansion, left-ventricular remodeling, or infarct ruptures in patients with MI.
The Notch signaling pathway is crucial for mammalian heart development. It controls cell-fate decisions, coordinates patterning processes and regulates proliferation and differentiation. Critical Notch effectors are Hey bHLH transcription factors (TF) that are expressed in atrial (Hey1) and ventricular (Hey2) cardiomyocytes (CM) and in the developing endocardium (Hey1/2/L). The importance of Hey proteins for cardiac development is demonstrated by knockout (KO) mice, which suffer from lethal cardiac defects, such as ventricular septum defects (VSD), valve defects and cardiomyopathy. Despite this clear functional relevance, little is known about Hey downstream targets in the heart and the molecular mechanism by which they are regulated.
Here, I use a cell culture system with inducible Hey1, Hey2 or HeyL expression to study Hey target gene regulation in HEK293 cells, in murine embryonic stem cells (ESC) and in ESC derived CM. In HEK293 cells, I could show that genome wide binding sites largely overlap between all three Hey proteins, but HeyL has many additional binding sites that are not bound by Hey1 or Hey2. Shared binding sites are located close to transcription start sites (TSS) where Hey proteins preferentially bind to canonical E boxes, although more loosely defined modes of binding exist. Additional sites only bound by HeyL are more scattered across the genome. The ability of HeyL to bind these sites depends on the C-terminal part of the protein. Although there are genes which are differently regulated by HeyL, it is unclear whether this regulation results from binding of additional sites by HeyL.
Additionally, Hey target gene regulation was studied in ESC and differentiated CM, which are more relevant for the observed cardiac phenotypes. ESC derived CM contract in culture and are positive for typical cardiac markers by qRT PCR and staining. According to these markers differentiation is unaffected by prolonged Hey1 or Hey2 overexpression. Regulated genes are largely redundant between Hey1 and Hey2. These are mainly other TF involved in e.g. developmental processes, apoptosis, cell migration and cell cycle. Many target genes are cell type specifically regulated causing a shift in Hey repression of genes involved in cell migration in ESC to repression of genes involved in cell cycle in CM.
The number of Hey binding sites is reduced in CM and HEK293 cells compared to ESC, most likely due to more regions of dense chromatin in differentiated cells. Binding sites are enriched at the proximal promoters of down-regulated genes, compared to up-or non-regulated genes. This indicates that up-regulation primarily results from indirect effects, while down-regulation is the direct results of Hey binding to target promoters. The extent of repression generally correlates with the amount of Hey binding and subsequent recruitment of histone deacetylases (Hdac) to target promoters resulting in histone H3 deacetylation.
However, in CM the repressive effect of Hey binding on a subset of genes can be annulled, likely due to binding of cardiac specific activators like Srf, Nkx2-5 and Gata4. These factors seem not to interfere with Hey binding in CM, but they recruit histone acetylases such as p300 that may counteract Hey mediated histone H3 deacetylation. Such a scenario explains differential regulation of Hey target genes between ESC and CM resulting in gene and cell-type specific regulation.
A precious treasure in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), acupuncture played a vital and irreplaceable role in contributing to people’s health in the thousands of years of Chinese history, and in 2010 was officially added to the “Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity” by the United Nations. Because of the side-effects of long-term drug therapy for pain, and the risks of dependency, acupuncture has been widely accepted as one of the most important alternative choice therapies for treating varieties of acute and chronic pain-related disorders. The clinical application and scientific mechanism research of acupuncture have therefore increased intensively in the last few decades. Besides hand acupuncture, other treatment approaches e.g. electroacupuncture (EA) have been widely accepted and applied as an important acupuncture-related technique for acupuncture analgesia (AA) research. The involvement of opioid peptides and receptors in acute AA has been shown via pre-EA application of opioid receptor/peptide antagonists. However, existing publications still cannot illuminate the answer to the following question: how does sustained antinociception happen by EA treatment? The hypothesis of opioid peptide-mediated tonic AA might be able to answer the question.
In the first part of this thesis, the institution of a reproducible acupuncture treatment model as well as the endogenous opioid-related mechanisms was demonstrated. An anatomically-based three-dimensional (3D) rat model was established to exhibit a digital true-to-life organism, accurate acupoint position and EA treatment protocol on bilateral acupoint GB-30 Huantiao. The optimal EA treatment protocol (100 Hz, 2-3 mA, 0.1 ms, 20 min) at 0 and 24 h after induction of inflammatory pain by complete Freund’s adjuvant (CFA) on conscious free-moving rats was then established. EA elicited significant sustained mechanical and thermal antinociception up to 144 h. Post-EA application of opioid receptors (mu opioid receptor, MOR; delta opioid receptor, DOR) antagonists naloxone (NLX) and naltrindole (NTI), or opioid peptide antibodies anti-beta-endorphin (anti-END), met-enkephalin (anti-ENK) or -dynorphin A (anti-DYN) could also block this effect at a late phase (96 h) of CFA post-EA, which suggested opioid-dependent tonic analgesia was produced by EA. Meanwhile, EA also reduced paw temperature and volume at 72-144 h post CFA indicating anti-inflammatory effects. Nociceptive thresholds were assessed by paw pressure threshold (Randall-Sellito) or paw withdrawal latency (Hargreaves) and an anti-inflammatory effect was evaluated by measurement of plantar temperature and volume of inflamed paw.
The second part of the thesis further suggests the correlation between the chemokine CXCL10 (= interferon-gamma inducible protein 10, IP-10) and opioid peptides in EA-induced antinociception. Based on a comprehensive Cytokine Array of 29 cytokines, targeted cytokines interleukin (IL)-1alpha, interleukin (IL)-1beta, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha, interleukin (IL)-4, interleukin (IL)-13, interferon (IFN)-gamma as well as CXCL10 were selected and quantified by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and real time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) quantification confirmed upregulation of CXCL10 mRNA at both 72 and 96 h. The following hyperalgesic assessment suggested the antinociceptive effect of CXCL10. The double immunostaining localizing opioid peptides with macrophages expressed the evident upregulation of CXCR3-receptor of CXCL10 in EA treated samples as well as the significant upregulation or downregulation of opioid peptides by repeated treatment of CXCL10 or antibody of CXCL10 via behavioral tests and immune staining. Subsequent immunoblotting measurements showed non-alteration of opioid receptor level by EA, indicating that the opioid receptors did not apparently contribute to AA in the present studies. In vitro, CXCL10 did not directly trigger opioid peptide END release from freshly isolated rat macrophages. This might implicate an indirect property of CXCL10 in vitro stimulating the opioid peptide-containing macrophages by requiring additional mediators in inflammatory tissue.
In summary, this project intended to explore the peripheral opioid-dependent analgesic mechanisms of acupuncture with a novel 3D treatment rat model and put forward new information to support the pivot role of chemokine CXCL10 in mediating EA-induced tonic antinociception via peripheral opioid peptides.
Die Deregulation des Transkriptionsfaktors Myc ist ein charakteristisches Merkmal für eine Vielzahl von humanen Tumoren. Durch die transkriptionelle Aktivierung von Genen, die im Zusammenhang mit Metabolismus, Translation und Proliferation stehen, wird dadurch das Tumorwachstum begünstigt. Myc bildet zudem mit dem Zinkfinger-Protein Miz1 einen Komplex, der hemmend auf die Transkription von Zielgenen wirkt. Bisher sind nur wenige Myc/Miz1-reprimierte Zielgene bekannt. In der vorliegenden Arbeit konnten genomweit die DNA-Bindestellen von Myc und Miz1 durch Chromatin-Immunpräzipitationen gefolgt von Hochdurchsatzsequenzierung in einer Zervixkarzinomzelllinie bestimmt werden.
Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass Myc an Promotoren aller drei RNA-Polymerasen sowie in enhancer-Regionen bindet, während Miz1 Kernpromotoren von RNA-Polymerase II- und III-transkribierten Genen besetzt. reChIP-Experimente zeigten, dass Myc und Miz1 als Komplex an Promotoren von Zielgenen binden. Zudem wurde ein Miz1-DNA-Bindemotiv identifiziert und der transaktivierende Einfluss von Miz1 auf Gene mit diesem Motiv nachgewiesen. Das überwiegende Vorhandensein von Myc/Max-Komplexen führt zu einer Transaktivierung von E-Box-haltigen Promotoren. Andererseits erfolgt die transkriptionelle Repression von Myc/Miz1-Zielgenen an Promotoren, an denen der Myc/Miz1-Komplex vorherrscht.
In aktuellen Publikationen konnte gezeigt werden, dass nach mitogener Stimulation von Lymphozyten es zu einer Erhöhung der Myc-Expression kommt, wodurch Myc als ein genereller Transkriptionsaktivator fungiert, der alle Gene gleichermaßen induziert. Trotz hoher Myc-Mengen in Tumorzellen konnte die generelle Myc-vermittelte Transaktivierung nicht nachgewiesen werden. Zusätzlich zur Myc-abhängigen Transaktivierung von E-Box-haltigen Genen, z. B. beteiligt an Translation und RNA-Prozessierung, und der Miz1-vermittelten transkriptionellen Aktivierung von Genen mit Miz1-Motiv (z. B. involviert in Autophagie), konnte entgegen dem Modell der generellen Genamplifikation durch Myc eine Myc/Miz1-abhängige Repression von Zielgenen belegt werden. Die neu gewonnenen Erkenntnisse des Bindeverhaltens des Myc/Miz1-Komplexes und der daraus resultierenden transkriptionellen Regulation von Myc/Miz1-Zielgenen ermöglichen ein besseres Verständnis der Myc-Funktion in Tumorzellen und könnte zur Verbesserung von Tumortherapien führen.
Studies on receptor signaling and regulation in platelets and T cells from genetically modified mice
(2014)
Receptors with tyrosine-based signaling motifs control essential functions of hematopoietic cells, including lymphocytes and platelets. Downstream of the platelet receptor glycoprotein (GP) VI and the T cell receptor (TCR) the immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activation motif (ITAM) initiates a signaling cascade that involves kinases, adapter and effector proteins and finally leads to cellular activation. This thesis summarizes the results of three studies investigating different aspects of receptor signaling and regulation in platelets and T cells.
In the first part, the impact of constitutive Ca2+ influx on TCR signaling and T cell physiology was investigated using a transgenic mouse line with a mutation in the Ca2+ sensor stromal interaction molecule 1 (STIM1). The elevated cytoplasmic Ca2+ level resulted in an altered phosphorylation pattern of the key enzyme phospholipase (PL) Cγ1 in response to TCR stimulation, but without affecting its enzymatic activity. Withdrawal of extracellular Ca2+ or inhibition of the phosphatase calcineurin restored the normal phosphorylation pattern. In addition, there was a decrease in the release of Th2-type cytokines interleukin 4, 5 and 13 upon stimulation in vitro.
The second part of the thesis deals with the role of the adapter protein growth factor receptor-bound protein 2 (Grb2) in platelets using a megakaryocyte/platelet-specific knockout mouse line. Loss of Grb2 severely impaired signaling of GPVI and C-type lectin-like receptor 2 (CLEC-2), a related hemITAM receptor. This was attributed to defective stabilization of the linker for activation of T cells (LAT) signalosome and resulted in reduced adhesion, aggregation, Ca2+ mobilization and procoagulant activity downstream of (hem)ITAM-coupled receptors in vitro. In contrast, the signaling pathways of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) and the integrin αIIbβ3, which do not utilize the LAT signalosome, were unaffected. In vivo, the defective (hem)ITAM signaling caused prolonged bleeding times, however, thrombus formation was only affected under conditions where GPCR signaling was impaired (upon acetylsalicylic acid treatment). These results establish Grb2 as an important adapter protein in the propagation of GPVI- and CLEC-2-induced signals.
Finally, the proteolytic regulation of the immunoreceptor tyrosine-based switch motif (ITSM)-bearing receptor CD84 in platelets was investigated. This study demonstrated that in mice CD84 is cleaved by two distinct and independent proteolytic mechanisms upon platelet activation: shedding of the extracellular part, which is exclusively mediated by a disintegrin and metalloproteinase (ADAM) 10 and cleavage of the intracellular C-terminus by the protease calpain. Finally, the analysis of soluble CD84 levels in the plasma of transgenic mice revealed that shedding of CD84 by ADAM10 occurs constitutively in vivo.
In this work, a model-based acceleration of parameter mapping (MAP) for the determination of the tissue parameter T1 using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is introduced. The iterative reconstruction uses prior knowledge about the relaxation behavior of the longitudinal magnetization after a suitable magnetization preparation to generate a series of fully sampled k-spaces from a strongly undersampled acquisition. A Fourier transform results in a spatially resolved time course of the longitudinal relaxation process, or equivalently, a spatially resolved map of the longitudinal relaxation time T1.
In its fastest implementation, the MAP algorithm enables the reconstruction of a T1 map from a radial gradient echo dataset acquired within only a few seconds after magnetization preparation, while the acquisition time of conventional T1 mapping techniques typically lies in the range of a few minutes. After validation of the MAP algorithm for two different types of magnetization preparation (saturation recovery & inversion recovery), the developed algorithm was applied in different areas of preclinical and clinical MRI and possible advantages and disadvantages were evaluated.
Function and regulation of phospholipase D in blood platelets: in vitro and in vivo studies in mice
(2014)
Summary
Platelet activation and aggregation are crucial for primary hemostasis but can also result in occlusive thrombus formation. Agonist induced platelet activation involves different signaling pathways leading to the activation of phospholipases (PL) which produce second messengers. While the role of PLCs in platelet activation is well established, less is known about the relevance of PLDs. In the current study, the function and regulation of PLD in platelets was investigated using genetic and pharmacological approaches.
In the first part of this thesis, adhesion, activation and aggregation of platelets from mice lacking PLD2 or both PLD1 and PLD2 were analyzed in vitro and in vivo. While the absence of PLD2 resulted in slightly reduced PLD activity in platelets, it had no detectable effect on the platelet function in vitro and in vivo. However, the combined deficiency of both PLD isoforms resulted in defective alpha-granule release and protection in a model of ferric chloride induced arteriolar thrombosis, effects that were not observed in mice lacking only one PLD isoform. These results revealed, for the first time, redundant roles of PLD1 and PLD2 in platelet alpha-granule secretion and indicate that this may be relevant for pathological thrombus formation. Thus, PLD might represent a promising target for antithrombotic therapy.
Thus, this hypothesis was tested more directly in the second part of this thesis. The effects of pharmacological inhibition of PLD activity on hemostasis, thrombosis and thrombo-inflammatory brain infarction in mice were assessed. Treatment of platelets with the reversible, small molecule PLD inhibitor 5-Fluoro-2-indolyl des-chlorohalopemide (FIPI) led to a specific blockade of PLD activity that was associated with reduced -granule release and integrin activation. Mice that received FIPI at a dose of 3 mg/kg displayed reduced occlusive thrombus formation upon chemical injury of carotid arteries or mesenterial arterioles. Similarly, FIPI-treated mice had smaller infarct sizes and significantly better motor and neurological function 24 hours after transient middle cerebral artery occlusion. This protective effect was not associated with major intracerebral hemorrhage or prolonged tail bleeding times. Thus, pharmacological PLD inhibition might represent a safe therapeutic strategy to prevent arterial thrombosis or ischemic stroke.
After revealing a central role for PLD in thrombo-inflammation, the regulation of PLD activity in platelets was analyzed in the last part of the thesis. Up to date, most studies made use of inhibitors potentially exerting off-target effects and consequently PLD regulation is discussed controversially. Therefore, PLD activity in mice genetically lacking potential modulators of PLD activity was determined to address these controversies. These studies revealed that PLD is tightly regulated during initial platelet activation. While integrin outside-in signaling and Gi signaling was dispensable for PLD activation, it was found that PLC dependent pathways were relevant for the regulation of PLD enzyme activity.
Mammalian haloacid dehalogenase (HAD)-type phosphatases are an emerging family of enzymes with important functions in physiology and disease. HAD phosphatases can target diverse metabolites, lipids, DNA, and serine/threonine or tyrosine phosphorylated proteins with often high specificity (Seifried et al., 2013). These enzymes thus markedly enlarge the repertoire and substrate spectrum of mammalian phosphatases. However, the basis of HAD phosphatase substrate specificity is still elusive and a number of mammalian HAD phosphatases remain uncharacterized to date. This study characterizes the biochemical and structural properties of AUM (aspartate-based, ubiquitous, Mg2+-dependent phosphatase), a previously unexplored mammalian HAD phosphatase.
In vitro phosphatase assays of purified, recombinant AUM showed phosphatase activity towards para-nitrophenyl phosphate and adenine and guanine nucleotide di- and triphosphates. Inhibitor studies indicated that similar to other HAD superfamily members, the AUM-catalyzed dephosphorylation reaction proceeds via a pentacovalent phosphoaspartate intermediate. In line with an aspartate-based catalytic mechanism, AUM was insensitive to inhibitors of serine/threonine phosphatases. The characterization of the purified recombinant murine enzyme also revealed that AUM exists in equilibrium between dimers and tetramers.
AUM was identified as the closest, yet functionally distinct relative of chronophin, a pyridoxal 5’-phosphate and serine/threonine-directed phosphatase. Phylogenetic analyses showed that AUM and chronophin evolved via duplication of an ancestral gene at the origin of the vertebrates. In contrast to chronophin, AUM acts as a tyrosine-specific HAD-type phosphatase in vitro and in cells. To elucidate how AUM and chronophin achieve these distinct substrate preferences, comparative evolutionary analyses, biochemical approaches and structural analyses were combined. Swapping experiments of less homologous regions between AUM and chronophin were performed. The mutational analysis revealed residues important for AUM catalysis and specificity. A single differently conserved residue in the cap domain of AUM or chronophin is crucial for phosphatase specificity (AUML204, chronophinH182). The X-ray crystal structure of the AUM cap fused to the catalytic core of chronophin (CAC, PDB: 4BKM) was solved to 2.65 Å resolution. It presents the first crystal structure of the murine AUM capping domain. The detailed view of the catalytic clefts of AUM and chronophin reveals the structural basis of the divergent substrate specificities. These presented findings provide insights into the design principles of capped HAD phosphatases and show that their substrate specificity can be encoded by a small number of predictable residues. In addition, the catalytic properties of AUM were investigated, identifying a mechanism of reversible oxidation regulating the activity of AUM in vitro. AUM phosphatase activity is inhibited by oxidation and can be recovered by reduction. The underlying molecular mechanism was revealed by mutational analyses. The cysteines C35, C104 and C243, located in the AUM core domain, are responsible for the inhibition of AUM by oxidation. C293 mediates the redox-dependent tetramerization of AUM in vitro. Based on the chronophin and CAC structure, a direct impact of the oxidation of C35 on the nucleophile D34 is proposed. In addition, a redox-dependent disulfide bridge (C104, C243), connecting the core and cap domain of AUM may be important for an open/close-mechanism. This hypothesis is supported by CD spectroscopy experiments that demonstrate a structural change in AUM upon reduction. These data present the first evidence for the regulation of AUM catalysis by reversible oxidation. This finding is so far unique in the field of HAD phosphatases.
In this context, the first cell-based AUM activity assay was developed. For this, the artificial substrate pNPP was combined with the reducing agent DTT to create a specific AUM activity readout. This fractionation-based assay is the first tool to differentiate between cell lines or tissues with different AUM concentrations or activities.
Taken together, the presented biochemical characterization reveals the specificity determinants and catalytic properties of AUM. General insights into structural determinants of mammalian HAD phosphatase substrate recognition are provided and reversible oxidation as possible regulatory mechanism for AUM is proposed. These findings constitute a framework for further functional analyses to elucidate the biomedical importance of AUM.
The number of fungal infections is rising in Germany and worldwide. These infections are mainly caused by the opportunistic fungal pathogen C. albicans, which especially harms immunocompromised people. With increasing numbers of fungal infections, more frequent and longer lasting treatments are necessary and lead to an increase of drug resistances, for example against the clinically applied therapeutic fluconazole. Drug resistance in C. albicans can be mediated by the Multidrug resistance pump 1 (Mdr1), a membrane transporter belonging to the major facilitator family. However, Mdr1-mediated fluconazole drug resistance is caused by the pump’s regulator, the transcription factor Mrr1 (Multidrug resistance regulator 1). It was shown that Mrr1 is hyperactive without stimulation or further activation in resistant strains which is due to so called gain of function mutations in the MRR1 gene.
To understand the mechanism that lays behind this constitutive activity of Mrr1, the transcription factor should be structurally and functionally (in vitro) characterized which could provide a basis for successful drug development to target Mdr1-mediated drug resistance caused by Mrr1. Therefore, the entire 1108 amino acid protein was successfully expressed in Escherichia coli. However, further purification was compromised as the protein tended to form aggregates, unsuitable for crystallization trials or further characterization experiments. Expression trials in the eukaryote Pichia pastoris neither yielded full length nor truncated Mrr1 protein. In order to overcome the aggregation problem, a shortened variant, missing the N-terminal 249 amino acids named Mrr1 ‘250’, was successfully expressed in E. coli and could be purified without aggregation. Similar to the wild type Mrr1 ‘250’, selected gain of function variants were successfully cloned, expressed and purified with varying yields and with varying purity. The Mrr1 `250’ construct contains most of the described regulatory domains of Mrr1. It was used for crystallization and an initial comparative analysis between the wild type protein and the variants. The proposed dimeric form of the transcription factor, necessary for DNA binding, could be verified for both, the wild type and the mutant proteins. Secondary structure analysis by circular dichroism measurements revealed no significant differences in the overall fold of the wild type and variant proteins. In vitro, the gain of function variants seem to be less stable compared to the wild type protein, as they were more prone to degradation. Whether this observation holds true for the full length protein’s stability in vitro and in vivo remains to be determined. The crystallization experiments, performed with the Mrr1 ‘250’ constructs, led to few small needle shaped or cubic crystals, which did not diffract very well and were hardly reproducible. Therefore no structural information of the transcription factor could be gained so far.
Infections with M. tuberculosis, the causative agent of tuberculosis, are the leading cause of mortality among bacterial diseases. Especially long treatment times, an increasing number of resistant strains and the prevalence of for decades persisting bacteria create the necessity for new drugs against this disease. The cholesterol import and metabolism pathways were discovered as promising new targets and interestingly they seem to play an important role for the chronic stage of the tuberculosis infection and for persisting bacteria.
In this thesis, the 3-ketoacyl-CoA thiolase FadA5 from M. tuberculosis was characterized and the potential for specifically targeting this enzyme was investigated. FadA5 catalyzes the last step of the β-oxidation reaction in the side-chain degradation pathway of cholesterol. We solved the three dimensional structure of this enzyme by X-ray crystallography and obtained two different apo structures and three structures in complex with acetyl-CoA, CoA and a hydrolyzed steroid-CoA, which is the natural product of FadA5. Analysis of the FadA5 apo structures revealed a typical thiolase fold as it is common for biosynthetic and degradative enzymes of this class for one of the structures. The second apo structure showed deviations from the typical thiolase fold. All obtained structures show the enzyme as a dimer, which is consistent with the observed dimer formation in solution. Thus the dimer is likely to be the catalytically active form of the enzyme. Besides the characteristic structural fold, the catalytic triad, comprising two cysteines and one histidine, as well as the typical coenzyme A binding site of enzymes belonging to the thiolase class could be identified. The two obtained apo structures differed significantly from each other. One apo structure is in agreement with the characteristic thiolase fold and the well-known dimer interface could be identified in our structure. The same characteristics were observed in all complex structures. In contrast, the second apo structure followed the thiolase fold only partially. One subdomain, spanning 30 amino acids, was in a different orientation. This reorientation was caused by the formation of two disulfide bonds, including the active site cysteines, which rendered the enzyme inactive. The disulfide bonds together with the resulting domain swap still permitted dimer formation, yet with a significantly shifted dimer interface. The comparison of the apo structures together with the preliminary activity analysis performed by our collaborator suggest, that FadA5 can be inactivated by oxidation and reactivated by reduction. If this redox switch is of biological importance requires further evaluation, however, this would be the first reported example of a bacterial thiolase employing redox regulation.
Our obtained complex structures represent different stages of the thiolase reaction cycle. In some complex structures, FadA5 was found to be acetylated at the catalytic cysteine and it was in complex with acetyl-CoA or CoA. These structures, together with the FadA5 structure in complex with a hydrolyzed steroid-CoA, revealed important insights into enzyme dynamics upon ligand binding and release. The steroid-bound structure is as yet a unique example of a thiolase enzyme interacting with a complex ligand. The characterized enzyme was used as platform for modeling studies and for comparison with human thiolases. These studies permitted initial conclusions regarding the specific targetability of FadA5 as a drug target against M. tuberculosis infection, taking the closely related human enzymes into account. Additional analyses led to the proposal of a specific lead compound based on the steroid and ligand interactions within the active site of FadA5.
Abstract
Glioblastomas, primary brain tumors, represent a tumor entity with a dismal prognosis and a median survival of only about one year. Invasion into the healthy brain parenchyma contributes substantially to the malignancy of this type of brain tumor. Therefore, a better understanding of the mechanisms promoting the invasive behavior of these brain tumors is needed to identify new therapeutic targets.
Cofilin, an actin regulatory protein, has been shown to be an important regulator of the invasive behavior of tumor cells in other types of cancer and the actin cytoskeleton is involved in the formation of a variety of cellular structures important for cell migration and invasion. Cofilin is regulated by phosphorylation on a single residue, serine 3. The aim of this thesis was to examine the role of the cofilin regulatory phosphatase chronophin for glioma cell migration and invasion.
First, it was established that chronophin depletion in the cell line GBM6840 leads to an increase in the ratio of phosphorylated cofilin to total cofilin. Higher chronophin levels were correlated with a decrease in F-actin in the cell lines GBM6840 and U87 as measured in an actin spin down assay and in a flow cytometry based assay.
Furthermore, it was shown that knockdown of chronophin in two different cell lines, GBM6840 and DBTRG-05-MG, strongly increased their invasiveness in vitro. Expression of human chronophin in the cell line U87 decreased its invasiveness substantially. There was no difference in cell proliferation between GBM6840 and DBTRG-05-MG cells expressing a chronophin targeting shRNA or a control shRNA and U87 cells transfected with an empty vector or a human chronophin encoding plasmid. The increase in invasiveness after chronophin depletion could be correlated with an increase in directionality in cell migration under 2D culture conditions in the cell lines U87 and GBM6840. Moreover, treatment with the ROCK inhibitor Y-27632 decreased directionality in GBM6840 cells under 2D culture conditions and reduced the invasiveness of GBM6840 chronophin shRNA cells back to control levels.
Expression of a non-phosphorylatable cofilin mutant, the S3A mutant, was able to reduce invasiveness and to reduce directionality under 2D culture conditions back to control levels in GBM6840 chronophin shRNA cells.
This provides important evidence for the involvement of cofilin phosphoregulation in the phenotypes described above.
In vivo, when injected into NOD-SCID mice, chronophin depleted cells showed a dramatic growth reduction as compared to control and rescue cells.
Transciptomic characterization of GBM6840 cells by microarray analysis and subsequent comparison of the data with microarray profiles of normal brain tissues and different glioma entities identified two specifically chronophin regulated transcripts potentially involved in tumor progression and invasion, MXI1 and EDIL3. Moreover, c-myc was identified as a significantly altered transcription factor after chronophin deregulation based on the number of c-myc target molecules in the microarray dataset.
MXI1 is a potential negative regulator of c-myc dependent transcription, and was strongly downregulated after chronophin knockdown in GBM6840. In line with this, the activity of a c-myc reporter plasmid was increased after chronophin depletion in GBM6840 and reduced after chronophin expression in U87 cells.
However, the protein level of the c-myc protein was reduced after chronophin depletion in GBM6840.
Finally, anaylsis of the expression of proteases known to be important for glioblastoma pathogenesis revealed no major changes in protease expression between chronophin depleted and control cells.
Therefore, a comprehensive analysis of chronophin in the context of glioma pathogenesis has been performed in this thesis. It has been shown that chronophin depletion strongly enhanced invasiveness of glioma cells and that it induced transcriptomic changes potentially involved in tumor progression. The proteins regulating cofilin phosphorylation are therefore valuable therapeutic targets for anti-invasive therapy in glioblastomas. Inhibitors for kinases upstream of cofilin, e.g. LIMKs and ROCKs, are available, and might be promising agents for anti-invasive therapy.
Die Forschungsergebnisse der letzten Jahre liefern immer mehr Hinweise darauf, dass eine klare Unterscheidung von Fitness- und Virulenzfaktoren in vielen Fällen, insbesondere bei extraintestinal pathogenen Escherichia coli, nicht möglich ist. So lässt sich auch bei Harnwegsinfektionen verursachenden E. coli den bakteriellen und teils stammspezifischen Faktoren oftmals nicht eindeutig eine typische Virulenz- oder Fitness-assoziierte Funktion zuordnen. Zudem werden in neueren Studien immer häufiger atypische uropathogene Isolate von E. coli beschrieben, die in ihrem „Virulenzrepertoire“ deutlich von typischen uropathogenen E. coli (UPEC) abweichen, da sie keine klassischen UPEC-Virulenzfaktoren aufweisen. In dieser Arbeit wurden daher Virulenzeigenschaften typischer als auch atypischer UPEC untersucht.
Der Effekt eines bestimmten bakteriellen Faktors auf den Wirtsorganismus wird teilweise indirekt durch sekundäre Modifikation bedingt. Dies offenbart sich beispielsweise am Autotransporterprotein AIDA-I, dessen Konformation durch posttranslationale Glykosylierung stabilisiert wird, wodurch es seine Funktionalität als Adhäsin erhält. Da bisherige Studien zum AIDA-I homologen Autotransporterprotein Antigen 43 (Ag43) auf der Analyse von künstlich glykosyliertem Protein basieren, lag ein Schwerpunkt dieser Arbeit auf der Untersuchung der natürlichen Glykosylierung von Ag43 in UPEC Stamm 536. Es zeigte sich, dass beide Ag43-Varianten von E. coli Stamm 536 natürlicherweise glykosyliert vorliegen, der Grad der Glykosylierung jedoch wesentlich geringer ausfällt als bei natürlich glykosyliertem AIDA-I. Inwieweit die natürliche Glykosylierung von Ag43 zu dessen Funktionalität beiträgt, kann erst durch die Identifizierung der für die Ag43-Glykosylierung verantwortlichen Glykosyltransferase geklärt werden.
Die in silico-Analyse des Genoms von UPEC Stamm 536 für potentielle Glykosyltransferasen von Ag43 lieferte neun Kandidatengene. Die Gene wurde teils im Wildtyp-Hintergrund, teils im rfaH-negativen Hintergrund von E. coli Stamm 536 deletiert und die Mutanten im Anschluss phänotypisch charakterisiert. Die Deletion der Kandidatengene waaF, waaG und waaQ, die für Glykosyltransferasen des LPS-Biosynthesesystems kodieren, führte zu den deutlichsten Unterschieden in Bezug auf Motilität, Curli/Zellulose-Produktion, Hämolyseaktivität und Expression von Typ 1 Fimbrien. Der Einfluss des „knock-out“ der Kandidatengene auf die Glykosylierung von Ag43 muss in weiterführenden Studien untersucht werden.
Zur Charakterisierung des uropathogenen Virulenzpotentials verschiedener E. coli Stämme in vivo hat sich in den letzten Jahren das murine Modell der aufsteigenden Harnwegsinfektion etabliert. Mit Hilfe dieses Modells wurden in der vorliegenden Arbeit sowohl spezifische Deletionsmutanten prototypischer UPEC als auch atypische E. coli Harnwegsisolate bezüglich ihrer Urovirulenz getestet und verglichen. Bei der Untersuchung der klassischen UPEC lag der Fokus auf der möglichen Urovirulenzmodulation durch die folgenden spezifischen Faktoren: dem Autotransporterprotein Ag43, dem „Response regulator“ UvrY, dem Polyketid Colibactin sowie dem Exopolysaccharid poly-β-1,6-N-Acetylglucosamin (PGA). Für Ag43 war bei der Etablierung einer Harnwegsinfektion keine eindeutige Funktion feststellbar. Es ist jedoch denkbar, dass Ag43 zur Langzeitpersistenz im Harnwegstrakt beitragen kann, was in weiteren Studien belegt werden sollte. Die Expression von UvrY in der natürlichen uvrY-Deletionsmutante UPEC Stamm 536 ließ keine Erhöhung des Urovirulenzpotentials im Mausmodell erkennen. In diesem Zusammenhang konnte allerdings gezeigt werden, dass die Expression des Genotoxins Colibactin in UPEC Stamm 536 dessen Virulenz signifikant herabsetzte. Die Untersuchungen zur Relevanz des Exopolysaccharids PGA belegen deutlich, dass PGA für die Langzeitpersistenz von E. coli im murinen Harnwegstrakt benötigt wird. Für die initiale Kolonisierung scheint PGA hingegen keine Bedeutung zu haben. Für atypische UPEC Isolate, die Charakteristika von STEC und EAEC zeigen und sich in ihrem Virulenzmuster deutlich von prototypischen UPEC unterscheiden, ließ sich im murinen Modell der aufsteigenden Harnwegsinfektion, verglichen mit dem UPEC Modellorganismus 536, ein ähnliches, teils sogar erhöhtes uropathogenes Virulenzpotential nachweisen.
Die Ergebnisse der Arbeit untermauern somit die heutige Vorstellung bezüglich der Entwicklung und Etablierung einer Harnwegsinfektion, dass verschiedene E. coli Stämme unterschiedliche (Kontroll-) Mechanismen entwickelt haben, um erfolgreich den Harnwegstrakt kolonisieren und eine Infektion auslösen zu können. Zudem weisen sie darauf hin, dass diese Fähigkeit nicht auf Isolate typischer phylogenetischer UPEC Entwicklungslinien beschränkt und auf das Vorhandensein charakteristischer UPEC Virulenzfaktoren angewiesen ist.
Structural and biochemical characterization of gephyrin and various gephyrin-ligand complexes
(2014)
Efficient synaptic neurotransmission requires the exact apposition of presynaptic terminals and matching neurotransmitter receptor clusters on the postsynaptic side. The receptors are embedded in the postsynaptic density, which also contains scaffolding and regulatory proteins that ensure high local receptor concentrations. At inhibitory synapses the cytosolic scaffolding protein gephyrin assumes an essential organizing role within the postsynaptic density by the formation of self-oligomers which provide a high density of binding sites for certain -amino butyric acid type A (GABAA) and the large majority of glycine receptors (GlyR). Gephyrin contains two oligomerization domains: In isolation, the 20 kDa N-terminal G domain (GephG) and the 46 kDa E domain (GephE) trimerize and dimerize, respectively. In the full-length protein the domains are interconnected by a central ~150 amino acid linker, and only GephG trimerization is utilized, whereas GephE dimerization is prevented, thus suggesting the need for a trigger to release GephE autoinhibition, which would pave the way for the formation of higher oligomers and for efficient receptor clustering. The structural basis for this GephE autoinhibition has remained elusive so far, but the linker was reported to be sufficient for autoinhibition. This work dealt with the biochemical and structural characterization of apo-gephyrin and gephyrin in complexes with ligands which are known to promote the formation of synaptic gephyrin clusters (collybistin and neuroligin 2) and reorganize them (dynein light chain 1).
For full-length gephyrin no structural information has been available so far. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) and small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) analyses described in this thesis disclosed that the gephyrin trimer forms a highly flexible assembly, which, due to the long linker, can switch between compact and extended conformational states in solution, with a preference for compact states. This partial compaction and potentially GephE autoinhibition are achieved by interactions of parts of the linker with the G and E domains, as suggested by circular dichroism spectroscopy. However, the linker on its own cannot account for GephE blockage, as size exclusion chromatography experiments coupled with multi angle light scattering detection (SEC-MALS) and SAXS analyses revealed that a gephyrin variant only encompassing the linker and GephE (GephLE) forms dimers and not monomers as suggested by an earlier study. The oligomeric state of GephLE and the observation that several gephyrin variants, in which linker segments of varying length were deleted, predominantly formed trimers, suggested the presence of a linker independent mechanism of GephE dimerization blockade. Taken together, the data indicated that linker-dependent and linker-independent mechanisms mediate gephyrin autoinhibition.
In the second project gephyrin’s interaction with DYNLL1 (Dynein LC8 Light Chain 1) was characterized. DYNLL1 is a 25 kDa dimer incorporated into the dynein motor and provides two binding sites, each of which can accommodate an octapeptide derived from gephyrin’s linker region (referred to as GephDB). Originally, DYNLL1 was regarded as a cargo adaptor, linking gephyrin-GlyR complexes to the dynein motor, thus driving their retrograde transport and leading to a decrease of synaptic gephyrin-GlyR complexes.
Building on these studies, this thesis assessed the cargo hypothesis as well as the so far unclear stoichiometry of the gephyrin-DYNLL1 complex. The cargo scenario would require ternary complex formation between gephyrin, DYNLL1 and the dynein intermediate chain (DIC) of the dynein motor. However, such a complex could not be detected by analytical size exclusion chromatography (aSEC) experiments – presumably because gephyrin and DIC competed for a common binding site in DYNLL1. This finding was consistent with a single DYNLL1 dimer capturing two linker segments of a single gephyrin trimer as suggested by a 26 kDa mass increase of the gephyrin species in the presence of DYNLL1 in SEC-MALS experiments. aSEC experiments at even higher concentrations (~20 µM gephyrin and ~80 µM DYNLL1) indicated that the affinity of GephDB was significantly impaired in the context of full-length gephyrin but also in a variant that bears only GephG and the first 39 residues of the linker (GephGL220). Presumably due to avidity effects two linkers stably associated with a single DYNLL1 dimer, whereas the third DYNLL1 binding motif remained predominantly unoccupied unless high concentrations of GephGL220 (50 µM) and DYNLL1 (200 µM) were used. These findings indicate that an interplay between GephG and the N-terminal linker segment mediates the attenuation of GephDB affinity towards DYNLL1 and that preventing DYNLL1 from the induction of higher gephyrin oligomers is either advantageous for DYNLL1-mediated reorganization of gephyrin-GlyR clusters or that DYNLL1 exerts possibly two (concentration-dependent) actions on gephyrin.
The gephyrin-collybistin-neuroligin 2 complex was the subject of the third project. Previously, collybistin and gephyrin were observed to mutually trigger their translocation to the postsynaptic membrane, where the disordered cytoplasmic tail of the postsynaptic cell adhesion molecule NL2 (NL2cyt) causes the anchoring of collybistin 2 (CB2) by binding to its SH3 domain, thereby releasing SH3 domain mediated autoinhibiton of CB2 binding to the membrane phospholipid phosphatidylinositol-3-phosphate. Critical for this event is the binding of gephyrin to both CB2 and NL2, presumably via GephE.
Following up on these previous studies biochemical data presented in this thesis confirm the formation of the ternary complex. Unexpectedly, analyses by means of native polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis pointed to: (1) The existence of a complex containing NL2cyt and CB2 lacking the SH3 domain and consequently an additional NL2 binding site in CB2. (2) Attenuated gephyrin-collybistin complex formation in the presence of the SH3 domain. (3) A requirement for high NL2cyt concentrations (> 30 µM) during the formation of the ternary complex. This might allow for the regulation by other factors such as additional binding partners or posttranslational modifications. Although of preliminary character, these results provide a starting point for future studies, which will hopefully elucidate the interplay between gephyrin, collybistin, NL2 and certain GABAA receptors.
Calcium ions can activate intracellular signalling cascades that control key functions in all types of neurons. These functions include neuronal excitability and excitation, synaptic plasticity, cell migration, transmitter release, gene transcription, and apoptosis. The major intracellular neuronal store for calcium is the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), a continuous and dynamic, membranous organelle that extends through all parts of neurons, from axons to dendrites. The calcium concentration in the ER is appr. one thousand fold higher than in the cytosol and this calcium gradient is built up by the sarco-/endoplasmic reticulum calcium ATPase (SERCA) pump that pumps calcium from the cytosol into the ER.
Despite detailed knowledge about various induced calcium signals within neurons, it was still elusive, how resting neurons maintain their ER calcium content at rest. In order to shed light on the calcium homeostasis at rest, the targeted-esterase induced dye loading (TED) technique was improved. TED allows the direct and non-disruptive visualization of ER calcium in presence of extracellular calcium, thus enabling to visualize the dynamic flow of ER calcium. TED is based on the overexpression of an ER-targeted mouse carboxylesterase. Inside the ER the carboxylesterase cleaves the acetoxymethyl ester calcium dye Fluo5N, AM, thereby converting this dye into a calcium sensitive, low-affinity, cell membrane impermeable calcium indicator that is trapped in the ER. When bound to calcium ions and excited by fluorescent light, its fluorescence intensity increases one hundredfold compared to the calcium-free state.
It was observed that calcium withdrawal from resting neurons led to a rapid loss of calcium from both the ER and the cytosol, which recovered upon calcium re-addition. It was concluded that a strong calcium influx and efflux must exist under resting conditions that maintain a constant calcium concentration in neurons at rest. TED calcium imaging could visualize this resting calcium influx event. When the inhibitor of store-operated calcium entry (SOCE), SKF-96365, was acutely added to neurons an immediate decline in ER calcium levels was observed, whereas cytosolic calcium levels remained constant. Based on these findings, a novel calcium homeostasis model is proposed in which a strong SOCE-like calcium influx and a corresponding calcium efflux maintain the ER calcium levels at rest. These fluxes are adapted to disturbances in order to maintain a constant calcium level in resting neurons.
This study visualizes for the first time the resting calcium flow into the ER. The calcium enters the neurons via a store-operated calcium entry-like mechanism, a form of calcium influx that was thought to be induced by signalling events.
E. coli Nissle 1917 (EcN) zählt durch seine fast hundertjährige Nutzung als Arzneimittel und aufgrund der weitreichenden Forschung während der letzten Jahrzehnte mittlerweile zu einem der am besten untersuchten Probiotika. EcN wird als Medikament zur Remissionserhaltung von Patienten mit Kolitis, bei chronischer Verstopfung und bei Durchfall von Kleinkindern eingesetzt.
Der enteroaggregative – hämorrhagische - E. coli (EAHEC) mit dem Serotyp O104:H4 war 2011 in Deutschland für den bisher größten EHEC-Ausbruch seit Beginn der Aufzeichnungen verantwortlich. Es fehlt bis zum heutigen Tage immer noch an effektiven Möglichkeiten einer Infektionsprophylaxe oder einer Behandlung der Erkrankung. Ein alternatives Therapeutikum wird daher dringend benötigt. In dieser Arbeit wurden die antagonistischen Effekte von EcN auf pathogene E. coli Stämme wie dem EHEC Stamm EDL933 oder klinischen EAHEC O104:H4 Isolaten untersucht. Es wurden die Auswirkungen von EcN auf die Adhäsion an humane Epithelzellen, das Wachstum und die Shiga Toxin Produktion der pathogenen Stämme untersucht. Zusätzlich wurde die Resistenz von EcN gegenüber Shiga Toxin Phagen nachgewiesen.
Zunächst wurde die Adhäsionseffizienz der verschiedenen E. coli Stämme bestimmt. Der am schlechtesten an die humanen Epithelzelllinien Caco-2 und LS-174T adhärierende Stamm war EcN. Dies ist insofern überraschend, da von Probiotika erwartet wird, besser als Pathogene an Epithelzellen zu adhärieren. Dem ungeachtet konnte jedoch gezeigt werden, dass EcN die Adhäsion von zwei EAHEC O104:H4 Isolaten, des nahe verwandten enteroaggregativen E. coli (EAEC) Stammes 55989 und des enterohämorrhagischen (EHEC) E. coli Stammes O157:H7 EDL933 an beide Zelllinen hemmt. Die von EcN produzierten Mikrozine M und H47 konnten hier für einen Teil des beobachteten anti-adhäsiven Effektes von EcN auf die pathogenen E. coli Stämme verantwortlich gemacht werden. Die Mikrozine wurden hier als einzige Substanz, die das Wachstum der pathogenen E. coli Stämme beeinflusst, identifiziert.
Einer der wichtigsten Virulenzfaktoren von EAHEC und EHEC Stämmen ist das Shiga Toxin. In dieser Arbeit konnte gezeigt werden, dass EcN die Shiga Toxin Produktion der am häufigsten auftretenden EHEC Stämme (´Big Five´: O157:H7, O26:H11, O103:H2, O111:H-, O145:H25) und der klinischen Isolate von EAHEC O104:H4 im Zellkulturmedium DMEM hemmt.
Auffällig war, dass die Stx1 Produktion von EHEC O103:H2 und O111:H- nicht nur von EcN, sondern auch von E. coli K-12 Stamm MG1655, gehemmt wurde, im Gegensatz zur EcN-spezifischen Blockierung der Stx2-Produktion in den Serotypen O104:H4, O26:H11, O145:H25. Die Reduktion der Stx-Produktion in EAHEC O104:H4 TY3730 und TY3456, sowie EHEC O26:H11 war zum Teil von der Mikrozinproduktion abhängig. Diese hatte jedoch keinen Einfluss auf die Stx-Produktion in EHEC O157:H7 EDL933 und EHEC O145:H25. Bei Verwendung von LB-Medium zeigte sich im Gegensatz zum DMEM-Medium keine Mikrozin-Abhängigkeit der Toxinproduktion bei den EAHEC Isolaten TY3730 und TY3456. Die Toxinproduktion von EHEC EDL933 wurde ebenfalls nicht durch die Deletion der Mikrozin-Gene in EcN beeinflusst. Studien der Toxinproduktion in SCEM-Medium zeigten ebenfalls eine EcN-Dosisabhängige Reduktion der Stx-Produktion in Co-Kultur. Um den Mechanismus der Hemmung der Stx-Produktion zu untersuchen, wurden Versuche mit der EcN-Mutante EcN::luxS durchgeführt. Diese Deletion des AI-2 ´Quorum sensing´ Moleküls in EcN hatte allerdings keinen Einfluss auf die Hemmung der Stx-Produktion. Der Einsatz von Acetat führte, im Gegensatz zu publizierten Ergebnissen, nicht zu einer Reduktion der Stx-Produktion. Auch eine Beeinflussung der Lyse der EHEC-Bakterien, oder der Verminderung der Sekretion von Shiga Toxin durch EcN, konnte widerlegt werden. Zur Untersuchung der Stx-Expression wurde ein Assay mit einem biolumineszenten C-P (Chromosom-Plasmid) Reporter System etabliert. Damit konnte die Shiga Toxin Expression im Stammhintergrund EHEC EDL933 in Echtzeit untersucht werden. Hier wurde wiederum eine Reduktion der Shiga Toxin Expression in Co-Kultur mit EcN erfolgreich nachgewiesen.
In weiteren Versuchen konnte gezeigt werden, dass EcN nicht nur die Shiga Toxin Produktion von nicht-induzierten EAHEC Bakterien, sondern auch in mit Mitomycin C induzierten Bakterien hemmt.
Als wichtiger Sicherheitsaspekt einer Behandlung mit EcN wurde die Resistenz von EcN gegenüber Shiga Toxin Phagen untersucht. Die Infektion der Bakterien wurde hierbei mit stx-spezifischer PCR, Phagen-Plaque-Assay, Stx-ELISA und K+-Efflux Assay untersucht. Es konnte durch diese verschiedenen Methoden erfolgreich gezeigt werden, dass EcN nicht durch Shiga Toxin Phagen infiziert wird. Als möglicher Resistenzmechanismus kommt hier eine Mutation vom Phagenrezeptor LamB in Frage, was jedoch noch bestätigt werden muss.
Zusammenfassend wurden in dieser Arbeit wichtige antagonistische Effekte von EcN auf pathogene E. coli Stämme untersucht, die als Grundlage von neuen und dringend benötigten Behandlungen von EHEC-Infektionen dienen können.
The Fanconi anemia (FA) pathway is a replication-dependent DNA repair mechanism which is essential for the removal of interstrand crosslink (ICL) DNA damages in higher eukaryotes (Moldovan and D’Andrea, 2009). Malfunctions in this highly regulated repair network lead to genome instability (Deans and West, 2011). Pathological phenotypes of the disease FA which is caused by mutations in the eponymous pathway are very heterogeneous, involving congenital abnormalities, bone-marrow failure, cancer predisposition and infertility (Auerbach, 2009). The FA pathway comprises a complex interaction network and to date 16 FA complementation groups and associated factors have been identified (Kottemann and Smogorzewska, 2013). Additionally, components of nucleotide excision repair (NER), homologous recombination repair (HRR), and translesion synthesis (TLS) are involved and coordinated by the FA proteins (Niedzwiedz et al., 2004; Knipscheer et al., 2009). One of the FA proteins is the DEAH helicase FANCM. In complex with its binding partners FAAP24 and MHF1/2 it binds the stalled replication fork and activates the FA damage response (Wang et al., 2013). However, the exact steps towards removal of the ICL damage still remain elusive.
To decipher the underlying process of FA initiation by FANCM, this thesis mainly focuses on the archaeal FANCM homolog helicase-associated endonuclease for fork-structured DNA (Hef). Hef from the archaeal organism Thermoplasma acidophilum (taHef) differs from other archaeal Hef proteins and exclusively comprises an N-terminal helicase entity with two RecA and a thumb-like domain while others additionally contain a nuclease portion at the C-terminus. I solved the crystal structure of full-length taHef at a resolution of 2.43 Å. In contrast to the crystal structure of the helicase domain of Hef from Pyrococcus furiosus (pfHef), taHef exhibits an extremely open conformation (Nishino et al., 2005b) which implies that a domain movement of the RecA-like helicase motor domains of 61° is possible thus highlighting the flexibility of helicases which is required to translocate along the DNA. However, small-angle x-ray scattering (SAXS) measurements confirm an intermediate conformation of taHef in solution indicating that both crystal structures represent rather edge states. Most
importantly, proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) was identified as an interaction partner of Hef. This interaction is mediated by a highly conserved canonical PCNA interacting peptide (PIP) motif. Intriguingly, the presence of PCNA does not alter the ATPase nor the helicase activity of taHef, thus suggesting that the interaction is entirely dedicated to recruit taHef to the replication fork to fulfill its function. Due to a high level of flexibility the taHef-taPCNA complex could not be crystallized and therefore SAXS was utilized to determine a low-resolution model of this quaternary structure.
This newly discovered PCNA interaction could also be validated for the eukaryotic FANCM homolog Mph1 from the thermophilic fungus Chaetomium thermophilum (ctMph1). As the first step towards the characterization of this interaction I solved the crystal structure of PCNA from Chaetomium thermophilum (ctPCNA).
Furthermore, it was possible to achieve preliminary results on the putative interaction between the human proteins FANCM and PCNA (hsFANCM, hsPCNA). In collaboration with Detlev Schindler (Human Genetics, Würzburg) and Weidong Wang (National Institute on Aging, Baltimore, USA) co-immunoprecipitation (CoIP) experiments were performed using hsFANCM and hsPCNA expressed in HEK293 cells. Although an interaction was reproducibly observed in hydroxyurea stimulated cells
further experiments and optimization procedures are required and ongoing.
Durch die Verwendung radioaktiver Substanzen mit ihrer schädigenden Wirkung auf den menschlichen Körper besteht in der Positronen-Emissions-Tomographie (PET) ein fortwährendes Interesse an der Reduktion der applizierten Dosis bei gleichbleibender Qualität der Ergebnisse. Zusätzlich ist im Hinblick auf die Wirtschaftlichkeit der Systeme eine Reduktion sowohl der Akquisitions- als auch der Rekonstruktionszeit erstrebenswert. In dieser Arbeit werden zwei Möglichkeiten vorgestellt, diese Ziele durch den Einsatz von Compressed Sensing (CS) zu erreichen.
Neben der Entwicklung neuartiger Rekonstruktionsalgorithmen können Filtertechniken eingesetzt werden, um eine qualitative Verbesserung rekonstruierter Bilder zu erzielen. Der Vorteil eines Filters besteht unter anderem darin, dass diese retrospektiv angewandt werden können. Es ist folglich möglich, die Qualität eines Bildes zu überprüfen und lediglich im Bedarfsfall einen Filter einzusetzen.
Die Technik des CS war in den letzten Jahren Gegenstand zahlreicher Forschungsarbeiten im Bereich der Bildgebung, insbesondere in der Magnetresonanztomographie und der Computertomographie (CT). Mit CS könnten bildgebende Verfahren wie die CT oder die PET mit weniger Messungen durchgeführt werden, wodurch sich die Messzeit und die Strahlenexposition reduziert. In der molekularen Bildgebung mit der PET ist CS jedoch weitgehend unbekannt.
Im ersten Teil dieser Dissertation wird eine Methode vorgestellt, welche CS als Filtertechnik in der PET einsetzt. Den Ausgangspunkt stellt ein vollständiger, analytisch rekonstruierter Datensatz dar. Dieser wird mit einer Reihe unterschiedlicher Abtastmuster retrospektiv unterabgetastet und jeweils erneut, unter Verwendung von CS rekonstruiert. Im rauschfreien Fall würde CS stets das Originalbild liefern. Das überlagerte Rauschen führt jedoch zu Artefakten und einer Verschlechterung des Ergebnisses. CS kann nun einerseits das Rauschen vermindern. Andererseits ist es durch die Mittelung mehrerer unterschiedlicher Rekonstruktionen möglich, die Artefakte zu reduzieren. Auf diesem Weg kann die Bildqualität signifikant verbessert werden. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Technik sowohl für 2D, als auch für 3D Datensätze verwendet werden kann. Die größten qualitativen Verbesserungen werden erzielt, wenn der Datensatz lediglich aus wenigen Ereignissen besteht. In diesem Fall ist die Bildqualität der analytischen Rekonstruktionen extrem schlecht, die Verbesserung durch die Filtertechnik mit CS und die damit verbundene Erhöhung des Signal-Rausch-Verhältnisses jedoch am größten. Bei diesen Datensätzen können die Ergebnisse iterativer Rekonstruktionen übertroffen werden. In der Praxis wäre damit ein Einsatz speziell bei dynamischen oder getriggerten Aufnahmen denkbar. In beiden Fällen basieren die Rekonstruktionen nicht selten auf wenigen Ereignissen. Die resultierenden Bilder sind häufig von schlechter Qualität, womit eine Verbesserung durch Filterung sinnvoll ist.
Der zweite Teil dieser Arbeit beschäftigt sich mit der Rohdaten-basierten Triggerung am Kleintier-PET sowie mit dem Einsatz von CS zur Reduktion der Rekonstruktionszeit. Frühere Veröffentlichungen zeigten bereits die Anwendbarkeit Rohdaten-basierter Triggermethoden bei humanen Datensätzen. Im Hinblick auf eine präklinische Anwendung, speziell bei Datensätzen mit dem Fokus auf Mäuseherzen, existieren jedoch nur wenige Studien. In dieser Arbeit wird gezeigt, dass die segmentierte Methode des Massenschwerpunkts (COMseg) eine Technik darstellt, welche die kardiale Triggerung sowohl bei Datensätzen von Ratten, als auch von Mäusen erlaubt.
Ein nicht zu unterschätzender Nachteil der COMseg besteht darin, dass vor deren Anwendung die List-Mode Datei in kleine Zeitframes unterteilt und in Sinogramme sortiert werden muss. Auf jedes Sinogramm wird im Anschluss ein Rebinning Algorithmus angewandt. Dies stellt einen enormen Zeitaufwand dar, wodurch sich eine Anwendung bei größeren Studien in der Praxis als schwierig erweist. Ziel der Triggermethoden ist die Gewinnung eines Triggersignals, durch welches beispielsweise der Herzschlag in mehrere Phasen aufgeteilt werden kann. Das Triggersignal hat für gewöhnlich eine dünnbesetzte Repräsentation im Frequenzraum. Dieses Vorwissen ermöglicht den Einsatz von CS. Anstelle des vollständigen Datensatzes wurde lediglich ein Teil der Daten in kleine Zeitframes sortiert und mit der COMseg ausgewertet. Aus diesem unterabgetasteten Datensatz wird mit Hilfe von CS das vollständige Triggersignal rekonstruiert. Die Stärke der Unterabtastung entspricht in etwa dem Faktor der Reduktion der Rekonstruktionszeit. Auf diesem Weg ist es möglich, eine signifikante Beschleunigung zu erzielen. Die Anwendung dieser Technik ist jedoch nicht auf die COMseg beschränkt. Prinzipiell kann das Verfahren bei allen Methoden der Rohdaten-basierten Triggerung angewandt werden, welche es erlauben, die Abtastpunkte des Signals separat zu berechnen. Damit werden Algorithmen interessant, deren Einsatz aufgrund aufwändiger Berechnungen bislang in der Praxis nicht sinnvoll war.
Zusammenfassend legen die in dieser Arbeit vorgestellten Daten nahe, dass CS ein neuartiges Werkzeug in der PET darstellen könnte, mit welchem eine Filterung von Bildern sowie eine Reduktion der Rekonstruktionszeit möglich ist.
Die Interaktion des Masernvirus mit T-Zellen stört die Aktivierung der TCR-Signalkaskade durch die Hemmung der Phosphatidylinositol-3-Kinase (PI3K), die zur Einstellung der T-Zell-Funktionen führt und dadurch nachgeschaltete (downstream) Signalwege sowie den Eintritt in den Zellzyklus, aber auch die Genexpression reguliert. Infolgedessen können die Aktivität spleißregulatorischer Faktoren sowie die Spleißmuster von mRNAs verändert werden, wie zum Beispiel bei der alternativ gespleißten SHIP1-Isoform SIP110, die eine T-Zell-inhibitorische Aktivität zeigt. Um alternativ gespleißte (AS) und differentiell regulierte (RG) Transkripte in T-Zellen infolge von PI3K-Inhibition zu erfassen, wurde ein Human Exon 1.0 ST Array an RNA-Proben von humanen T-Zellen, 24 h stimuliert und stimuliert/ PI3K-inhibiert, durchgeführt. Durch die Anwendung geeigneter bioinformatischer Algorithmen konnten spezifisch in PI3K-inhibierten Zellen angereicherte Transkripte nachgewiesen und in die Kategorien AS (2192 Gene) und RG (619 Gene) eingeteilt werden. Ausgewählte Gene wurde mittels RT-PCR und qPCR validiert, gefolgt von der funktionellen Annotation beider Genlisten. AS Gene konnten verstärkt in ECM-Rezeptor Interaktionen, fokaler Adhäsion, Proliferation, Zytoskelettorganisation und Tumorsignalwegen gefunden werden, während RG Gene eher in der DNA-Replikation, DNA-Reparatur und Stressantwort vertreten waren. Gene beider Gruppen konnten auf Signalwege bezogen werden, die essentiell für den TCR-Signalweg, die Zytoskelettdynamik und den Zellzykluseintritt waren. Das stützt die Annahme, dass die Außerkraftsetzung der PI3K-Schüsselprozesse der T-Zell-Aktivierung sowohl auf der Ebene der RG als auch der AS Gene wirkt. Über die Ingenuity Pathway Analyse konnten wir unsere Genlisten mit Genen vergleichen, die bereits auf solche Schlüsselprozesse und die Viabilität bezogen werden können. In der Überschneidung wurden z.B. die AS GTP-Austauschfaktoren Vav1 und Vav3 gefunden, die für die Übersetzung extrazellulärer Signale in Zytoskelettdynamik, Proteinphosphatasen und Adapter von Bedeutung sind.
Ausgewählte Gene (AS - FBXO6 und LAT2, RG - SLFN5) wurden aus PI3K-arretierten T-Zellen kloniert und deren Effekt auf grundlegende zelluläre Funktionen durch Überexpression in HEK293T-Zellen überprüft. Die Fusionsproteine veränderten weder die Zellviabilität noch die Proliferation dieser Zellen. Über einen auf siRNA basierenden Knockdown wurde überprüft, ob das RG Gene SLFN5 als Suppressor auf die T-Zell-Aktivierung agiert. Der Knockdown in primären T-Zellen zeigte keinen Einfluss auf die Zellviabilität, Proliferation und Polarisation. Jedoch konnte ein signifikanter Effekt auf die T-Zell-Adhärenz auf Fibronektin gezeigt werden, was darauf schließen lässt, dass SLFN5 die T-Zell-Adhärenz negativ reguliert.
Des Weiteren wurde die MV-induzierte Regulation selektierter Gene betrachtet und Unterschiede in der Regulation im Vergleich zur direkten PI3K-Inhibition festgestellt. Ein Grund dafür könnte sein, dass das MV eine Inhibition auf vielen Ebenen induziert, anstelle der alleinigen PI3K-Inhibition.
Abschließend wurde untersucht, ob ausgewählte Gene an der Regulation in verschiedenen T-Zelllinien beteiligt sind und als Tumorsuppressoren agieren könnten. FBXO6 als Regulator der CHK1-Stabilität wurde in den meisten Zelllinien nicht exprimiert. Die Annahme, dass eine Stress-induzierte defekte Ubiquitinierungsmaschinerie an der Resistenz von Tumorzellen auf Chemotherapeutika beteiligt ist, macht FBXO6 zu einem interessanten Kandidaten als Biomarker für Tumorsensitivität gegenüber Krebsmedikamenten. Diese Annahme bedarf jedoch weiterer Untersuchungen.
While TGF-β is able to regulate miRNA expression in numerous cell types, TGF-β-dependent changes in the miRNA profile of CD8+ T cells had not been studied before. Considering that TGF-β suppresses CD8+ T cell effector functions in numerous ways, we wondered whether induction of immune-regulatory miRNAs could add to the known transcriptional effects of TGF-β on immune effector molecules. In this study, we used miRNA arrays, deep sequencing and qRT-PCR to identify miRNAs that are modulated by TGF-β in human CD8+ T cells. Having found that the TGF-β-dependent downregulation of NKG2D surface expression in NK cells and CD8+ T cells does not go along with a corresponding reduction in mRNA levels, this pathway appeared to be a possible target of TGF-β-inducible miRNAs. However, this hypothesis could not be confirmed by miRNA reporter assays. Instead, we observed that DAP10 transcription is suppressed by TGF-β which in turn negatively affects NKG2D surface expression. In spite of promising preliminary experiments, technical difficulties associated with the transfection of primary NK cells and NK cell lines unfortunately precluded the final proof of this hypothesis.
Instead, we focused on the TGF-β-induced changes in the miRNome of CD8+ T cells and confirmed the induction of the miR-23a cluster members, namely miR-23a, miR-27a and miR-24 by three different techniques. Searching for potential targets of these miRNAs which could contribute to the immunosuppressive action of TGF-β in T cells, we identified and confirmed a previously unknown regulation of IFN-γ mRNA by miR-27a and miR-24. Newly generated miRNA reporter constructs further revealed that LAMP1 mRNA is a target of miR-23a. Upon modulation of the miR-23a cluster in CD8+ T cells by the respective miRNA antagomirs and mimics, significant changes in IFN-γ expression confirmed the functional relevance of our findings. Effects on CD107a/LAMP1 expression were, in contrast, rather minimal. Still, overexpression of the miR-23a cluster attenuated the cytotoxic activity of antigen-specific CD8+ T cells. Taken together, these functional data reveal that the miR-23a cluster not only is induced by TGF-β, but also exerts a suppressive effect on CD8+ T-cell effector functions, even in the absence of TGF-β signaling.
SNAP25 (Synaptosomal-Associated Protein of 25 kDa; part of the SNARE complex) is involved in the docking and fusion of synaptic vesicles in presynaptic neurons necessary for the regulation of neurotransmitter release, as well as in axonal growth and synaptic plasticity. In humans, different single nucleotide polymorphisms of SNAP25 have repeatedly been associated with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Thus, in this study heterozygous Snap25 knockout mice were investigated as a model of ADHD.
Heterozygous (+/-) Snap25 knockout mice as well as their wild-type (+/+) littermates were reared under control conditions or underwent a Maternal Separation (MS) procedure. Starting at the age of 2 months, mice were tested for locomotor activity in a repeated long-term Open Field (OF) task, for attention deficits and impulsive behavior in the 5 Choice Serial Reaction Time Task (5CSRTT), for anxiety-like behavior in the Light-Dark Box (LDB) and for depression-like behavior in the Porsolt Forced Swim Test (FST). The brains of these mice were subsequently tested for the expression of several ADHD related genes in a quantitative Real-Time PCR (qRT-PCR) study. Another group of female mice (+/+; +/-) underwent a one hour OF test after oral administration of 45 mg/kg Methylphenidate (MPH) or placebo.
To find an optimized dosage for this MPH challenge, a pilot study was performed. Wild-type C57BL/6 mice were tested in a long-term OF with several dosages of MPH both intraperitoneally (i.p.) and orally. The brains of these animals were afterwards investigated for neurotransmitter concentrations. In this pilot study the dosages of MPH that were similarly behaviorally effective without causing symptoms of overdosing were 7.5-15 mg/kg intraperitoneally and 30-60 mg/kg orally. However, even though it was possible to find intraperitoneal and oral doses that correlate behaviorally, the neurochemistry was mostly different.
In the study on Snap25-deficient mice, unstressed controls showed a hyperactive phenotype in the second of two long-term OF sessions (60 min) spaced three weeks apart. Considering all groups, there was a significant interaction of stress and genotype in the second session, with animals subjected to MS being overall hyperactive with no genotype differences. In the training phase of the 5CSRTT only effects of stress were found, with MS animals finding and consuming fewer rewards. In the single test trial, several genotype effects became apparent, with tendencies for the number of correct nose pokes and the number of rewards eaten, and a significant effect for the number of rewards eaten directly after the correct response. In all of these variables +/- mice performed worse than their wild-type littermates. In the LDB +/- mice entered the lit compartment of the arena earlier than the controls, thus showing attenuated anxiety-like behavior. Regarding depressive-like behavior in the FST, male +/- mice spent significantly less time struggling than male +/+ mice. In the gene expression study, +/- mice had lower expression levels of Maoa and Comt, and higher expression levels of Nos1 than wild-types. Finally, the locomotor activity response to MPH was exaggerated in +/- mice as compared to controls.
Heterozygous Snap25 knockout mice show some of the behavioral characteristics of ADHD, as for example a mild hyperactivity in a familiar environment, difficulties in the correct execution of a given task and even some behavior that can be interpreted as delay aversion. Additionally, expression levels of three ADHD related genes were changed in these animals. Although the exaggerated locomotor activity response to MPH is not to be expected of an ADHD model, the difference in the response between +/+ and +/- mice nonetheless implicates a potential dysfunction of the brain dopaminergic system.
Die Deregulation des Transkriptionsfaktors Myc ist ein zentraler Mechanismus in der kolorektalen Karzinogenese. Die Myc-Deletion in Tumormodellen hemmt das Wachstum von Kolonkarzinomen, somit stellt die Inaktivierung von Myc einen Ansatzpunkt in der Behandlung von kolorektalen Tumoren dar. Die direkte Inhibition von Myc ist schwierig, da Myc keine katalytische Aktivität besitzt und stattdessen für die Myc-Funktion nötige Protein-Protein- oder Protein-DNA-Interaktionen angegriffen werden müssen. Die E3-Ubiquitin-Ligase Huwe1 interagiert sowohl mit Myc als auch mit dem Myc-interagierenden Protein Miz1 und ist im Kolonkarzinom überexprimiert. Huwe1 ubiquitiniert Myc und induziert darüber dessen Transaktivierungsfunktion. Die Inaktivierung von Huwe1 ist somit eine vielversprechende Möglichkeit für die Inhibition der Myc-Funktion und die Therapie des Kolonkarzinoms.
In dieser Arbeit wird mittels shRNA-vermittelter Depletion von Huwe1 in Zellkulturexperimenten gezeigt, dass Huwe1 für die Proliferation von Kolonkarzinomzelllinien und für die Transaktivierung von Myc-Zielgenen benötigt wird. Mit zwei von Boehringer Ingelheim identifizierten niedermolekularen Huwe1-Inhibitoren (BI8622 und BI8626) ist es möglich, die Huwe1-Funktion spezifisch in Zellen zu blockieren. Die Huwe1-Inhibitoren induzieren einen Proliferationsarrest in kolorektalen Karzinomzelllinien, wohingegen die Substanzen auf embryonale Stammzellen keine Auswirkungen haben. Die Inaktivierung von Huwe1 führt zu einer Akkumulation von Miz1 an Promotoren Myc-aktivierter Zielgene und darüber zu einer vermehrten Bildung repressiver Myc/Miz1-Komplexe, was mit einer Deacetylierung von Histon H3 und einer transkriptionellen Repression Myc-gebundener Gene assoziiert ist. Miz1 akkumuliert nach Huwe1-Inhibition ebenso an direkten Miz1-Zielgenen, deren Expression bleibt aber unbeeinflusst. Diese Daten weisen darauf hin, dass eine kontinuierliche Degradierung von Miz1 durch Huwe1 zur Transaktivierung von Myc-Zielgenen in Kolonkarzinomzellen nötig ist. Damit wurde ein neuer Mechanismus identifiziert, über den Huwe1 die Myc-Transaktivierung reguliert und der eine tumorzellspezifische Repression der Myc-Funktion mit Hilfe von Huwe1-Inhibitoren ermöglicht.
Oncolytic viral therapies have shown great promise pre-clinically and in human clinical trials for the treatment of various cancers. Oncolytic viruses selectively infect and replicate in cancer cells, destroying tumor tissue via cell lysis, while leaving noncancerous tissues unharmed. Vaccinia virus (VACV) is arguably one of the safest viruses, which has been intensively studied in molecular biology and pathogenesis as a vaccine for the eradication of smallpox in more than 200 million people. It has fast and efficient replication, and cytoplasmic replication of the virus lessens the chance of recombination or integration of viral DNA into the genome of host cells. Anti-tumor therapeutic efficacy of VACV has been demonstrated for human cancers in xenograft models with a variety of tumor types. In addition recombinant oncolytic VACVs carrying imaging genes represent an advance in treatment strategy that combines tumor-specific therapeutics as well as diagnostics.
As for other targeted therapies, a number of challenges remain for the clinical translation of oncolytic virotherapy. These challenges include the potential safety risk of replication of oncolytic virus in non-tumor tissue, the relatively poor virus spread throughout solid tumor tissue and the disadvantageous ratio between anti-viral and anti-tumoral immunity. However, manipulation of components of the tumor microenvironment may help oncolytic virus infection in killing the tumor tissue and thereby increasing the anti-tumor efficacy. Furthermore, dogs with natural cancer are considered as one of the best animal models to develop new drugs for cancer therapy. Traditionally, rodent cancer models have been used for development of cancer therapeutics. However, they do not adequately represent several features that define cancer in humans, including biology of initiation of tumor, the complexity of cancer recurrence and metastasis and outcomes to novel therapies. However, the tumor microenvironment, histopathology, molecular and genomics data from dog tumors has significant similarities with corresponding human tumors. These advantages of pet dog cancers provide a unique opportunity to integrate canine cancer patients in the studies designed for the development of new cancer drugs targeted against both human and canine cancers. This dissertation centers on the use of VACV strains in canine cancer xenografts with the aim of understanding the effects of modulation of tumor microenvironment on VACV-mediated tumor therapy.
In the first studies, wild-type VACV strain LIVP6.1.1 was tested for its oncolytic efficiency in canine soft tissue sarcoma (STSA-1) and canine prostate carcinoma (DT08/40) cells in culture and xenografts models. LIVP6.1.1 infected, replicated within, and killed both STSA-1 and DT08/40 cells in cell culture. The replication of virus was more efficient in STSA-1 cells compared to DT08/40 cells. In xenograft mouse models, LIVP6.1.1 was safe and effective in regressing both STSA-1 and DT08/40 xenografts. However, tumor regression was faster in STSA-1 xenografts compared to DT08/40 xenografts presumably due to more efficient replication of virus in STSA-1 cells. Biodistribution profiles revealed persistence of virus in tumors 5 and 7 weeks post virus injection in STSA-1 and DT08/40 xenografts, respectively, with the virus mainly cleared from all other major organs. Immunofluorescence staining detected successful colonization of VACV in the tumor. Consequently, LIVP6.1.1 colonization in the tumor showed infiltration of innate immune cells mainly granulocytes and macrophages in STSA-1 tumor xenografts. These findings suggest that virotherapy-mediated anti-tumor mechanism in xenografts could be a combination of direct viral oncolysis of tumor cells and virus-dependent infiltration of tumor-associated host immune cells.
In further studies, the effects of modulation of tumor angiogenesis of VACV therapy were analyzed in canine cancer xenografts. GLV-1h109 VACV strain (derived from prototype virus GLV-1h68) encoding the anti-VEGF single chain antibody GLAF-1 was characterized for its oncolytic efficacy in STSA-1 and DT08/40 cancer cells in culture and tumor xenografts. Concomitantly, the effects of locally expressed GLAF- 1 in tumors on virus replication, host immune infiltration, tumor vascularization and tumor growth were also evaluated.
GLV-1h109 was shown to be similar to the parental virus GLV-1h68 in expression of the two marker genes that both virus strains have in common (Ruc-GFP and gusA) in cell cultures. Additionally, the anti-VEGF single-chain antibody GLAF-1 was expressed by GLV-1h109 in both cell cultures and tumor xenografts. The insertion of GLAF-1 did not significantly affect the replication and cytotoxicity of GLV-1h109 in the STSA-1 and DT08/40 cell lines, although at early time points (24-48 hpi), the replication of GLV-1h109 was higher in STSA-1 cells compared to DT08/40 cells. In addition, STSA-1 cells were more susceptible to lysis with GLV-1h109 than DT08/40 cells. GLV-1h109 achieved a significant inhibition of tumor growth in both STSA-1 and DT08/40 canine xenografts models. Consequently, the significant regression of tumor growth was initiated earlier in STSA-1 tumor xenografts compared to regression in DT08/40 xenografts. The reason for the higher efficacy of GLV-1h109 in STSA-1 xenografts than DT08/40 xenografts was attributed to more efficient replication of virus in STSA-1 cells. In addition, tumor-specific virus infection led to a continued presence of GLAF-1 in peripheral blood, which could be useful as a pharmacokinetic marker to monitor virus colonization and persistence in GLV-1h109- injected xenograft mice. GLAF-1 is a single-chain antibody targeting human and murine VEGF. It was demonstrated that GLAF-1 was functional and recognized both canine and human VEGF with equal efficiency.
Histological analysis of tumor sections 7 days after GLV-1h109 injection confirmed that colonization of VACV and intratumoral expression of GLAF-1 translated into a significant decrease in blood vessel number compared to GLV-1h68 or PBS-treated control tumors. Subsequently, reduction in blood vessel density significantly improved the spread and replication of VACV as observed by FACS analysis and standard plaque assay, respectively. Inhibition of tumor angiogenesis and increased replication of virus further improved the infiltration of innate immune cells mainly granulocytes and macrophages in STSA-1 tumor xenografts. Both the results, i.e. improved virus spread and increased infiltration of innate immune cells in tumor, were explained by a phenomenon called “vascular normalization”, where anti-VEGF therapy normalizes the heterogeneous tumor vasculature thereby improving delivery and spread of VACV. In summary, the effects of inhibition of tumor angiogenesis on virus spread and replication were demonstrated using a vaccinia virus caring an anti- angiogenic payload targeting vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) in canine cancer xenografts.
In the final studies, the effects of VACV therapy on modulation of the immune system were analyzed in canine cancer patients enrolled in a phase I clinical trial. V-VET1 (clinical grade LIVP6.1.1 VACV) injection significantly increased the percentages of CD3+CD8+ T lymphocytes at 21 days after initiation of treatment. CD3+CD8+ T lymphocytes are mainly cytotoxic T lymphocytes that have potential to lyse cancer cells. Subsequently, the frequency of immune suppressor cells, mainly MDSCs and Treg was also analyzed in peripheral blood of canine cancer patients. Increase in the MDSC population and decreased CD8/Treg ratio is known to have inhibitory effects on the functions of cytotoxic T cells. We demonstrated that injection of V-VET1 in canine cancer patients significantly reduced the percentages of MDSCs at 21 days post initiation of treatment. Additionally, CD8/Treg ratio was increased 21 days after initiation of V-VET1 treatment. We also showed that changes in the frequency of immune cells neither depends on dose of virus nor depends on tumor type according to the data observed from this clinical trial with eleven analyzed patients.
This preclinical and clinical data have important clinical implications of how VACV therapy can be used for the treatment of canine cancers. Moreover, dogs with natural cancers can be used as an ideal animal model to improve the oncolytic virotherapy for human cancers. Furthermore, modulation of tumor microenvironment mainly tumor angiogenesis and tumor immunity has significant impact on the success of oncolytic virotherapy.
Die erfolgreiche therapeutische Beeinflussung pathophysiologischer Prozesse im Herzen nach myokardialem Infarkt stellt nicht zuletzt durch die steigenden Fallzahlen in der westlichen Welt und die vergleichsweise hohe Mortalität eine Herausforderung an Forschung und Entwicklung dar. In der vorliegenden Arbeit werden verschiedene therapeutische Strategien in klinisch relevanten Mausmodellen des Myokardinfarkts und des Ischämie-Reperfusions-Schadens getestet.
Zunächst wird untersucht, ob sich der Einsatz des NFκB-aktivierenden Zytokins TWEAK, welches weitreichende Funktionen in physiologischen Prozessen wie Wundheilung und Entzündung besitzt, als eine mögliche Therapiestrategie eignet. Die Expression von TWEAK wird nach myokardialem Infarkt stark im Herzgewebe induziert. Das gleiche gilt für den Rezeptor von TWEAK, Fn14, der vor allem auf kardialen Fibroblasten exprimiert wird. Daher wird angenommen, dass das TWEAK-Fn14-System am kardialen Remodelling und der Wundheilung im infarzierten Herzen beteiligt sein kann.
Eine rekombinante Variante von TWEAK - HSA-Flag-TWEAK - wird im Mausmodell des Myokardinfarkts getestet. Überraschenderweise zeigt sich hierbei, dass die therapeutische Behandlung von infarzierten Versuchstieren mit diesem Protein die Mortalität im Vergleich zu Placebo-behandelten Mäusen signifikant erhöht. Dies geht mit einem vermehrten Auftreten an linksventrikulären Rupturen einher, ohne dass Defekte im kardialen Remodelling oder eine erhöhte Apoptoserate im Herzen festgestellt werden können. HSA-Flag-TWEAK bewirkt eine Erhöhung der Gewebekonzentrationen an verschiedenen pro-inflammatorischen Zytokinen (IFN-γ, IL-5, IL-12, GITR, MCP-1/-5 und RANTES) und das vermehrte Einwandern von Immunzellen in das Myokard. Hierbei ist insbesondere die stark erhöhte Infiltration an neutrophilen Granulozyten auffällig. Ein kausaler Zusammenhang zwischen diesen Immunzellen und den auftretenden kardialen Rupturen kann durch die Depletion der Neutrophilen gezeigt werden: Nach der systemischen Applikation eines Ly6G-depletierenden Antikörpers ist das Auftreten von kardialen Rupturen nach TWEAK-Gabe vergleichbar mit der Placebo-behandelten Infarktgruppe. Die Tatsache, dass die Mortalität dennoch erhöht ist, deutet auf weitere negative Effekte durch TWEAK hin. Diese Ergebnisse legen die Vermutung nahe, dass eine Hemmung der TWEAK-Fn14-Achse positive Effekte auf die Wundheilung nach Herzinfarkt bewirken könnte.
Als zweite Therapiestrategie wird die pharmakologische Beeinflussung verschiedener Blutplättchen-spezifischer Zielstrukturen untersucht, um das Auftreten von Mikrothromben nach Myokardinfarkt zu reduzieren. Eine Hemmung über das Blutplättchen-Glykoprotein GPVI bewirkt in dem hier eingesetzten Mausmodell der kardialen Ischämie-Reperfusion eine signifikant verbesserte Mikrozirkulation sowie verringerte Infarktgrößen. GPVI stellt somit ein vielversprechendes Ziel für eine blutplättchenhemmende Therapie nach Myokardinfarkt dar.
Zusammengefasst werden in der vorliegenden Arbeit verschiedene neuartige Therapieoptionen untersucht, die die Auswirkungen ischämischer Erkrankungen des Herzens beeinflussen können. Die Ergebnisse besitzen daher das Potenzial, zur Entwicklung neuer Therapien nach Myokardinfarkt beizutragen.
Kinasen der SRC-Familie (SFKs) sind sowohl in Wachstum und Metastasierung von Tumor- und Leukämiezellen als auch an prominenter Stelle in vielgestaltige Signalwege aller Immunzellen involviert. Eine Hemmung von SFKs ist damit ein vielversprechendes Mittel zur Therapie maligner Erkrankungen, kann aber darüber hinaus auch sehr effektiv zur Immunmodulation genutzt werden. Für den zur Therapie von CML und AML zugelassenen Tyrosinkinaseinhibitor (TKI) Dasatinib (Handelsname Sprycel®), für den unter anderem SFKs die Hauptziele darstellen, wurden, neben der antitumoralen Wirkung, sowohl immunsuppressive als auch immunstimulierende Effekte beschrieben. Aus diesem Grund könnte Dasatinib ein für die Modulation von Immunantworten sehr interessantes Hilfsmittel darstellen. In der vorliegenden Arbeit werden die hemmenden und fördernden Einflüsse von Dasatinib auf zwei Typen von Immunzellen genauer untersucht, um so die Auswirkungen einer Dasatinib-Behandlung auf Zellen des Immunsystems besser zu verstehen und sich das immunmodulatorische Potenzial von Dasatinib besser nutzbar machen zu können.
Der erste Teil der Arbeit beschäftigt sich mit der Untersuchung möglicher kombinatorischer Effekte zwischen Dasatinib und dem Glucocorticoid Dexamethason auf verschiedene Subsets von T-Zellen vor dem Hintergrund eines potentiellen Einsatzes der Kombination bei der allogenen Hämatopoetischen Stammzelltransplantation (HSCT) zur Separation von Graft-versus-Leukemia (GvL)-Effekten und der Graft-versus-host Disease (GvHD). Während keine kombinatorischen Effekte bei der Aktivierung von T-Zellen auftraten, ergaben sich bei der Untersuchung des Einflusses auf die Proliferation besonders in CD8+ T-Zellen additive Effekte durch die Kombination. Die Proliferation naiver T-Zell-Subsets wurde bereits durch die beiden Einzelsubstanzen alleine stark gehemmt. Dagegen waren Memory T-Zell-Subsets deutlich unempfindlicher, allerdings konnte durch eine Kombination von Dexamethason und Dasatinib auch die Proliferation dieser Memory Subsets effektiv gehemmt werden. Hierbei zeigten sich bei CD8+ Memory Subsets die deutlichsten synergistischen Effekte. Da eine Kombination in stärkerem Maße auch CD8+ gegenüber CD4+ Memory Subsets hemmt und diese Subsets unterschiedliche Rollen in der Induktion von GvL-Effekten und der Auslösung einer GvHD zu spielen scheinen, ist eine Steigerung der GvL-Effektivität durch die Medikamenten-Kombination bei gleichzeitiger Minimierung eines GvHD-Risikos in Zusammenhang mit anderen publizierten Ergebnissen durchaus denkbar. Weil eine starke Hemmung von virus-spezifischen T-Zellen nur bei sehr hohen Konzentrationen auftrat, ist zudem das Risiko einer Virus-Reaktivierung, die ein großes Problem bei einer HSCT darstellt, eher als gering einzuschätzen.
Der zweite Teil der Arbeit befasst sich mit dem Einfluss von Dasatinib auf aus Monozyten generierte Dendritische Zellen (moDCs) mit einem Fokus auf der Beeinflussung ihrer Migration. Während eine Behandlung mit Dasatinib nur sehr geringe Auswirkungen auf die Ausreifung der moDCs und die Expression von kostimulatorischen Molekülen hatte, führte eine Dasatinib-Behandlung zu einer Zeit- und Dosis-abhängigen Verringerung der Zytokinsekretion (IL-10 und IL-12). Im Gegensatz dazu hatte Dasatinib keinen Einfluss auf die phagozytotische Aktivität der moDCs und auf ihre Fähigkeit, Virus-spezifische T-Zell-Antworten auszulösen. Dasatinib zeigte dagegen einen deutlich steigernden Einfluss auf die Migration von moDCs gegen einen CCL19-Gradienten im Transwell-Assay, ohne die Expression des CCL19-Rezeptors CCR7 zu beeinflussen. Da ähnliche Migrations-steigernde Effekte auch bei einer Behandlung mit dem spezifischen SFK-Inhibitor SKI-1 auftraten, eine Behandlung mit Nilotinib, einem TKI der nicht auf SFKs wirkt, im Gegensatz dazu aber zu einer Hemmung der Migration führte, liegt es nahe dass die Migrations-steigernde Wirkung von Dasatinib über SFKs vermittelt wird. Dasatinib führte zu einer deutlichen Inhibierung der Phosphorylierung der inhibitorischen Immunrezeptoren Siglec-9 und Siglec-3 (CD33) ohne ihre Expressionslevel zu beeinflussen. Eine mit spezifischen Antikörpern durchgeführte Blockierung dieser Immunrezeptoren, deren ITIM-Domänen mutmaßlich von SFKs phosphoryliert werden, hatte eine deutliche Steigerung der Migration und eine verringerte Phosphorylierung von Siglec-9, Siglec-3 und SHP-2 zur Folge. Letztere ist eine Phosphatase, die nach Bindung an phosphorylierte ITIM-Domänen von Rezeptoren wie den Siglecs verschiedene Zielmoleküle dephosphoryliert. Die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit legen nahe, dass die Migrations-steigernde Wirkung von Dasatinib über eine Hemmung von SFKs und daraus resultierend auf dem Wegfall eines inhibitorischen Signalwegs erfolgt. Diese Steigerung der Migration könnte in der Tumor-Therapie von großem Nutzen sein, da bei einer Vakzinierung mit autologen DCs, die mit Tumor-assoziierten Antigenen stimuliert wurden, die schlechte Einwanderung in die Lymphknoten eines der Hauptprobleme darstellt. Zur Überwindung dieses Problems könnte Dasatinib ein sehr effektives Hilfsmittel darstellen und die Therapie-Effizienz deutlich verbessern. Da Dasatinib aber auch eine ganze Reihe weiterer, sehr vielfältiger Einflüsse auf alle Arten von Immunzellen ausübt, scheint eine Verwendung spezifischer blockierender α-Siglec-Antikörper auf Grund geringerer Nebenwirkungen im Vergleich zu Dasatinib möglicherweise sogar noch deutlich besser geeignet zu sein, das Migrationsverhaltens Dendritischer Zellen positiv zu beeinflussen. Die Verwendung gegen Siglec-Rezeptoren gerichteter Antikörper als Adjuvantien könnte somit zu einem erfolgreicheren Einsatz der Vakzination mit Dendritischen Zellen in der Tumor-Therapie führen.
Burkitt lymphoma (BL) is a highly aggressive B cell malignancy. Rituximab, a humanized antibody against CD20, in a combination with chemotherapy is a current treatment of choice for B-cell lymphomas including BL. However, certain group of BL patients are resistant to Rituximab therapy. Therefore, alternative treatments targeting survival pathways of BL are needed.
In BL deregulation of MYC expression, together with additional mutations, inhibits differentiation of germinal centre (GC) B cells and drives proliferation of tumor cells. Pro-apoptotic properties of MYC are counteracted through the B-cell receptor (BCR) and phosphoinositide-3-kinase (PI3K) pathway to ensure survival of BL cells. In normal B-cells BCR triggering activates both NF-κB and NFAT-dependent survival signals. Since BL cells do not exhibit constitutive NF-κB activity, we hypothesized that anti-apoptotic NFATc1A isoform might provide a major survival signal for BL cells.
We show that NFATc1 is constitutively expressed in nuclei of BL, in BL cell lines and in Eµ-Myc–induced B cell lymphoma (BCL) cells. Nuclear residence of NFATc1 in these entities depends on intracellular Ca2+ levels but is largely insensitive to cyclosporine A (CsA) treatment and therefore independent from calcineurine (CN) activity. The protein/protein interaction between the regulatory domain of NFATc1 and DNA binding domain of BCL6 likely contributes to sustained nuclear residence of NFATc1 and to the regulation of proposed NFATc1-MYC-BCL6-PRDM1 network in B-cell lymphomas.
Our data revealed lack of strict correlation between the expression of six NFATc1 isoforms in different BL-related entities suggesting that both NFATc1/alphaA and -betaA isoforms provide survival functions and that NFATc1alpha/betaB and -alpha/betaC isoforms either do not possess pro-apoptotic properties in BL cells or these properties are counterbalanced. In addition, we show that in BL entities expression of NFATc1 protein is largely regulated at post-transcriptional level, including MYC dependent increase of protein stability.
Functionally we show that conditional inactivation of Nfatc1 gene in Eµ-Myc mice prevents development of BCL tumors with mature B cell immunophenotype (IgD+). Loss of NFATc1 expression in BCL cells ex vivo results in apoptosis of tumor cells.
Together our results identify NFATc1 as an important survival factor in BL cells and, hence, as a promising target for alternative therapeutic strategies for BL.
Platelets are important players in haemostasis and their activation is essential to limit post-traumatic blood loss upon vessel injury. On the other hand, pathological platelet activation may lead to thrombosis resulting in myocardial infarction and stroke. Platelet activation and subsequent thrombus formation are, therefore, tightly regulated and require a well-defined interplay of platelet surface receptors, intracellular signalling molecules, cytoskeletal rearrangements and the activation of the coagulation cascade.
In vivo thrombosis and haemostasis models mimic thrombus formation at sites of vascular lesions and are frequently used to assess thrombotic and haemostatic functions of platelets. In this dissertation, different in vivo models were used in mice to address the question at what level a reduced platelet count (PC) compromises stable thrombus formation. To study this, mice were rendered thrombocytopenic by low-dose anti-GPIbα antibody treatment and subjected to a tail bleeding time assay as well as to four different in vivo thrombosis models. Haemostasis and occlusive thrombus formation in small vessels were only mildly affected even at severe reductions of the PC. In contrast, occlusive thrombus formation in larger arteries required higher PCs demonstrating that considerable differences in the sensitivity for PC reductions exist between these models.
In a second part of this study, mice were rendered thrombocytopenic by injection of high-dose anti-GPIbα antibody which led to the complete loss of all platelets from the circulation for several days. During recovery from thrombocytopenia, the newly generated platelet population was characterised and revealed a defect in immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activation motif (ITAM)-signalling. This defect translated into impaired arterial thrombus formation.
To further investigate ITAM-signalling in vivo, genetically modified mice were analysed which display a positive or negative regulation of platelet ITAM-signalling in vitro. Whereas mice lacking the adapter Grb2 in platelets showed a delayed thrombus formation in vivo after acetylsalicylic acid treatment, Clp36ΔLIM bone marrow chimeric mice and SLAP/SLAP2-deficient mice displayed pro-thrombotic properties in vivo. Finally, mice lacking the adapter protein EFhd2 were analysed in vitro and in vivo. However, EFhd2-deficient platelets showed only a minor increase in the procoagulant activity compared to control.
Marine sponges (phylum Porifera) are simple, sessile, filter-feeder animals. Microbial symbionts are commonly found in the sponge internal tissue, termed the mesohyl. With respect to the microbial content, sponges are classified as either low-microbial abundance sponges (LMA), or high-microbial abundance sponges (HMA). The HMA/LMA dichotomy was explored in this Thesis using the Red Sea sponges as experimental models. A range of methods encompassing transmission electron microscopy, 16S rRNA gene deep sequencing, and metatranscriptomics was employed towards this goal. Here, particular emphasis was placed on the functional analysis of sponge microbiomes.
The Red Sea sponges Stylissa carteri, Xestospongia testudinaria, Amphimedon ochracea, and Crella cyathophora were classified as HMA or LMA sponges using transmission electron microscopy. The diversity, specificity, and transcriptional activity of microbes associated with the sponges S. carteri (LMA) and X. testudinaria (HMA) and seawater were investigated using 16S rRNA amplicon pyrosequencing. The microbial composition of S. carteri was more similar to that of seawater than to that of X. testudinaria, which is consistent with the observation that the sequence data set of S. carteri contained many more possibly seawater sequences (~24%) than the X. testudinaria data set (~6%). The most abundant operational taxonomic units (OTUs) were shared between all three sources (S. carteri, X. testudinaria, seawater), while rare OTUs were unique to any given source. Despite this high degree of overlap, each sponge species contained its own specific microbiota. S. carteri microbiomes were enriched of Gammaproteobacteria and members of the genus Synechococcus and Nitrospira. Enriched members of X. testudinaria microbiomes included Chloroflexi, Deferribacteres, and Actinobacteria. The transcriptional activity of sponge-associated microorganisms was assessed by comparing 16S rRNA gene with transcript amplicons, which showed a good correlation.
The microbial functional gene repertoire of sponges and seawater from the Red Sea (X. testudinaria, S. carteri) and the Mediterranean (Aplysina aerophoba, Dysidea avara) were investigated with the environmental microarray GeoChip 4. Amplicon sequencing was performed alongside in order to assess microbial diversity. The typical microbial diversity patterns characteristic of HMA (abundance of Gammaproteobacteria, Chloroflexi, Acidobacteria, Deferribacteres, and others) and LMA sponges (abundance of Alpha-, Beta-, Gammaproteobacteria, Cyanobacteria, and Bacteroidetes) were confirmed. The HMA/LMA dichotomy was stronger than any possible geographic pattern based on microbial diversity (amplicon) and functional genes (GeoChip). However upon inspection of individual genes detected by GeoChip, very few specific differences were discernible, including differences related to microbial ammonia oxidation, ammonification (higher gene abundance in sponges over seawater) as well as denitrification (lower gene abundance). Furthermore, a higher abundance of a gene, pcc, representative of archaeal autotrophic carbon fixation was noted in sponges over seawater. Thirdly, stress-related genes, in particular those related to radiation, were found in lower abundances in sponge microbiomes than in seawater. With the exception of few documented specific differences, the functional gene repertoire between the different sources appeared largely similar.
The most actively expressed genes of S. carteri microbiomes were investigated with metatranscriptomics. Prokaryotic mRNA was enriched from sponge total RNA, sequenced using Illumina HiSeq technology, and annotated with the metagenomics Rapid Annotation using Subsystem Technology (MG-RAST) pipeline. High expression of archaeal ammonia oxidation and photosynthetic carbon fixation by members of the genus Synechococcus was detected. Functions related to stress response and membrane transporters were among the most highly expressed by S. carteri symbionts. Unexpectedly, gene functions related to methylotrophy were highly expressed by gammaproteobacterial symbionts. The presence of seawater-derived microbes is indicated by the phylogenetic proximity of organic carbon transporters to orthologs of members from the SAR11 clade. In summary, the most expressed functions of the S. carteri-associated microbial community were revealed and linked to the dominant taxonomic members of the microbiome.
In conclusion, HMA and LMA Red Sea sponges were used as models to gain insights into relevant themes in sponge microbiology, i.e. diversity, specificity, and functional activities. Overall, my Thesis contributes to a better understanding of sponge-associated microbial communities, and the implications of this association to marine ecology.
Background: Food craving refers to an intense desire to consume a specific kind of food of which chocolate is the most often craved one. It is this intensity and specificity that differentiates food craving from feelings of hunger. Although food craving and hunger often co-occur, an energy deficit is not a prerequisite for experiencing food craving, that is, it can also occur without being hungry. Food craving often precedes and predicts over- or binge eating which makes it a reasonable target in the treatment of eating disorders or obesity. One of the arguably most extensively validated measures for the assessment of food craving are the Food Cravings Questionnaires (FCQs), which measure food craving on a state (FCQ-S) and trait (FCQ-T) level. Specifically, the FCQ-S measures the intensity of current food craving whereas the FCQ-T measures the frequency of food craving experiences in general. The aims of the present thesis were to provide a German measure for the assessment of food craving and to investigate cognitive, behavioral, and physiological correlates of food craving. For this purpose, a German version of the FCQs was presented and its reliability and validity was evaluated. Using self-reports, relationships between trait food craving and dieting were examined. Cognitive-behavioral correlates of food craving were investigated using food-related tasks assessing executive functions. Psychophysiological correlates of food craving were investigated using event-related potentials (ERPs) in the electroencephalogram and heart rate variability (HRV). Possible intervention approaches to reduce food craving were derived from results of those studies.
Methods: The FCQs were translated into German and their psychometric properties and correlates were investigated in a questionnaire-based study (articles #1 & #2). The relationship between state and trait food craving with executive functioning was examined with behavioral tasks measuring working memory performance and behavioral inhibition which involved highly palatable food-cues (articles #3 & #4). Electrophysiological correlates of food craving were tested with ERPs during a craving regulation task (article #5). Finally, a pilot study on the effects of HRV-biofeedback for reducing food craving was conducted (article #6).
Results: The FCQs demonstrated high internal consistency while their factorial structure could only partially be replicated. The FCQ-T also had high retest-reliability which, expectedly, was lower for the FCQ-S. Validity of the FCQ-S was shown by positive relationships with current food deprivation and negative affect. Validity of the FCQ-T was shown by positive correlations with related constructs. Importantly, scores on the subscales of the FCQ-T were able to discriminate between non-dieters and successful and unsuccessful dieters (article #1). Furthermore, scores on the FCQ-T mediated the relationship between rigid dietary control strategies and low dieting success (article #2). With regard to executive functioning, high-calorie food-cues impaired working memory performance, yet this was independent of trait food craving and rarely related to state food craving (article #3). Behavioral disinhibition in response to high-calorie food-cues was predicted by trait food craving, particularly when participants were also impulsive (article #4). Downregulation of food craving by cognitive strategies in response to high-calorie food-cues increased early, but not later, segments of the Late Positive Potential (LPP) (article #5). Few sessions of HRV-biofeedback reduced self-reported food cravings and eating and weight concerns in high trait food cravers (article #6).
Conclusions: The German FCQs represent sound measures with good psychometric properties for the assessment of state and trait food craving. Although state food craving increases during cognitive tasks involving highly palatable food-cues, impairment of task performance does not appear to be mediated by current food craving experiences. Instead, trait food craving is associated with low behavioral inhibition in response to high-calorie food-cues, but not with impaired working memory performance. Future studies need to examine if trait food craving and, subsequently, food-cue affected behavioral inhibition can be reduced by using food-related inhibition tasks as a training. Current food craving and ERPs in response to food-cues can easily be modulated by cognitive strategies, yet the LPP probably does not represent a direct index of food craving. Finally, HRV-biofeedback may be a useful add-on element in the treatment of disorders in which food cravings are elevated. To conclude, the current thesis provided measures for the assessment of food craving in German and showed differential relationships between state and trait food craving with self-reported dieting behavior, food-cue affected executive functioning, ERPs and HRV-biofeedback. These results provide promising starting points for interventions to reduce food craving based on (1) food-cue-related behavioral trainings of executive functions, (2) cognitive craving regulation strategies, and (3) physiological parameters such as HRV-biofeedback.
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a highly prevalent childhood-onset neurodevelopmental disorder that involves a substantial risk of persisting into adolescence and adulthood. A number of genome-wide screening studies in ADHD have been conducted in recent years, giving rise to the discovery of several variants at distinct chromosomal loci, thus emphasising the genetically complex and polygenic nature of this disorder. Accordingly, promising novel candidate genes have emerged, such as the gene encoding the glucose transporter isoform 3 (SLC2A3) and the gene encoding the latrophilin isoform 3 (LPHN3).
In this thesis, both genes were investigated in form of two separated projects. The first focused on SLC2A3 polymorphisms associated with ADHD and their potential physiological impact. For this purpose, gene expression analyses in peripheral cell models were performed as well as functional EEG measurements in humans. The second project concerned the murine gene Lphn3 including the goal of developing a mouse line containing a genetically modified Lphn3 with conditional knockout potential. In this respect, a specific DNA vector was applied to target the Lphn3 gene locus in murine embryonic stem (ES) cells as a prerequisite for the generation of appropriate chimeric mice.
The results of the first project showed that SLC2A3 duplication carriers displayed increased SLC2A3 mRNA expression in peripheral blood cells and significantly altered event-related potentials (ERPs) during tests of cognitive response control and working memory, possibly involving changes in prefrontal brain activity and memory processing. Interestingly, ADHD patients with the rs12842 T-allele, located within and tagging the SLC2A3 gene, also exhibited remarkable effects during these EEG measurements. However, such effects reflected a reversed pattern to the aforementioned SLC2A3 duplication carriers with ADHD, thus indicative of an opposed molecular mechanism. Besides, it emerged that the impact of the aforementioned SLC2A3 variants on different EEG parameters was generally much more pronounced in the group of ADHD patients than the healthy control group, implying a considerable interaction effect. Concerning the second project, preliminary results were gathered including the successful targeting of Lphn3 in murine ES cells as well as the production of highly chimeric, phenotypically unremarkable and
mostly fertile mouse chimeras. While germline transmission of the modified Lphn3 allele has not yet occurred, there are still several newborn chimeric mice that will be tested in the near future.
In conclusion, the findings suggest that SLC2A3 variants associated with ADHD are accompanied by transcriptional and functional changes in humans. Future research will help to elucidate the molecular network and neurobiological basis involved in these effects and apparently contributing to the complex clinical picture of ADHD. Moreover, given the increasing number of publications concerning latrophilins in recent years and the multitude of research opportunities provided by a conditional knockout of Lphn3 in mice, the establishment of a respective mouse line, which currently is in progress, constitutes a promising approach for the investigation of this gene and its role in ADHD.
Der Myokardinfarkt (MI) gehört nach wie vor zu den führenden Todesursachen weltweit. Eine Minimierung der Infarktgröße, die durch die Dauer der Ischämie bestimmt wird, ist wesentlich für das Überleben und die Lebensqualität des Myokardinfarkt-Patienten. Die Reperfusion stellt aktuell eine zentrale klinische Intervention dar, um den myokardialen Schaden einzugrenzen. Dennoch führt die Reperfusion per se zu zusätzlichem Schaden am Herzen. Somit ist die Erforschung neuer Strategien zur Minimierung des myokardialen Reperfusionsschadens international von Interesse. Die Pathophysiologie des myokardialen Reperfusionsschadens ist vielschichtig und einige Komponenten sind auch heute in ihrer Wirkweise noch nicht vollständig mechanistisch verstanden. Die vorliegende Arbeit untersucht die Rolle von CD4+ T-Zellen und insbesondere deren Subpopulation der regulatorischen T-Zellen im myokardialen Reperfusionsschaden und stellt neue, auf T-Zellen abzielende, Therapien in Ergänzung zur myokardialen Reperfusion vor.
Zunächst wurde eine Infiltration von T-Zellen in das Myokard nach Ischämie-Reperfusion (I/ R) untersucht. Nach der Ischämie-Reperfusion wurden infiltrierende CD4+ T-Zellen als quantitativ führend und aktiviert identifiziert und erwiesen sich in der Infarktgrößenbestimmung als relevante Mediatoren des Reperfusionsschadens. CD25+Foxp3+ regulatorische T-Zellen (Treg) stellen eine Subpopulation von CD4+ T-Zellen mit immunsuppressiven Eigenschaften dar, die schnell und niederschwellig aktiviert werden können und kommen somit als zum Reperfusionsschaden beitragend in Frage. Mit Hilfe des DEREG (DEpletion of REGulatory T cells) -Mausmodells wurde gezeigt, dass regulatorische T-Zellen zum myokardialen Reperfusionsschaden beitragen; Treg-depletierte DEREG-Mäuse waren vor dem Reperfusionsschaden geschützt und zeigten kleinere Infarktgrößen als die Kontrolltiere. Zudem wurde mittels Transferexperimenten gezeigt, dass für den Treg-vermittelten Reperfusionsschaden die Anwesenheit von CD25- konventionellen T-Zellen (Tconv) erforderlich ist. Regulatorische T-Zellen stellen also einen in der vorliegenden Arbeit identifizierten potentiellen Angriffspunkt zur Reduktion des myokardialen Reperfusionsschadens dar.
Anhand von T-Zell-Rezeptor transgenen OT-II Mäusen und MHC (Major Histocompatibility Complex) Klasse II Knockout (KO) Tieren wurde gezeigt, dass Autoantigenerkennung im myokardialen Reperfusionsschaden eine Rolle spielt. Zur vollen T-Zell-Aktivierung notwendig ist neben dem MHC Klasse II-Signalweg und Kostimulatoren auch das Moleküle CD154 (CD40L). Die Gabe eines inhibitorischen anti-CD154-Antikörpers reduzierte die Infarktgröße in Wildtyp-Tieren sigifikant. Der myokardiale Reperfusionsschaden kann neben Zellen der adaptiven Immunität auch durch Neutrophile Granulozyten, Plättchen oder Inflammation des Endothels verstärkt werden. Knockout Mäuse mit einer Defizienz an CD4+ T-Zellen verfügten über eine verbesserte Mikroperfusion. Mechanistisch war nach 24h Reperfusion die absolute Zellzahl an Neutrophilen Granulozyten im CD4 KO im Vergleich zu Wildtyp-Mäusen unverändert; in Endothelzellen war die Regulation bestimmter Gene (VEGFα, TIMP-1 und Eng) nach I/ R im CD4 KO jedoch verändert.
Zusammengefasst zeigt die vorliegende Arbeit eine zentrale Rolle der Antigen-Erkennung durch den T-Zell-Rezeptor zur Aktivierung von CD4+ T-Zellen im myokardialen Reperfusionsschaden. In Anwesenheit von CD4+Foxp3+ T-Zellen ist der Reperfusionsschaden erhöht. Somit können CD4+Foxp3+ T-Zellen potentiell als Ziel für neuartige Therapien des Myokardinfarkts genutzt werden.
The Staphylococcus aureus two component system (TCS) sae governs expression of numerous virulence factors, including Eap (extracellular adherence protein), which in turn among other functions also mediates invasion of host cells. The sae TCS is encoded by the saePQRS operon, with saeS coding for the sensor histidine kinase (SaeS) and saeR encoding the response regulator (SaeR). The saeRS system is preceded by two additional open reading frames (ORFs), saeP and saeQ, which are predicted to encode a lipoprotein (SaeP) and a membrane protein (SaeQ), respectively. Earlier, we have shown that SDS-containing subinhibitory concentrations of biocides (Perform®) and SDS alone activate sae transcription and increase cellular invasiveness in S. aureus strain Newman. The effect is associated with an amino acid exchange in the N-terminus of SaeS (L18P), specific to strain Newman.
In this work, the role of whether the two additional genes, saePQ coding for the accessory proteins SaeP and SaeQ, respectively, are involved in SDS-mediated saeRS was investigated. It could demonstrated that the lack of the SaeP protein resulted in an increased saeRS transcription without SDS stress in both SaeSL/P variants, while the SDS effect was less pronounced on sae and eap expression compared to the Newman wildtype, suggesting that the SaeP protein represses the sae system. Also, SDS-mediated inductions of sae and eap transcription along with enhanced invasion were found to be dependent on presence of the SaeSP variant in Newman wildtype. On the other hand, the study also shows that the saePQ region of the sae operon is required for fully functional two-component system saeRS under normal growth conditions, but it is not involved in SDS-mediated activation of the saeS signaling and sae-target class I gene, eap.
In the second approach, the study investigates whether SDS-induced sae expression and host cell invasion is common among S. aureus strains not carrying the (L18P) point mutation. To demonstrate this strain Newman, its isogenic saeS mutants, and various S. aureus isolates were analysed for sae, eap expression and cellular invasiveness. Among the strains tested, SDS exposure resulted only in an increase of sae transcription, Eap production and cellular invasiveness in strain Newman wild type and MRSA strain ST239-635/93R, the latter without an increase in Eap. Interestingly, the epidemic community-associated MRSA strain, USA300 LAC showed a biphasic response in sae transcription at different growth stages, which, however, was not accompanied by increased invasiveness. All other clinical isolates investigated displayed a decrease of the parameters tested. While in strain Newman the SDS effect was due to the saeSP allele, this was not the case in strain ST239-635/93R and the biphasic USA300 strains. Also, increased invasiveness of ST239-635/93R was found to be independent of Eap production. Furthermore, to investigate the global effect of SDS on sae target gene expression, strain Newman wild-type and Newman ∆sae were treated with SDS and analyzed for their transcription profiles of sae target genes using microarray assays. We could show that subinhibitory concentrations of SDS upregulate and downregulate gene expression of several signaling pathways involved in biosynthetic, metabolic pathways as well as virulence, host cell adherence, stress reponse and many hypothetical proteins.
In summary, the study sheds light on the role of the upstream region saePQ in SDS-mediated saeRS and eap expression during S. aureus SDS stress. Most importantly, the study also shows that subinhibitory SDS concentrations have pronounced strain-dependent effects on sae transcription and subsequent host cell invasion in S. aureus, with the latter likely to be mediated in some strains by other factors than the known invasin Eap and FnBP proteins. Moreover, there seems to exist more than the saeSP-mediated mechanism for SDS-induced sae transcription in clinical S. aureus isolates. These results help to further understand and clarify virulence and pathogenesis mechanisms and their regulation in S. aureus.
Organisms have evolved endogenous clocks which allow them to organize their behavior, metabolism and physiology according to the periodically changing environmental conditions on earth. Biological rhythms that are synchronized to daily changes in environment are governed by the so-called circadian clock. Since decades, chronobiologists have been investigating circadian clocks in various model organisms including the fruitfly Drosophila melanogaster, which was used in the present thesis.
Anatomically, the circadian clock of the fruitfly consists of about 150 neurons in the lateral and dorsal protocerebrum, which are characterized by their position, morphology and neurochemistry. Some of these neurons had been previously shown to contain either one or several neuropeptides, which are thought to be the main signaling molecules used by the clock. The best investigated of these neuropeptides is the Pigment Dispersing Factor (PDF), which had been shown to constitute a synchronizing signal between clock neurons as well as an output factor of the clock.
In collaboration with various coworkers, I investigated the roles of three other clock expressed neuropeptides for the generation of behavioral rhythms and the partly published, partly unpublished data are presented in this thesis. Thereby, I focused on the Neuropeptide F (NPF), short Neuropeptide F (sNPF) and the Ion Transport Peptide (ITP). We show that part of the neuropeptide composition within the clock network seems to be conserved among different Drosophila species. However, the PDF expression pattern in certain neurons varied in species deriving from lower latitudes compared to higher latitudes. Together with findings on the behavioral level provided by other people, these data suggest that different species may have altered certain properties of their clocks - like the neuropeptide expression in certain neurons - in order to adapt their behavior to different habitats.
We then investigated locomotor rhythms in Drosophila melanogaster flies, in which neuropeptide circuits were genetically manipulated either by cell ablation or RNA interference (RNAi). We found that none of the investigated neuropeptides seems to be of equal importance for circadian locomotor rhythms as PDF. PDF had been previously shown to be necessary for rhythm maintenance in constant darkness (DD) as well as for the generation of morning (M) activity and for the right phasing of the evening (E) activity in entrained conditions. We now demonstrate that NPF and ITP seem to promote E activity in entrained conditions, but are clearly not the only factors doing so. In addition, ITP seems to reduce nighttime activity. Further, ITP and possibly also sNPF constitute weak period shortening components in DD, thereby opposing the effect of PDF. However, neither NPF or ITP, nor sNPF seem to be necessary in the clock neurons for maintaining rhythmicity in DD.
It had been previously suggested that PDF is released rhythmically from the dorsal projection terminals. Now we discovered a rhythm in ITP immunostaining in the dorsal projection terminals of the ITP+ clock neurons in LD, suggesting a rhythm in peptide release also in the case of ITP. Rhythmic release of both ITP and PDF seems to be important to maintain rhythmic behavior in DD, since constantly high levels of PDF and ITP in the dorsal protocerebrum lead to behavioral arrhythmicity.
Applying live-imaging techniques we further demonstrate that sNPF acts in an inhibitory way on few clock neurons, including some that are also activated by PDF, suggesting that it acts as signaling molecule within the clock network and has opposing effects to PDF. NPF did only evoke very little inhibitory responses in very few clock neurons, suggesting that it might rather be used as a clock output factor. We were not able to apply the same live-imaging approach for the investigation of the clock neuron responsiveness to ITP, but overexpression of ITP with various driver lines showed that the peptide most likely acts mainly in clock output pathways rather than inter-clock neuron communication.
Taking together, I conclude that all investigated peptides contribute to the control of locomotor rhythms in the fruitfly Drosophila melanogaster. However, this control is in most aspects dominated by the actions of PDF and rather only fine-tuned or complemented by the other peptides. I assume that there is a high complexity in spatial and temporal action of the different neuropeptides in order to ensure correct signal processing within the clock network as well as clock output.
Motivation and Aim:
Cardiovascular disease has been the leading cause of mortality and morbidity throughout the world. In developed countries, cardiovascular diseases are already responsible for a majority of deaths and will become the pre-eminent health problem worldwide (1,2). Rupture of atherosclerotic plaque accounts for approximately 70% of fatal acute myocardial infarction and sudden heart deaths. Conventional criterias for the diagnosis of “vulnerable plaques” are calcified nodules, yellow appearance of plaque, a thin cap, a large lipid core, severe luminal stenosis, intraplaque hemorrhage, inflammation, thrombogenicity, and plaque injury (3-5).
Noninvasive diagnosis of vulnerable plaque still remains a great challenge and a huge research prospect, which triggered us to investigate the feasibility of PET imaging on the evaluation of atherosclerosis. Nuclear imaging of atherosclerosis, especially co-registered imaging modalities, could provide a promising diagnostic tool including both anatomy and activities to identify vulnerable atherosclerotic plaque or early detection of inflammatory endothelium at risk. Furthermore, the development of specific imaging tracers for clinical applications is also a challenging task. The aim of this work was to assess the potential of novel PET imaging probes associated with intra-plaque inflammation on animal models and in human respectively.
Methods
In this work, several molecular imaging modalities were employed for evaluation of atherosclerosis. They included Positron emission tomography / Computed tomography (PET/CT) for human studies, and micro-PET, autoradiography and high-resolution magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) for animal studies. Radiotracers for PET imaging included the glucose analogue 18F-Fluorodeoxyglucose (18F-FDG), the somatostatin receptor avide tracer 68Ga-DOTATATE, and the Gallium-68 labeled fucoidan (68Ga-Fucoidan), which was developed as a PET tracer to detect endothelial P-selectin, which overexpressed at early stage of atherosclerosis and endothelial overlying activated plaque. Tracer’s capabilities were firstly assessed on cellular level in vitro. Subsequently, Animal studies were conducted in two animal models: 1, Apolipoprotein E (ApoE-/-) mice having severe atherosclerotic plaque; 2, Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) -induced mice for receiving acute vascular inflammation. Corresponding analyses on protein and histological level were conducted as well to confirm our results.
In human study, 16 patients with neuroendocrine tumors (NETs) were investigated on imaging vascular inflammation. These patients had undergone both 68Ga-DOTATATE PET/CT and 18F-FDG PET/CT for staging or restaging within 6 weeks. 16 patients were randomized into two groups: high-risk group and low-risk group. Uptake ratio of both tracers from two groups were compared and correlated with common cardiovascular risk factors.
Results and Conclusion
In murine study, the expression of somatostatin receptor 2, which is the main bio-target of 68Ga-DOTATATE on macrophage/monocyte was confirmed by flow cytometry and immunohistochemistry. Prospectively, high specific accumulation of 68Ga-DOTATATE to the macrophage within the plaques was observed in aorta lesions by autoradiography and by micro-PET. In study with 68Ga-fucoidan, a strong expression of P-selectin on active endothelium overlying on inflamed plaque but weaker on inactive plaques was confirmed. Specific focal uptake of 68Ga-fucoidan were detected at aorta segments by micro-PET, and correlated with high-resolution magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), which was used to characterize the morphology of plaques. 68Ga-fucoidan also showed a greater affinity to active inflamed plaque in comparison of inactive fibrous plaque, which was assessed by autoradiography. Specificity of 68Ga-DOTATATE and 68Ga-fucoidan were confirmed by ex-vivo blocking autoradiography and in vivo blocking PET imaging respectively.
In human study, focal uptake of both 18F-FDG and 68Ga-DOTATATE was detected. Analyzing concordance of two tracers’ uptake ratio, Out of the 37 sites with highest focal 68Ga-DOTATATE uptake, 16 (43.2%) also had focal 18F-FDG uptake. Of 39 sites with highest 18F-FDG uptake, only 11 (28.2%) had a colocalized 68Ga-DOTATATE accumulation. Correlated tracers’ uptake and calcium burden and risk factors, Mean target-to-background ratio (TBR) of 68Ga-DOTATATE correlated significantly with the presence of calcified plaques (r=0.52), hypertension (r=0.60), age (r=0.56) and uptake of 18F-FDG (r=0.64). TBRmean of 18F-FDG correlated significantly only with hypertension (r=0.58; p<0.05). Additionally, TBRmean of 68Ga-DOTATATE is significant higher in the high risk group while TBRmean of 18F-FDG is not.
In conclusion, we evaluated vascular inflammation of atherosclerosis non-invasively using the two PET tracers: 68Ga-DOTATATE and 68Ga-Fucoidan. 68Ga-DOTATATE show specific affinity to infiltrated macrophage within the plaques. 68Ga-Fucoidan may hold the potential to discriminate between active and inactive atherosclerotic plaques in terms of variant accumulation on different-types of plaques. PET as leading molecular imaging technique provides superiority in assessing cellular activity, which is pivotal for understanding internal activity of atherosclerotic plaques. Since diagnosis of atherosclerosis is a complex and multi-dimensional task. More integrated imaging technology such as PET/MRI, faster imaging algorithm, more efficient radiotracer are required for further development of atherosclerosis imaging,
Aurora B is a mitotic kinase that is essential for cell division. Because it is mutated or overexpressed in a range of cancer types, it has been suggested as a novel therapeutic target. Currently chemical inhibitors against Aurora B are in various phases of clinical trials for treatment of solid tumors and leukemia. Information regarding the molecular requirements for the reported phenotypes of Aurora B inhibition such as cell cycle arrest, activation of the tumor suppressor p53 and its target p21 are not well understood.
In this study, I investigated the requirements for p21 induction after Aurora B inhibition. I found that p38 is phosphorylated and activated when Aurora B is inhibited. Experiments with chemical inhibitors against p38 indicate that p38 is required for p21 induction and cell cycle arrest in response to Aurora B inhibition. p53 induction after impairment of Aurora B function and the recruitment of p53 to its binding site in the p21 gene promoter occur independently of p38 signaling. Instead, I found that p38 is required for the enrichment of the elongating RNA Polymerase II in the coding region of the p21 gene. Furthermore, p38 is required for formation of the full-length p21 mRNA transcript. These data indicate that p38 promotes the transcriptional elongation of p21 gene in response to Aurora B inhibition. In further experiments I could show that the p21 causes cell cycle arrest due to a decrease in E2F-dependent transcription by promoting the dephosphorylation of the retinoblastoma protein.
Using synchronized cells I could show that the induction of p21 in response to Aurora B inhibition requires transition through an aberrant mitosis and does not occur in cells that are arrested in interphase. Interestingly, p38, p53 and p21 are already induced by partial inhibition of Aurora B, which results in aneuploidy but not in cytokinesis failure and in tetraploidy. This supports the notion that activation of p38-p53-p21 signaling correlates with aneuploidy but not with tetraploidy or binucleation. Partial inhibition of Aurora B also leads to increased generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which are required for the activation of p38, p21 and cell cycle arrest. Based on these observations I propose the following model: Inhibition of Aurora B leads to chromosome missegregation resulting in aneuploidy. This results in increased generation of ROS (reactive oxygen species) possibly through proteotoxic stress caused by an imbalance of protein synthesis in aneuploid cells. ROS triggers the activation of p38, which then stimulates the transcriptional elongation of p21 resulting in cell cycle arrest.
Aneuploidy, proteotoxic stress and oxidative stress are hallmarks of cancer cells. Based on my results reported in this study, I suggest that the combination of Aurora B inhibitors with drugs that specifically target aneuploid cells might be a novel strategy for cancer therapy, as this is a lethal combination for proliferation of cancer cells.
Molecular and developmental characterization of the Echinococcus multilocularis stem cell system
(2014)
The metacestode larva of Echinococcus multilocularis is the causative agent of alveolar echinococcosis (AE), one of the most dangerous zoonotic diseases in the Northern Hemisphere. Unlike “typical” metacestode larvae from other tapeworms, it grows as a mass of interconnected vesicles which infiltrates the liver of the intermediate host, continuously forming new vesicles in the periphery. From these vesicles, protoscoleces (the infective form for the definitive host) are generated by asexual budding. It is thought that in E. multilocularis, as in other flatworms, undifferentiated stem cells (so-called germinative cells in cestodes and neoblasts in free-living flatworms) are the sole source of new cells for growth and development. Therefore, this cell population should be of central importance for the progression of AE.
In this work, I characterized the germinative cells of E. multilocularis, and demonstrate that they are indeed the only proliferating cells in metacestode vesicles. The germinative cells are a population of undifferentiated cells with similar morphology, and express high levels of transcripts of a novel non-autonomous retrotransposon family (ta-TRIMs). Experiments of recovery after hydroxyurea treatment suggest that individual germinative cells have extensive self-renewal capabilities. However, germinative cells also display heterogeneity at the molecular level, since only some of them express conserved homologs of fgfr, nanos and argonaute genes, suggesting the existence of several distinct sub-populations. Unlike free-living flatworms, cestode germinative cells lack chromatoid bodies. Furthermore, piwi and vasa orthologs are absent from the genomes of cestodes, and there is widespread expression of some conserved neoblast markers in E. multilocularis metacestode vesicles. All of these results suggest important differences between the stem cell systems of free-living flatworms and cestodes.
Furthermore, I describe molecular markers for differentiated cell types, including the nervous system, which allow for the tracing of germinative cell differentiation. Using these molecular markers, a previously undescribed nerve net was discovered in metacestode vesicles. Because the metacestode vesicles are non-motile, and the nerve net of the vesicle is independent of the nervous system of the protoscolex, we propose that it could serve as a neuroendocrine system. By means of bioinformatic analyses, 22 neuropeptide genes were discovered in the E. multilocularis genome. Many of these genes are expressed in metacestode vesicles, as well as in primary cell preparations undergoing complete metacestode regeneration. This suggests a possible role for these genes in metacestode development. In line with this hypothesis, one putative neuropeptide (RGFI-amide) was able to stimulate the proliferation of primary cells at a concentration of 10-7 M, and the corresponding gene was upregulated during metacestode regeneration.
I. Nowadays, tropical landscapes experience large-scale land use intensification and land conversion driven by increasing demand for resourses. Due to the continuously high demand for tropical timber and politically intended step increase in palm oil production, multiple rounds of logging and subsequent conversion to oil palm plantations became a regionally wide-spread land conversion pattern in Southeast Asia. Although many tree species and some animals are highly threatened by logging, a great number of species groups, such as birds or mammals, have been shown to persist in logged forests. Accordingly, many ecosystem services, such as dung removal, seed dispersal or the activity of scavengers, are functionally maintained in logged forests. In contrast, oil palm plantations have been shown to not only dramatically alter the species composition and reduce biodiversity, but also curtail many crucial biotic and abiotic ecosystem functions. The focus of this dissertation was to investigate the response of anuran species richness and community composition to logging and conversion to oil palm plantation in northern Borneo (chapter II). I analysed the diet of various frog species and their change with habitat degradation. Furthermore, I assessed the shift in the trophic position of the anuran community as well as the response of anuran phylogenetic, dietary, and functional diversity to logging and conversion to oil palm plantations (chapter III). Finally, the resilience of the predator-prey interaction between an ant-specialist toad and its ant prey was analysed using shifts in species-level interactions (chapter IV).
II. This part of the study compares the species richness, relative abundance and community composition of stream anuran assemblages among primary forests, repeatedly logged forests and oil palm plantations. I used a highly standardised sampling setup applying transect-based sampling. Surprisingly, most of the anuran species native to primary forests were able to survive in logged forest streams. In contrast, on average only one third of the forest species richness was found in oil palm plantation streams. However, a high percentage of canopy cover above the plantation streams was able to mitigate this loss substantially. This study demonstrates the high conservation value of logged forests for Southeast Asian anurans. In contrast, the conversion to oil palm plantations leads to a dramatic decline of forest species. However, they have a mainly unused potential to contribute to the protection of parts of the regional anuran biodiversity if conservation-oriented management options are implemented.
III. In this part, I analysed the shifts in trophic position and multiple diversity layers of Southeast Asian stream-dependent anuran species across a gradient of disturbance from primary forest through intensively logged forest to oil palm plantation. For this purpose, I identified the diet composition of 59 anuran species by means of stomach flushing. Furthermore, I use diet composition of frog species as well as species traits to calculate dietary and functional diversity, respectively. I found that the trophic position of the entire anuran community is elevated in heavily disturbed habitats. Furthermore, species diversity, phylogenetic species variation, dietary diversity, and functional diversity were reduced. However, beyond the effect of the decreased species richness, only phylogenetic species variability and functional diversity were significantly impacted by land conversion, indicating a non-random loss of phylogenetic groups and functionally unique species. Overall, the observed changes to species interactions and functional composition suggest a greatly modified role of anurans in altered habitats and major foodweb reorganisation. Such far-reaching changes to the way species groups interact are likely to threaten local biodiversity and ecosystem functioning in natural and particularly modified habitats. However, I could also show, that small-scale habitat quality, provided by riparian reserves, is able to mitigate the negative consequences of land conversion considerably.
IV. Here I assess how logging of rain forest and conversion to oil palm plantations affect the populations of the ant-specialist giant river toad (Phrynoidis juxtaspera), and availability and composition of its ant prey. I measured canopy cover as an estimate for the degree of disturbance. I found that toad abundance decreased with increasing disturbance. At the same time, ant community composition was altered, and local ground-foraging ant species richness increased with disturbance. However, for a given amount of canopy cover, primary forest supported more ant species than altered habitats. Despite these changes, composition of ants consumed by toads was only weakly affected by habitat change, with the exception of the invasive yellow crazy ant (Anoplolepis gracilipes), which was positively selected in oil palm plantations. This suggests that predator-prey interactions can be mostly maintained with habitat disturbance despite shifts in community composition, and even that some predators are capable of exploiting new prey sources in novel ecosystems.
V. I could show that anuran diversity and their trophic interaction is negatively impacted by logging and in particular by conversion to oil palm plantations. From species richness and community composition, my study expanded to phylogenetic, dietary and functional diversity. Furthermore, I investigated the interaction of a particular toad species with its preferred prey (ants), on species level. This increasing degree of detail in my study provided comprehensive results, beyond the detail of many related studies. Overall, conservation of the remaining forest in Southeast Asia is urgently required to protect anuran biodiversity and their trophic interactions.
Atherosclerosis is considered a chronic inflammatory disease of the arterial vessel wall which is not only modulated by innate and adaptive immune responses but also by factors of the blood coagulation system.
In general hypercoagulability seems to increase the development and progression of experimental atherosclerosis in mice on an atherogenic background. In addition, the great majority of coagulation proteins including coagulation factor XII (FXII) have been detected in early and advanced human atherosclerotic lesions supporting the cross-link between the coagulation system and atherosclerosis. Moreover, FXII has been detected in close proximity to macrophages, foam cells and smooth muscle cells in these lesions and has been demonstrated to be functionally active in human plaques. Although these data indicate that factor XII may play a role in atherogenesis a direct contribution of FXII to atherogenesis has not been addressed experimentally to date. Furthermore, clinical studies examining the function of FXII in vascular disease have yielded conflicting results.
Hence, in order to investigate the function of coagulation factor XII in atherosclerosis apolipoprotein E and FXII-deficient (F12\(^{-/-}\) apoE\(^{-/-}\)) mice were employed. Compared to F12\(^{+/+}\)apoE\(^{-/-}\) controls, atherosclerotic lesion formation was reduced in F12\(^{-/-}\)apoE\(^{-/-}\) mice, associated with diminished systemic T-cell activation and Th1-cell polarization after 12 weeks of high fat diet. Moreover, a significant decrease in plasma levels of complement factor C5a was evidenced in F12\(^{-/-}\)apoE\(^{-/-}\) mice. Interestingly, C5a increased the production of interleukin-12 (IL-12) in dendritic cells (DCs) and enhanced their capacity to trigger antigen-specific interferon-gamma (IFNγ) production in OTII CD4\(^+\) T cells in vitro. Importantly, a reduction in frequencies of IL-12 expressing splenic DCs from atherosclerotic F12\(^{-/-}\)apoE\(^{-/-}\) versus F12\(^{+/+}\)apoE\(^{-/-}\) mice was observed in vivo, accompanied by a diminished splenic Il12 transcript expression and significantly reduced IL-12 serum levels.
Consequently, these data reveal FXII to play an important role in atherosclerotic lesion formation and to promote DC-induced and systemic IL 12 expression as well as pro-inflammatory T-cell responses likely at least in part via the activation of the complement system.
The haloacid dehalogenase (HAD) family of phosphatases is an ancient, ubiquitous group of enzymes, and their emerging role in human health and disease make them attractive targets for detailed analyses.
This thesis comprises the biochemical and structural characterization of chronophin, an HAD-type
phosphatase, which has been shown to act on Ser3-phosphorylated cofiln-1, a key regulator of actin dynamics, and on the Ser/Thr-phosphorylated steroid receptor co-activator 3 (SRC-3). Besides being a specific phosphoprotein phosphatase, chronophin also acts on the small molecule pyridoxal 5'-phosphate (PLP, vitamin B6), implying that chronophin serves as a regulator of a variety important physiological pathways. The analysis of chronophin was performed on different levels, ranging from intrinsic regulatory mechanisms, such as the allosteric regulation via dimerization or the characterization of specificity determinants, to modes of extrinsic modulation, including the association with putative interacting proteins or the generation of chronophin-specific inhibitors.
The association of the previously identified putative chronophin interactors calcium- and integrinbinding protein 1 (CIB1) and calmodulin was investigated using recombinantly expressed and purified proteins. These studies revealed that the interaction of chronophin with CIB1 or calmodulin is mutually exclusive and regulated by calcium. Neither CIB1 nor calmodulin had an effect on the in vitro chronophin phosphatase activity towards PLP or phospho-cofilin-1, but might regulate other functions of this important phosphatase.
The role of chronophin dimerization was studied by generating a constitutively monomeric variant,
which showed reduced PLP hydrolyzing activity. X-ray crystallographic studies revealed that dimerization is essential for the positioning of the substrate specificity loop in chronophin, unraveling a previously unknown mechanism of allosteric regulation through a homophilic interaction. This mechanism potentially applies to other enzymes of the C2a subfamily of HAD-type phosphatases, as all structurally characterized members show a conserved mode of dimerization.
The general determinants of substrate specificity in the C2a subfamily of HAD phosphatases were
investigated by performing domain swapping experiments with chronophin and its paralog AUM and
subsequent biochemical analyses of the hybrid proteins. The X-ray crystallographic structure
determination of the chronophin catalytic domain equipped with the AUM capping domain revealed the first partial structure of AUM. This structural information was then used in subsequent studies that analyzed the divergent substrate specificities of AUM and chronophin in an evolutionary context.
Finally, a set of four chronophin inhibitors were generated based on the structure of PLP and
characterized biochemically, showing moderate inhibitory effects with IC50-values in the micromolar range. These compounds nevertheless constitute valuable tools for future in vitro experiments, such as studies concerning the structure-function relationship of chronophin as a PLP phosphatase. In addition, the crystal structure of one inhibitor bound to chronophin could be solved. These results provide the basis for the further development of competitive chronophin inhibitors with increased specificity and potency.
Besides HIV and tuberculosis, malaria still is one of the most devastating infectious diseases especially in developing countries, with Plasmodium falciparum being responsible for the frequently lethal form of malaria tropica. It is a major cause of mortality as well as morbidity, whereby pregnant women and children under the age of five years are most severely affected. Rapidly emerging drug resistances and the lack of an effective and safe vaccine hamper the combat against malaria by chemical and pharmacological regimens, and moreover the poor socio-economic and healthcare conditions in malaria-endemic countries are compromising the extermination of this deadly tropical disease to a large extent. Malaria research is still questing for druggable targets in the parasitic protozoan which pledge to be refractory against evolving resistance-mediating mutations and yet constitute affordable and compliant antimalarial chemotherapeutics.
The parasite kinome consists of members that represent most eukaryotic protein kinase groups, but also contains several groups that can not be assigned to conservative ePK groups. Moreover, given the remarkable divergence of plasmodial kinases in respect to the human host kinome and the fact that several plasmodial kinases have been identified that are essential for the intraerythrocytic developmental cycle, these parasite enzymes represent auspicious targets for antimalarial regimens. Despite elaborate investigations on several other ePK groups, merely scant research has been conducted regarding the four identified members of the cyclin-dependent kinase-like kinase (CLK) family, PfCLK-1-4. In other eukaryotes, CLKs are involved in mRNA processing and splicing by means of phosphorylation of serine/arginine-rich (SR) proteins, which are crucial components of the splicing machinery in the alternative splicing pathway. All four PfCLKs are abundantly expressed in asexual parasites and gametocytes, and stage-specific expression profiles of PfCLK-1 and PfCLK-2 exhibited nucleus-associated localization and an association with phosphorylation activity. In the course of this study, PfCLK-3 and PfCLK-4 were functionally characterized by indirect immunofluorescence, Western blot analysis and kinase activity assays. These data confirm that the two kinases are primarily expressed in the nucleus of trophozoites and both kinases possess in vitro phosphorylation activity on physiological substrates. Likewise PfCLK-1 and PfCLK-2, reverse genetic studies exhibited the indispensability of both PfCLKs on the asexual life cycle of P. falciparum, rendering them as potential candidates for antiplasmodial strategies. Moreover, this study was conducted to identify putative SR proteins as substrates of all four PfCLKs. Previous alignments revealed a significant homology of the parasite CLKs to yeast SR protein kinase Sky1p. Kinase activity assays showed in vitro phosphorylation of the yeast Sky1p substrate and SR protein Npl3p by precipitated PfCLKs. In addition, four homologous plasmodial SR proteins were identified that are phosphorylated by PfCLKs in vitro: PfASF-1, PFSRSF12, PfSFRS4 and PfSR-1. All four parasite SR splicing factors are predominantly expressed in the nuclei of trophozoites. For PfCLK-1, a co-localization with the SR proteins was verified.
Finally, a library of human and microbial CLK inhibitors and the antiseptic chlorhexidine (CHX) was screened to determine their inhibitory effect on different parasite life cycle stages and on the PfCLKs specifically. Five inhibitors out of 63 compounds from the investigated library were selected that show a moderate inhibition on asexual life cycle stages with IC50 values ranging between approximately 4 and 8 µM. Noteworthy, these inhibitors belong to the substance classes of aminopyrimidines or oxo-β-carbolines. Actually, the antibiotic compound CHX demonstrated an IC50 in the low nanomolar range. Stage-of-inhibition assays revealed that CHX severely affects the formation of schizonts. All of the selected CLKs inhibitors also affect gametocytogenesis as well as gametogenesis, as scrutinized in gametocyte toxicity assays and exflagellation assays, respectively. Kinase activity assays confirm a specific inhibition of CLK-mediated phosphorylation of all four kinases, when the CLK inhibitors are applied on immunoprecipitated PfCLKs. These findings on PfCLK-inhibiting compounds are initial attempts to determine putative antimalarial compounds targeting the PfCLKs. Moreover, these results provide an effective means to generate chemical kinase KOs in order to phenotypically study the role of the PfCLKs especially in splicing events and mRNA metabolism. This approach of functionally characterizing the CLKs in P. falciparum is of particular interest since the malarial spliceosome is still poorly understood and will gain further insight into the parasite splicing machinery.
Evolution of Vγ9Vδ2 T-cells
(2014)
Human Vγ9Vδ2 T cells are the major subset of blood γδ T cells and account for 1-5% of blood T cells. Pyrophosphorylated metabolites of isoprenoid biosynthesis are recognized by human Vγ9Vδ2 T cells and are called as phosphoantigens (PAg). Isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP) and (E)-4-Hydroxy-3-methyl-but-2-enyl pyrophosphate (HMBPP) are among the few well studied PAg. IPP is found in all organisms while HMBPP is a precursor of IPP found only in eubacteria, plants and apicomplexaen parasite. Interestingly, the PAg reactive Vγ9Vδ2 T cells are so far identified only in human and higher primates but not in rodents. Hence, Vγ9Vδ2 T cells are believed to be restricted to primates. With regard to PAg recognition, a Vγ9JP recombined TCRγ chain and certain CDR3 motifs of the TCR chain are mandatory. The BTN3A1 molecule is essential for a response to PAg. BTN3 is a trans-membrane protein belonging to butyrophilin family of proteins. Though BTN3A1 was found to be essential for PAg presentation, the exact molecular basis of PAg presentation still remains unclear.
This thesis presents new data on the evolution of Vγ9Vδ2 TCR and its ligands (BTN3) as well as the genetic basis of PAg presentation to Vγ9Vδ2 TCR.
The comprehensive analysis of genomic database sequences at NCBI and other public domain databases revealed for the first time that Vγ9, Vδ2 and BTN3 genes emerged and co-evolved along with the placental mammals. Vγ9, Vδ2 and BTN3 genes are scattered across mammalian species and not restricted to primates. But interestingly, all three genes are highly conserved between phylogenetically distinct species. Moreover, the distribution pattern of Vγ9, Vδ2 TCR genes and BTN3 genes suggests a functional association between these genes representing the TCR - ligand relationship. Alpaca (Vicugna pacos), a member of the camelid family, is one among the 6 candidate non-primate species which were found to possess functional Vγ9, Vδ2 and BTN3 genes.
From peripheral lymphocytes of alpaca, Vγ9 chain transcripts with a characteristic JP rearrangement and transcripts of Vδ2 chains with a CDR3 typical for PAg-reactive TCR were identified. The transduction of αβ TCR negative mouse thymoma BW cells with alpaca Vγ9 and Vδ2 TCR chains resulted in surface expression of the TCR complex as it was deduced from detection of cell surface expression of mouse CD3. Cross-linking of alpaca Vγ9Vδ2 TCR transductants with anti-CD3ε led to IL-2 production which confirmed that alpaca Vγ9 and Vδ2 TCR chains pair to form a functional TCR. Besides the conservation of human like Vγ9 and Vδ2 TCR chains, alpaca has conserved an orthologue for human BTN33A1 as well. Interestingly, the predicted PAg binding sites of human BTN3A1 was 100% conserved in deduced amino acid sequence of alpaca BTN3A1. All together alpaca is a promising candidate for further studies as it might have preserved Vγ9Vδ2 T cells to function in surveillance of stress and infections.
This thesis also provides the sequence of Vγ9Vδ2 TCR of African green monkey (Chlorocebus aethiops), which was previously unknown. Moreover, our data indicates the lack of any species specific barrier which could hinder the PAg presentation by African monkey derived COS cells to human Vγ9Vδ2 TCR and vice versa of human cells to African green monkey Vγ9Vδ2 TCR which was in contradiction to previously reported findings.
Apart from the above, the thesis also presents new data on the genetic basis of PAg presentation to Vγ9Vδ2 T cells, which revealed that human chromosome 6 is sufficient for the presentation of exogenous and endogenous PAg. By employing human/mouse somatic hybrids, we identified the role of human chromosome 6 in PAg presentation and in addition, we observed the lack of capacity of human chromosome 6 positive hybrids to activate Vγ9Vδ2 TCR transductants in the presence of the alkylamine sec-butylamine (SBA). Investigation of Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells containing the human chromosome 6 also yielded similar results. This suggests that aminobisphosphonates (zoledronate) and alkylamines employ different mechanisms for activation of Vγ9Vδ2 T cells although both have been described to act by inhibition of farnesyl pyrophosphate synthase activity which is known to increase intracellular levels of the IPP.
In conclusion, this thesis suggests that Vγ9, Vδ2 and BTN3 genes controlling Vγ9Vδ2 TCR- ligand relationship emerged and co-evolved along with placental mammals; and also identified candidate non-primate species which could possess Vγ9Vδ2 T cells. Furthermore, it suggests alpaca as a promising non-primate species to investigate the physiological function of Vγ9Vδ2 T cells. With respect to PAg antigen presentation it was shown that chromosome 6 is essential and sufficient for exogenous and endogenous PAg presentation. Moreover, the alkylamine SBA and aminobisphosphonate zoledronate may engage different cellular mechanism to exert inhibition over IPP consumption. The thesis raises interesting questions which need to be addressed in future: 1) What are the environmental and evolutionary factors involved in preservation of Vγ9Vδ2 T cells only by few species? 2) What could be the functional nature and antigen recognition properties of such a conserved T cell subset? 3) What is the genetic and molecular basis of the differential capacity of human chromosome 6 bearing rodent-human hybridoma cells in activating Vγ9Vδ2 T cells in presence of SBA and aminobisphosphonates?
Stress has been shown to influence neuroplasticity and is suspected to increase the risk for psychiatric disorders such as major depression and anxiety disorders. Additionally, the short variant of the human serotonin transporter (5-HTT) length polymorphism (5-HTTLPR) is suggested to increase the risk for the development of such disorders. While stress as well as serotonergic signaling are not only discussed to be involved in the development of psychiatric disorders, they are also known to influence hippocampal adult neurogenesis (aN). Therefore, it has long been suspected that aN is involved in the etiology of these illnesses. The exact role of aN in this context however, still remains to be clarified.
In the present doctoral thesis, I am introducing two different studies, which had been carried out to assess possible changes in neuroplasticity and behavior as a result of 5-HTT genotype by stress interactions. In both studies, animals of the 5-HTT knock-out (5-HTT-/-) mouse line were used, which have been found to exhibit increased anxiety- and depression-related behavior, an altered stress response and decreased aggressive behavior. The aim of the first study, the so-called Spatial Learning study, had been to evaluate whether mice with altered levels of brain 5-HT as a consequence of lifelong 5-HTT deficiency perform differently in two spatial memory tests, the Morris Water Maze (WM) and the Barnes Maze (BM) test prospectively differing in aversiveness. Mice of the Spatial Learning study were of male sex and six months of age, and where subjected to a total of 10 (BM) or 15 (WM) trials. My particular interest was to elucidate if there are genotype by treatment interactions regarding blood plasma corticosterone levels and, if neurobiological equivalents in the brain to the found behavioral differences exist. For this purpose I carried out a quantitative immunohistochemistry study, investigating stem cell proliferation (via the marker Ki67) and aN (via the immature neuron marker NeuroD), as well as expression of the two immediate early genes (IEGs) Arc and cFos as a markers for neuronal activity in the hippocampus. The aim of the second study, the chronic mild stress (CMS) study had been to evaluate whether the innate divergent depression-like and anxiety-like behavior of mice with altered levels of brain 5-HT as a consequence of 5-HTT-deficiency is altered any further after being subjected to a CMS paradigm. Two cohorts of one-year-old female mice had been subjected to a variety of unpredictable stressors. In order to exclude possible interfering influences of behavioral testing on corticosterone levels and the outcome of the quantitative immunohistochemistry study the first cohort had been behaviorally tested after CMS while the second one had remained behaviorally untested. The objective of my part of the study was to find out about possible genotype by treatment interactions regarding blood plasma corticosterone as well as regarding aN in the hippocampus of the mice that had been subjected to CMS. For this purpose I performed a quantitative immunohistochemistry study in order to investigate the phenomenon of adult neurogenesis (via Ki67, NeuroD and the immature neuron marker DCX).
Both studies led to interesting results. In the CMS study, we could not replicate the increased innate anxiety- and depression-like behavior in 5-HTT-/- mice known from the literature. However, with regard to the also well documented reduced locomotor activity, as well as the increased body weight of 5-HTT-/- mice compared to their 5-HTT+/- and 5-HTT+/+ littermates, we could demonstrate that CMS leads to increased explorative behavior in the Open Field Test and the Light/Dark Box primarily in 5-HTT+/- und 5-HTT+/+ mice. The Spatial learning study revealed that increased stress sensitivity of 5-HTT-/- mice leads to a poorer performance in the WM test in relation to their 5-HTT+/+ and 5-HTT+/- littermates. As the performance of 5-HTT-/- mice in the less aversive BM was undistinguishable from both other genotypes, we concluded that the spatial learning ability of 5-HTT-/- mice is comparable to that of both other genotypes. As far as stress reactivity is concerned, the experience of a single trial of either the WM or the BM resulted in increased plasma corticosterone levels, irrespective of the 5-HTT genotype. After several trials 5-HTT-/- mice exhibited higher corticosterone concentrations compared with both other genotypes in both tests. Blood plasma corticosterone levels were highest in 5-HTT-/- mice tested in the WM indicating greater aversiveness of the WM and a greater stress sensitivity of 5-HTT deficient mice. In the CMS study, the corticosterone assessment of mice of cohort 1, which had undergone behavioral testing before sacrifice, resulted in significantly elevated corticosterone levels in 5-HTT-/- mice in relation to their 5-HTT+/+ controls. Contrary, corticosterone levels in mice of cohort 1, which had remained behaviorally untested, were shown to be elevated / increased after CMS experience regardless of the 5-HTT genotype. Regarding neuroplasticity, the Spatial Learning study revealed higher baseline levels of cFos- and Arc-ir cells as well as more proliferation (Ki67-ir cells) and higher numbers of neuronal progenitor cells (NeuroD-ir cells) in 5-HTT-/- compared to 5-HTT+/+ mice. Moreover, in 5-HTT-/- mice we could demonstrate that learning performance in the WM correlates with the extent of aN. The CMS study, in which aN (DCX-ir cells), has also been found to be increased in 5-HTT-/- mice compared to their 5-HTT+/+ littermates, yet only in control animals, did show hampered proliferation (Ki67-ir cells) in the hippocampus of all 5-HTT genotypes following CMS experience. Interestingly, the number of immature neurons (DCX-ir cells) was diminished exclusively in 5-HTT-/- mice in response to CMS.
From the Spatial Learning study we concluded, that increased IEG expression and aN levels observed in the hippocampus of 5-HTT deficient mice can be the neurobiological correlate of emotion circuit dysfunction and heightened anxiety of these mice and that 5-HTT-/- animals per se display a “stressed” phenotype as a consequence of long-life 5-HTT deficiency. Due to the different age and sex of the mice in the two studies, they cannot be compared easily. However, although the results of the CMS study seem to contradict the results of the Spatial Learning study at the first glance, they do support the conclusion of the Spatial Learning study by demonstrating that although CMS does have an impact on 5-HTT-/- mice on the neurobiological level (e.g. manifesting in a decrease of DXC-ir cells following CMS) CMS experience cannot add onto their heightened inborn stress-level and is almost ineffective regarding further changes of the behavior of 5-HTT-deficient mice. I thus propose, that 5-HTT-/- mice as a result of lifelong altered 5-HT signaling display a stressed phenotype which resembles a state of lethargy and is paralleled by baseline heightened IEG expression and aN. It cannot be altered or increased by CMS, but it becomes most visible in stressful situations such as repeated spatial learning tests like the WM in which locomotor activity is required.
The role of host dendritic cells during the effector phase of intestinal graft-versus-host disease
(2014)
Monocytes can be functionally divided in two subsets, both capable to differentiate into dendritic cells (DCs): CX3CR1loCCR2+ classical monocytes, actively recruited to the sites of inflammation and direct precursors of inflammatory DCs; and CX3CR1hiCCR2− non-classical monocytes, characterized by CX3CR1-dependent recruitment to non-inflamed tissues. Yet, the function of non-classical monocyte-derived DCs (nc-mo-DCs), and the factors, which trigger their recruitment and DC differentiation, have not been clearly defined to date. Here we show that in situ differentiated nc-moDCs mediate immunosuppression in the context of intestinal graft-versus-host disease (GVHD).
Employing multi-color confocal microscopy we observed a dramatic loss of steady state host-type CD103+ DC subset immediately after transplantation, followed by an enrichment of immune-regulatory CD11b+ nc-moDCs. Parabiosis experiments revealed that tissue-resident non-classical CX3CR1+ monocytes differentiated in situ into intestinal CD11b+ nc-moDCs after allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation (allo-HCT). Differentiation of this intestinal DC subset depended on CSF-1 but not on Flt3L, thus defining the precursors as monocytes and not pre-DCs. Importantly, CX3CR1 but not CCR2 was required for this DC subset differentiation, hence defining the precursors as non-classical monocytes. In addition, we identify PD-L1 expression by CX3CR1+ nc-moDCs as the major mechanism they employ to suppress alloreactive T cells during acute intestinal GVHD. All together, we demonstrate that host nc-moDCs surprisingly mediate immunosuppression in the context of murine intestinal GVHD – as opposed to classical “inflammatory” monocyte-derived dendritic cells (mo-DCs) – via coinhibitory signaling. This thorough study unravels for the first time a biological function of a - so far only in vitro and phenotypically described - DC subset. Our identification of this beneficial immunoregulatory DC subset points towards alternate future strategies in underpinning molecular pathways to foster their function. We describe an unexpected mechanism of nc-moDCs in allo-HCT and intestinal GVHD, which might also be important for autoimmune disorders or infections of the gastrointestinal tract.
HIV verursacht eine progressive Zerstörung des Immunsystems und führt zusätzlich durch Veränderungen im ZNS zu neurokognitiven Störungen (HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders, HAND). Die HIV-Infektion geht mit einer Dysfunktion von dopaminergen Signalwegen einher, die sich unter anderem in einer erhöhten Dopamin-Verfügbarkeit im Liquor von Therapie-naiven HIV-Patienten äußert. Der Grund für die Dysregulation der dopaminergen Signalwege in HIV-Patienten ist nicht geklärt. Aufgrund dessen war das Hauptziel dieser Arbeit die Identifizierung des pathogenetischen Mechanismus, der zu einer erhöhten Dopamin-Konzentration im Liquor von HIV-Patienten führt. Die primäre Hypothese war, dass die erhöhte Dopamin-Verfügbarkeit nicht durch das Virus selbst, sondern vielmehr durch die genetische Konstitution der HIV-Patienten hervorgerufen wird. Deshalb wurden Polymorphismen untersucht, die die dopaminerge Neurotransmission beeinflussen. Es wurde vermutet, dass a) verschiedene Genotypen dieser Polymorphismen in nicht-infizierten und HIV-infizierten Personen mit anderen Häufigkeiten auftreten, b) verschiedene Genotypen mit veränderten Dopamin-Verfügbarkeiten assoziiert sind, c) unterschiedliche Genotypen Auswirkungen auf Marker der Progression der HIV-Infektion haben und d) verschiedene Genotypen die Immunaktivierung beeinflussen. Dazu wurden in 190 HIV-infizierten und nicht-infizierten Teilnehmern unterschiedlicher Ethnien die Polymorphismen BDNF Val66Met, COMT Val108/158Met, DAT 3‘-UTR VNTR, DRD2 TaqIα, DRD3 Ser9Gly und DRD4 VNRT mit PCR, ggf. Restriktionsverdau und Agarose-Gelelektrophorese analysiert und die Expression des Dopamin-Transporters mit real time PCR bestimmt. Darüber hinaus wurden zur weiteren klinischen Charakterisierung die Immunmarker MCP-1, sCD14, suPAR und RANTES mit ELISA analysiert, da eine Erhöhung dieser Parameter mit einer beschleunigten HIV-Progression assoziiert ist. Die Bestimmung der T-Zell-Aktivierung (CD3/CD8/CD38/HLA-DR) wurde mit einer durchflusszytometrischen Analyse durchgeführt. In dieser Arbeit haben wir gezeigt, dass HIV-Patienten hochsignifikant häufiger homozygot für das 10-repeat Allel des Dopamin-Transporter-Polymorphismus sind als nicht-infizierte Personen (57,1 % bzw. 26,8 %, p = 0,001, OR = 3,93, 95 % CI 1,72 – 8,96, direkte logistische Regression). HIV-Patienten und nicht-infizierte Personen mit diesem Genotyp weisen eine signifikant höhere Dopamin-Verfügbarkeit im Liquor auf als Personen mit dem 9/10-Genotyp (p = 0,03) und eine signifikant geringere Expression des Dopamin-Transporters auf PBMCs (p = 0,05). Der DAT 10/10-Genotyp ist im Gegensatz zu anderen Genotypen in HIV-Patienten jedoch weder mit unterschiedlichen CD4+-Zellzahlen und Viruslasten noch mit einer veränderten Häufigkeit von HAND verbunden.
Zusätzlich weisen deutsche und südafrikanische nicht-infizierte und HIV-infizierte Personen mit dem DAT 10/10-Genotyp eine signifikant höhere MCP-1-Konzentration im Plasma auf als Personen mit anderen DAT-Genotypen (p = 0,0076). Keiner der Immunmarker ist mit der Dopamin-Verfügbarkeit assoziiert. Dennoch ist die Immunaktivierung in südafrikanischen HIV-Patienten im Vergleich zu nicht-infizierten Südafrikanern signifikant erhöht: HIV-Patienten zeigen im Vergleich zu nicht-infizierten Personen eine stärkere T-Zell-Aktivierung (p = 0,0001), eine erhöhte Plasma-Konzentration von MCP-1 (p = 0,0014), eine gesteigerte sCD14-Konzentration (p = 0,0004) und eine vermehrte suPAR-Konzentration im Plasma (p = 0,006). In der vorliegenden Arbeit konnte kein Nachweis erbracht werden, dass die erhöhte Immunaktivierung in den südafrikanischen HIV-Patienten durch die Koinfektion mit Echinoccocus oder durch genetische Polymorphismen bei Chemokinen hervorgerufen wird. Eine chronisch erhöhte Immunaktivierung stellt eine treibende Kraft für die Virusreplikation dar und kann letztendlich zu einer Erschöpfung des Immunsystems führen.
Der 10/10-Genotyp des DAT VNTR könnte einen Risiko-Faktor für die HIV-Infektion darstellen, da dieser eine erhöhte Dopamin-Verfügbarkeit nach sich zieht. Dopamin aktiviert HIV in chronisch infizierten T-Lymphoblasten und führt zudem zu einer erhöhten Expression und Sezernierung von TNF-α, das wiederum die Expression von HIV induziert. Diese Ergebnisse untermauern den Zusammenhang von Dopamin und HIV. Es ist jedoch nicht völlig geklärt, ob die erhöhte Dopamin-Konzentration ausschließlich durch den Genotyp hervorgerufen oder auch durch die HIV-Infektion begünstigt wird.
Staphylococcus aureus is a major threat to public health systems all over the globe. This second most cause of nosocomial infections is able to provoke a wide variety of different types of infection in humans and animals, ranging from superficial skin and skin structure infections to invasive disease like sepsis or pneumonia. But not enough, this pathogen is also notorious in acquiring and/or developing resistance to antimicrobial compounds, thus limiting available treatment options severely. Therefore, development of new compounds and strategies to fight S. aureus is of paramount importance. But since only 1 out of 5 compounds, which entered clinical trials, becomes a drug, the preclinical evaluation of promising compounds has to be reconsidered, too. The aim of this thesis was to address both sides of this problem: first, to improve preclinical testing by incorporating in vivo imaging technologies to the preclinical testing procedure in order to acquire additional and clearer data about efficacy of promising compounds and second, by evaluating lysostaphin, which is a promising, new option to fight S. aureus infections.
The first aim of this thesis focused on the establishment of a dual modality in vivo imaging platform, consisting of Bioluminescence Imaging (BLI) and Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), to offer detailed insights into the course and gravity of S. aureus infection in the murine thigh infection model. Since luciferase-expressing S. aureus strains were generated in former studies and enabled thus bioluminescence imaging of bacterial infection, this technology should be implemented into the compound evaluation platform in order to non-invasively track the bacterial burden over time. MRI, in contrast, was only rarely used in earlier studies to visualize and measure the course of infection or efficacy of anti-bacterial therapy. Thus, the first set of experiments was performed to identify benefits and drawbacks of visualizing S. aureus infections in the mouse model by different MR methods. Native, proton-based MR imaging showed in this regard increased T2 relaxation times in the infected thigh muscles, but it was not possible to define a clear border between infected and uninfected tissue. Iron oxide nanoparticles and perfluorocarbon emulsions, two MR contrast agents or tracer, in contrast, offered this distinction. Iron oxide particles were detected in this regard by their distortion of 1H signal in proton-based MRI, while perfluorocarbon emulsion was identified by 19F MRI. Mammals do not harbor sufficient intrinsic amounts of 19F to deliver specific signal and therefore, 19F MR imaging visualizes only the signal of administered perfluorocarbon emulsion. The in vivo accumulation of perfluorocarbon emulsion can be imaged by 19F MRI and overlayed on a simultaneously acquired 1H MR image, which shows the anatomical context in clear detail. Since this is advantageous compared to contrast agent based MR methods like iron oxide particle-based MRI, further experiments were performed with perfluorocarbon emulsions and 19F MRI.
Experimental studies to elucidate the accumulation of perfluorocarbon emulsion at the site of infection showed robust 19F MR signals after administration between day 2 and at least day 8 p.i.. Perfluorocarbon emulsion accumulated in all investigated mice in the shape of a ‘hollow sphere’ at the rim of the abscess area and the signal remained stable as long as the infection prevailed. In order to identify the mechanism of accumulation, flow cytometry, cell sorting and histology studies were performed. Flow cytometry and cell sorting analysis of immune cells at the site of infection showed that neutrophils, monocytes, macrophages and dendritic cells carried contrast media at the site of infection with neutrophils accounting for the overwhelming portion of perfluorocarbon signal. In general, most of the signal was associated with immune cells, thus indicating specific immune cell dependent accumulation. Histology supported this observation since perfluorocarbon emulsion related fluorescence could only be visualized in close proximity to immune cell nuclei.
After establishing and testing of 19F MRI with perfluorocarbon emulsions as infection imaging modality, the effects of antibiotic therapy upon MR signal was investigated in order to evaluate the capability of this modality for preclinical testing procedure. Thus, the efficacy of vancomycin and linezolid, two clinically highly relevant anti - S. aureus compounds, were tested in the murine thigh infection model. Both of them showed reduction of the colony forming units and bioluminescence signal, but also of perfluorocarbon emulsion accumulation strength and volume at the site of infection, which was visualized and quantified by 19F MRI. The efficacy pattern with linezolid being more efficient in clearing bacterial infection was shown similarly by all three methods. In consequence, 19F MRI with perfluorocarbon emulsion as MR tracer proved to be capable to visualize antibacterial therapy in preclinical testing models.
The next step was consequently to evaluate a promising new compound against S. aureus infections. Thus, lysostaphin, an endo-peptidase that cleaves the cell wall of S. aureus, was tested in different concentrations alone or in combination with oxacillin for efficacy in murine thigh and catheter associated infection models. Lysostaphin only in the concentration of 5 mg/kg body weight or combined with oxacillin in the concentration of 2 mg/kg showed strong reduction of bacterial burden by colony forming unit determination and bioluminescence imaging in both models. The perfluorocarbon accumulation was investigated in the thigh infection model by 19F MRI and was strongly reduced in terms of volume and signal strength in both above-mentioned groups. In general, lysostaphin showed comparable or superior efficacy than vancomycin or oxacillin alone. Therefore, further development of lysostaphin for the treatment of S. aureus infections is recommended by these experiments. Overall, the antibiotic efficacy pattern of all applied antibiotic regimens was similar with all three applied methods, demonstrating the usefulness of MRI for antibiotic efficacy testing. Importantly, treatment with oxacillin either alone or in combination with lysostaphin resulted in stronger perfluorocarbon emulsion accumulation at the site of infection than expected compared to the results from bioluminescence imaging and colony forming unit determination. This might be an indication for immunomodulatory properties of oxacillin.
Further murine infection experiments demonstrated in this context a differential release of cytokine and chemokines in the infected thigh muscle in dependence of the applied antibacterial therapy. Especially treatment with oxacillin, but to a less degree with minocycline or linezolid, too, exhibited high levels of various cytokines and chemokines, although they reduced the bacterial burden efficiently. In consequence, possible immunomodulatory effects of antibacterial compounds have to be taken into account for future applications of imaging platforms relying on the visualization of the immune response. However, this observation opens a new field for these imaging modalities since it might be extraordinary interesting to study the immunomodulatory effects of compounds or even bacterial factors in vivo. And finally, a two modality imaging platform which combines methods to visualize on the one hand the bacterial burden and on the other hand the immune response offers an innovative, new platform to study host-pathogen interaction in vivo in a non-invasive fashion.
In summary, it could be shown that perfluorocarbon emulsions accumulate in immune cells at the site of infection in the murine S. aureus thigh infection model. The accumulation pattern shapes a ‘hollow sphere’ at the rim of the abscess area and its size and perfluorocarbon content is dependent on the severity of disease and/or efficacy of antibiotic therapy. Thus, 19F MRI with perfluorocarbon emulsions is a useful imaging modality to visualize sites and course of infection as well as to evaluate promising antibacterial drug candidates. Furthermore, since the accumulation of tracer depends on immune cells, it might be additionally interesting for studies regarding the immune response to infections, auto-immune diseases or cancer, but also to investigate the efficacy of immunomodulatory compounds and immunization.
Tumor angiogenesis is essential for the growth of solid tumors as their proliferation and survival is dependent on consistent oxygen and nutrient supply. Anti-angiogenic treatments represent a therapeutic strategy to inhibit tumor growth by preventing the formation of new blood vessels leading to starvation of the tumor. One of the best characterized anti angiogenic therapeutics is the monoclonal antibody bevacizumab (Avastin), which targets and neutralizes VEGF leading to disruption of the VEGF signaling pathway. Until today, bevacizumab has found its way into clinical practice and has gained approval for treatment of different types of cancer including colorectal cancer, non-small cell lung cancer, breast cancer and renal cell carcinoma. Signaling of VEGF is mediated through VEGF receptors, mainly VEGFR2, which are primarily located on the cell surface of endothelial cells. However, there has been evidence that expression of VEGF receptors can also be found on tumor cells themselves raising the possibility of autocrine and/or paracrine signaling loops. Thus, tumor cells could also benefit from VEGF signaling, which would promote tumor growth. The aim of this study was to investigate if bevacizumab has a direct effect on tumor cells in vitro. To this end, tumor cell lines from the NCI-60 panel derived from four different tumor types were treated with bevacizumab and angiogenic gene and protein expression as well as biological outputs including proliferation, migration and apoptosis were investigated. Most of the experiments were performed under hypoxia to mimic the in vivo state of tumors. Overall, there was a limited measurable effect of bevacizumab on treated tumor cell lines according to gene and protein expression changes as well as biological functions when compared to endothelial controls. Minor changes in terms of proliferation or gene regulation were evident in a single tumor cell line after VEGF-A blockade by bevacizumab, which partially demonstrated a direct effect on tumor cells. However, the overall analysis revealed that tumor cell lines are not intrinsically affected in an adverse manner by bevacizumab treatment.
Besides the functional analysis of tumor cells, embryonic stem cell derived endothelial cells were characterized to delineate vascular Hey gene functions. Hey and Hes proteins are the best characterized downstream effectors of the evolutionary conserved Notch signaling pathway, which mainly act as transcriptional repressors regulating downstream target genes. Hey proteins play a crucial role in embryonic development as loss of Hey1 and Hey2 in mice in vivo leads to a severe vascular phenotype resulting in early embryonic lethality. The major aim of this part of the thesis was to identify vascular Hey target genes using embryonic stem cell derived endothelial cells utilizing a directed endothelial differentiation approach, as ES cells and their differentiation ability provide a powerful in vitro system to study developmental processes. To this end, Hey deficient and Hey wildtype embryonic stem cells were stably transfected with an antibiotic selection marker driven by an endothelial specific promoter, which allows selection for endothelial cells. ESC-derived endothelial cells exhibited typical endothelial characteristics as shown by marker gene expression, immunofluorescent staining and tube formation ability. In a second step, Hey deficient ES cells were stably transfected with doxycycline inducible Flag-tagged Hey1 and Hey2 transgenes to re-express Hey proteins in the respective cell line. RNA-Sequencing of Hey deficient and Hey overexpressing ES cells as well as ESC-derived endothelial cells revealed many Hey downstream target genes in ES cells and fewer target genes in endothelial cells. Hey1 and Hey2 more or less redundantly regulate target genes in ES cells, but some genes were regulated by Hey2 alone. According to Gene Ontology term analysis, Hey target genes are mainly involved in embryonic development and transcriptional regulation. However, the response of ESC-derived endothelial cells in regulating Hey downstream target genes was rather limited when compared to ES cells, which could be due to lower transgene expression in endothelial cells. The limited response also raises the possibility that target gene regulation in endothelial cells is not only dependent on Hey gene functions alone and thus loss or overexpression of Hey genes in this in vitro setting does not influence target gene regulation.
Leishmaniasis is a neglected tropical disease that can be manifested through different clinical forms, ranging from cutaneous to visceral. The host response against Leishmania spp. is greatly dependent on T cell-mediated immunity, in which T helper 1 responses are associated with macrophage activation and elimination of the parasite, while regulatory T cells and T helper 2 responses are correlated with parasite survival and persistence of infection. Leishmania uses different virulence factors as strategies for evading the immune response of the host. One of them are cathepsin-like cysteine proteases, which are currently under extensive investigation as targets for drug development. Previous studies with inhibitors of cathepsins B and L in vivo revealed an outstanding modulation of the host T helper cell response. However, the mechanisms behind these observations were not further investigated. Given the urgent need for better treatments against leishmaniasis, the aim of this study was to investigate the effects that the lack of cathepsin B and L activity have on the signals that dendritic cells use to instruct T helper cell polarization in response to infection with Leishmania major.
The cathepsin inhibitors tested showed low or no cytotoxicity in bone marrow-derived dendritic cells, and dendritic cells and macrophages could be generated from cathepsin B and cathepsin L-deficient mice without apparent alterations in their phenotype in comparison to wild-type controls. Furthermore, lack of cathepsin B and L activity showed no impact in the rate of promastigote processing by dendritic cells. Cathepsin B and cathepsin L-deficient macrophages showed no differences in parasite proliferation and capacity to produce nitric oxide in comparison to wild-type macrophages. In response to the parasite, dendritic cells treated with a cathepsin B inhibitor and dendritic cells from cathepsin B-deficient mice showed higher levels of expression of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II molecules than dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) or wild-type controls, but it was not accompanied by changes in the expression of costimulatory molecules. Wild-type dendritic cells and macrophages are not able to express the pro-inflammatory cytokine interleukin (IL)-12 in response to promastigotes. However, cells treated with a cathepsin B inhibitor or cells deficient for cathepsin B were able to express IL-12, whilethe expression of other cytokines -including IL-6 and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha-remained unchanged. These characteristics point towards a more “pro-Th1” profile of dendritic cells in the absence of cathepsin B.
This data is the first report on IL-12 regulation depending on cathepsin B. The IL-12 up-regulation observed was already present at the transcriptional level. Furthermore, it was also present in macrophages and dendritic cells in response to LPS, and the latter had a higher capacity to induce T cell helper 1 polarization in vitro than wild-type dendritic cells. The activation of different signaling pathways was analyzed, but the up-regulation of IL-12 could not be attributed to modulation of nuclear factor-kappaB (NFkappaB), p38 mitogen activated protein kinase (MAPK) and extra-cellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK)1/2 pathways. Thus, the mechanism behind IL-12 regulation by cathepsin B remains to be elucidated, and the impact of these effects is yet to be confirmed in vivo. Altogether it is tempting to speculate that cathepsin B, in addition to its role in processing endocytosed material, is involved in the modulation of the pro-inflammatory cytokine IL-12.