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The reliability of implantable blood sensors is often hampered by unspecific adsorption of plasma proteins and blood cells. This not only leads to a loss of sensor signal over time, but can also result in undesired host vs. graft reactions. Within this study we evaluated the hemocompatibility of isocyanate conjugated star shaped polytheylene oxide-polypropylene oxide co-polymers NCO-sP(EO-stat-PO) when applied to gold surfaces as an auspicious coating material for gold sputtered blood contacting sensors. Quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) sensors were coated with ultrathin NCO-sP(EO-stat-PO) films and compared with uncoated gold sensors. Protein resistance was assessed by QCM measurements with fibrinogen solution and platelet poor plasma (PPP), followed by quantification of fibrinogen adsorption. Hemocompatibility was tested by incubation with human platelet rich plasma (PRP). Thrombin antithrombin-III complex (TAT), beta-thromboglobulin (beta-TG) and platelet factor 4 (PF4) were used as coagulation activation markers. Furthermore, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used to visualize platelet adhesion to the sensor surfaces. Compared to uncoated gold sensors, NCO-sP(EO-stat-PO) coated sensors revealed significant better resistance against protein adsorption, lower TAT generation and a lower amount of adherent platelets. Moreover, coating with ultrathin NCO-sP(EO-stat-PO) films creates a cell resistant hemocompatible surface on gold that increases the chance of prolonged sensor functionality and can easily be modified with specific receptor molecules.
This thesis concerned the design and examination of a scaffold for tissue engineering applications. The template for the presented scaffold came from nature itself: the intercellular space in tissues that provides structure and support to the cells of the respective tissue, known as extracellular matrix (ECM). Fibres are a predominant characteristic feature of ECM, providing adhesion sites for cell-matrix interactions. In this dissertation a fibrous mesh was generated using the electrospinning technique to mimic the fibrous structure of the ECM. Two base polymers were explored: a biodegradable polyester, poly(D,L-lactide-co-glycolide); and a functional PEG-based star polymer, NCO-sP(EO-stat-PO). This topic was described in three major parts: the first part was materials based, concerning the chemical design and characterisation of the polymer scaffolds; the focus was then shifted to the cellular response to this fibrous scaffold; and finally the in vivo performance of the material was preliminarily assessed. The first steps towards an electrospun mesh started with adjusting the spinning parameters for the generation of homogeneous fibres. As reported in Chapter 3 a suitable setup configuration was on the one hand comprised of a spinning solution that consisted of 28.5 w/v% PLGA RG 504 and 6 w/v% NCO-sP(EO-stat-PO) in 450 µL acetone, 50 µL DMSO and 10 µL of an aqueous trifluoroacetic acid solution. On the other hand an ideal spinning behaviour was achieved at process parameters such as a flow rate of 0.5 mL/h, spinneret to collector distance of 12-16 cm and a voltage of 13 kV. The NCO-sP(EO-stat-PO) containing fibres proved to be highly hydrophilic as the functional additive was present on the fibre surface. Furthermore, the fibres featured a bulk degradation pattern as a consequence of the proportion of PLGA. Besides the morphologic similarity to ECM fibres, the functionality of the electrospun fibres is also decisive for a successful ECM mimicry. In Chapter 4, the passive as well as active functionality of the fibres was investigated. The fibres were required to be protein repellent to prevent an unspecific cell adhesion. This was proven as even 6.5 % sP(EO-stat-PO) in the PLGA fibres reduced any unspecific protein adsorption of bovine serum albumin and foetal calf serum to less than 1 %. However, avidin based proteins attached to the fibres. This adhesion process was avoided by an additional fibre surface treatment with glycidol. The active functionalisation of NCO-sP(EO-stat-PO)/PLGA fibres was investigated with two fluorescent dyes and biocytin. A threefold, chemically orthogonal, fibre modification was achieved with these dyes. The chapters about the chemical and mechanical properties laid the basis for the in vitro chapters where a specific fibre functionalisation with peptides was conducted to analyse the cell adhesion and biochemical expressions. Beginning with fibroblasts in Chapter 5 the focus was on the specific cell adhesion on the electrospun fibres. While NCO-sP(EO-stat-PO)/PLGA fibres without peptides did not allow any adhesion of fibroblasts, a fibre modification with GRGDS (an adhesion mediating peptide sequence) induced the adhesion and spreading of human dermal fibroblasts on the fibrous scaffolds. The control sequence GRGES that has no adhesion mediating qualities did not lead to any cell adhesion as observed on fibres without modifications. While the experiments of Chapter 5 were a proof-of-concept, in Chapter 6 a possible application in cartilage tissue engineering was examined. Therefore, primary human chondrocytes were seeded on fibrous scaffolds with various peptide sequences. Though the chondrocytes exhibited high viability on all scaffolds, an active interaction of cells and fibres was only found for the decorin derived sequence CGKLER. Live-cell-imaging revealed both cell attachment and migration within CGKLER-modified meshes. As chondrocytes undergo a de-differentiation towards a fibroblast-like phenotype, the chondrogenic re-differentiation on these scaffolds was investigated in a long term cell culture experiment of 28 days. Therefore, the glycosaminoglycan production was analysed as well as the mRNA expression of genes coding for collagen I and II, aggrecan and proteoglycan 4. In general only low amounts of the chondrogenic markers were measured, suggesting no chondrogenic differentiation. For conclusive evidence follow-up experiments are required that support or reject the findings. The success of an implant for tissue engineering relies not only on the response of the targeted cell type but also on the immune reaction caused by leukocytes. Hence, Chapter 7 dealt with primary human macrophages and their behaviour and phenotype on two-dimensional (2D) surfaces compared to three-dimensional (3D) fibrous substrates. It was found that the general non-adhesiveness of NCO-sP(EO-stat-PO) surfaces and fibres does not apply to macrophages. The cells aligned along the fibres on surfaces or resided in the pores of the meshes. On flat surfaces without 3D structure the macrophages showed a retarded adhesion kinetic accompanied with a high migratory activity indicating their search for a topographical feature to adhere to. Moreover, a detailed investigation of cell surface markers and chemokine signalling revealed that macrophages on 2D surfaces exhibited surface markers indicating a healing phenotype while the chemokine release suggested a pro-inflammatory phenotype. Interestingly, the opposite situation was found on 3D fibrous substrates with pro-inflammatory surface markers and pro-angiogenic cytokine release. As the immune response largely depends on cellular communication, it was concluded that the NCO-sP(EO-stat-PO)/PLGA fibres induce an adequate immune response with promising prospects to be used in a scaffold for tissue engineering. The final chapter of this thesis reports on a first in vivo study conducted with the presented electrospun fibres. Here, the fibres were combined with a polypropylene mesh for the treatment of diaphragmatic hernias in a rabbit model. Two scaffold series were described that differed in the overall surface morphology: while the fibres of Series A were incorporated into a thick gel of NCO-sP(EO-stat-PO), the scaffolds of Series B featured only a thin hydrogel layer so that the overall fibrous structure could be retained. After four months in vivo the treated defects of the diaphragm were significantly smaller and filled mainly with scar tissue. Thick granulomas occurred on scaffolds of Series A while the implants of Series B did not induce any granuloma formation. As a consequence of the generally positive outcome of this study, the constructs were enhanced with a drug release system in a follow-up project. The incorporated drug was the MMP-inhibitor Ilomastat which is intended to reduce the formation of scar tissue. In conclusion, the simple and straight forward fabrication, the threefold functionalisation possibility and general versatile applicability makes the meshes of NCO-sP(EO-stat-PO)/PLGA fibres a promising candidate to be applied in tissue engineering scaffolds in the future.
Zur Erhöhung der mechanischen Stabilität mineralischer Knochenzemente aus Calciumorthophosphaten (CPC) wurde in einem TTCP/DCPA-System das Zementedukt TTCP mit verschiedenen biokompatiblen Oxiden (SiO2, TiO2, ZrO2) während des Herstellungsprozesses dotiert. Dies führte zur Bildung von Calciummetallaten und einer Herabsetzung der Löslichkeit der TTCP-Komponente des Zements. Gegenüber einem oxidfreien Zement konnte die Druckfestigkeit von 65 MPa auf 80 MPa (SiO2) bzw. 100 MPa (TiO2) gesteigert werden.
In einem zweiten Ansatz zur Verbesserung der Injizierbarkeit wurden die Wechselwirkungen der Partikeloberflächen mit der flüssigen Zementphase betrachtet. Durch biokompatible Additive sollte eine repulsive elektrostatische Wechselwirkung eingestellt werden, um Partikelagglomerate effektiv zu dispergieren und eine verflüssigende Wirkung zu erreichen. Die Injizierbarkeit eines TTCP/DCPA-Zements durch eine Kanüle mit 800 µm Durchmesser konnte durch die Verwendung von 500 mM tri-Natriumzitrat-Lösung aufgrund einer deutlichen Herabsetzung der Viskosität der Zementpaste signifikant gesteigert werden (>95%, P/L 3,3/1, Kraftaufwand 20 N).
Abschließend wurde der Einfluss der Partikelgrößenverteilung auf die Festigkeit und Injizierbarkeit einer auf monomodaler Partikelgrößenverteilung basierten Zementmatrix untersucht. Hierzu wurden einem mechanisch aktivierten a-TCP-System unreaktive, feinkörnige Füllstoffpopulationen (TiO2, CaHPO4, CaCO3) zugesetzt und systematisch deren Effekt in Verbindung mit einer Partikelaufladung durch tri-Natriumzitrat auf die rheologischen und mechanischen Eigenschaften untersucht.
Erst die Kombination einer bimodalen Partikelgrößenverteilung mit tri-Natriumzitrat-Lösung führte zu einer starken Erniedrigung der Viskosität, damit zur nahezu vollständigen Injizierbarkeit der Zemente und einer teilweise signifikanten Steigerung der mechanischen Festigkeiten (z.B. 72 MPa reiner a-TCP-Zement auf 142 MPa mit Zusatz von CaHPO4).
Adipose tissue defects and related pathologies still represent major challenges in reconstructive surgery. Based on to the paradigm ‘replace with alike’, adipose tissue is considered the ideal substitute material for damaged soft tissue [1-3]. Yet the transfer of autologous fat, particularly larger volumes, is confined by deficient and unpredictable long term results, as well as considerable operative morbidity at the donor and recipient site [4-6], calling for innovative treatment options to improve patient care.
With the aim to achieve complete regeneration of soft tissue defects, adipose tissue engineering holds great promise to provide functional, biologically active adipose tissue equivalents. Here, especially long-term maintenance of volume and shape, as well as sufficient vascularization of engineered adipose tissue represent critical and unresolved challenges [7-9]. For adipose tissue engineering approaches to be successful, it is thus essential to generate constructs that retain their initial volume in vivo, as well as to ensure their rapid vascularization to support cell survival and differentiation for full tissue regeneration [9,10]. Therefore, it was the ultimate goal of this thesis to develop volume-stable 3D adipose tissue constructs and to identify applicable strategies for sufficient vascularization of engineered constructs. The feasibility of the investigated approaches was verified by translation from in vitro to in vivo as a critical step for the advancement of potential regenerative therapies.
For the development of volume-stable constructs, the combination of two biomaterials with complementary properties was successfully implemented. In contrast to previous approaches in the field using mainly non-degradable solid structures for mechanical protection of developing adipose tissue [11-13], the combination of a cell-instructive hydrogel component with a biodegradable porous support structure of adequate texture was shown advantageous for the generation of volume-stable adipose tissue. Specifically, stable fibrin hydrogels previously developed in our group [14] served as cell carrier and supported the adipogenic development of adipose-derived stem cells (ASCs) as reflected by lipid accumulation and leptin secretion. Stable fibrin gels were thereby shown to be equally supportive of adipogenesis compared to commercial TissuCol hydrogels in vitro. Using ASCs as a safe source of autologous cells [15,16] added substantial practicability to the approach. To enhance the mechanical strength of the engineered constructs, porous biodegradable poly(ε caprolactone)-based polyurethane (PU) scaffolds were introduced as support structures and shown to exhibit adequately sized pores to host adipocytes as well as interconnectivity to allow coherent tissue formation and vascularization. Low wettability and impaired cell attachment indicated that PU scaffolds alone were insufficient in retaining cells within the pores, yet cytocompatibility and differentiation of ASCs were adequately demonstrated, rendering the PU scaffolds suitable as support structures for the generation of stable fibrin/PU composite constructs (Chapter 3).
Volume-stable adipose tissue constructs were generated by seeding the pre-established stable fibrin/PU composites with ASCs. Investigation of size and weight in vitro revealed that composite constructs featured enhanced stability relative to stable fibrin gels alone. Comparing stable fibrin gels and TissuCol as hydrogel components, it was found that TissuCol gels were less resilient to degradation and contraction. Composite constructs were fully characterized, showing good cell viability of ASCs and strong adipogenic development as indicated by functional analysis via histological Oil Red O staining of lipid vacuoles, qRT-PCR analysis of prominent adipogenic markers (PPARγ, C/EBPα, GLUT4, aP2) and quantification of leptin secretion. In a pilot study in vivo, investigating the suitability of the constructs for transplantation, stable fibrin/PU composites provided with a vascular pedicle gave rise to areas of well-vascularized adipose tissue, contrasted by insufficient capillary formation and adipogenesis in constructs implanted without pedicle. The biomaterial combination of stable fibrin gels and porous biodegradable PU scaffolds was thereby shown highly suitable for the generation of volume-stable adipose tissue constructs in vivo, and in addition, the effectiveness of immediate vascularization upon implantation to support adipose tissue formation was demonstrated (Chapter 4).
Further pursuing the objective to investigate adequate vascularization strategies for engineered adipose tissue, hypoxic preconditioning was conducted as a possible approach for in vitro prevascularization. In 2D culture experiments, analysis on the cellular level illustrated that the adipogenic potential of ASCs was reduced under hypoxic conditions when applied in the differentiation phase, irrespective of the oxygen tension encountered by the cells during expansion. Hypoxic treatment of ASCs in 3D constructs prepared from stable fibrin gels similarly resulted in reduced adipogenesis, whereas endothelial CD31 expression as well as enhanced leptin and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) secretion indicated that hypoxic treatment indeed resulted in a pro-angiogenic response of ASCs. Especially the observed profound regulation of leptin production by hypoxia and the dual role of leptin as adipokine and angiogenic modulator were considered an interesting connection advocating further study. Having confirmed the hypothesis that hypoxia may generate a pro-angiogenic milieu inside ASC-seeded constructs, faster vessel ingrowth and improved vascularization as well as an enhanced tolerance of hypoxia-treated ASCs towards ischemic conditions upon implanatation may be expected, but remain to be verified in rodent models in vivo (Chapter 5).
Having previously been utilized for bone and cartilage engineering [17-19], as well as for revascularization and wound healing applications [20-22], stromal-vascular fraction (SVF) cells were investigated as a novel cell source for adipose tissue engineering. Providing cells with adipogenic differentiation as well as vascularization potential, the SVF was applied with the specific aim to promote adipogenesis and vascularization in engineered constructs in vivo. With only basic in vitro investigations by Lin et al. addressing the SVF for adipose repair to date [23], the present work thoroughly investigated SVF cells for adipose tissue construct generation in vitro, and in particular, pioneered the application of these cells for adipose tissue engineering in vivo.
Initial in vitro experiments compared SVF- and ASC-seeded stable fibrin constructs in different medium compositions employing preadipocyte (PGM-2) and endothelial cell culture medium (EGM-2). It was found that a 1:1 mixture of PGM-2 and EGM-2, as previously established for co-culture models of adipogenesis [24], efficiently maintained cells with adipogenic and endothelial potential in SVF-seeded constructs in short and long-term culture setups. Observations on the cellular level were supported by analysis of mRNA expression of characteristic adipogenic and endothelial markers. In preparation of the evaluation of SVF-seeded constructs under in vivo conditions, a whole mount staining (WMS) method, facilitating the 3D visualization of adipocytes and blood vessels, was successfully established and optimized using native adipose tissue as template (Chapter 6).
In a subcutaneous nude mouse model, SVF cells were, for the first time in vivo, elucidated for their potential to support the functional assembly of vascularized adipose tissue. Investigating the effect of adipogenic precultivation of SVF-seeded stable fibrin constructs in vitro prior to implantation on the in vivo outcome, hormonal induction was shown beneficial in terms of adipocyte development, whereas a strong vascularization potential was observed when no adipogenic inducers were added. Via histological analysis, it was proven that the developed structures were of human origin and derived from the implanted cells. Applying SVF cells without precultivation in vitro but comparing two different fibrin carriers, namely stable fibrin and TissuCol gels, revealed that TissuCol profoundly supported adipose formation by SVF cells in vivo. This was contrasted by only minor SVF cell development and a strong reduction of cell numbers in stable fibrin gels implanted without precultivation. Histomorphometric analysis of adipocytes and capillary structures was conducted to verify the qualitative results, concluding that particularly SVF cells in TissuCol were highly suited for adipose regeneration in vivo. Employing the established WMS technique, the close interaction of mature adipocytes and blood vessels in TissuCol constructs was impressively shown and via species-specific human vimentin staining, the expected strong involvement of implanted SVF cells in the formation of coherent adipose tissue was confirmed (Chapter 7).
With the development of biodegradable volume-stable adipose tissue constructs, the application of ASCs and SVF cells as two promising cell sources for functional adipose regeneration, as well as the thorough evaluation of strategies for construct vascularization in vitro and in vivo, this thesis provides valuable solutions to current challenges in adipose tissue engineering. The presented findings further open up new perspectives for innovative treatments to cure soft tissue defects and serve as a basis for directed approaches towards the generation of clinically applicable soft tissue substitutes.
Fibrous tissue growth and loss of residual hearing after cochlear implantation can be reduced by application of the glucocorticoid dexamethasone-21-phosphate-disodium-salt (DEX). To date, sustained delivery of this agent to the cochlea using a number of pharmaceutical technologies has not been entirely successful. In this study we examine a novel way of continuous local drug application into the inner ear using a refillable hydrogel functionalized silicone reservoir. A PEG-based hydrogel made of reactive NCO-sP(EO-stat-PO) prepolymers was evaluated as a drug conveying and delivery system in vitro and in vivo. Encapsulating the free form hydrogel into a silicone tube with a small opening for the drug diffusion resulted in delayed drug release but unaffected diffusion of DEX through the gel compared to the free form hydrogel. Additionally, controlled DEX release over several weeks could be demonstrated using the hydrogel filled reservoir. Using a guinea-pig cochlear trauma model the reservoir delivery of DEX significantly protected residual hearing and reduced fibrosis. As well as being used as a device in its own right or in combination with cochlear implants, the hydrogel-filled reservoir represents a new drug delivery system that feasibly could be replenished with therapeutic agents to provide sustained treatment of the inner ear.
Myocardial infarction (MI) induces a complex inflammatory immune response, followed by the remodelling of the heart muscle and scar formation. The rapid regeneration of the blood vessel network system by the attraction of hematopoietic stem cells is beneficial for heart function. Despite the important role of chemokines in these processes, their use in clinical practice has so far been limited by their limited availability over a long time-span in vivo. Here, a method is presented to increase physiological availability of chemokines at the site of injury over a defined time-span and simultaneously control their release using biodegradable hydrogels. Two different biodegradable hydrogels were implemented, a fast degradable hydrogel (FDH) for delivering Met-CCL5 over 24hrs and a slow degradable hydrogel (SDH) for a gradual release of protease-resistant CXCL12 (S4V) over 4weeks. We demonstrate that the time-controlled release using Met-CCL5-FDH and CXCL12 (S4V)-SDH suppressed initial neutrophil infiltration, promoted neovascularization and reduced apoptosis in the infarcted myocardium. Thus, we were able to significantly preserve the cardiac function after MI. This study demonstrates that time-controlled, biopolymer-mediated delivery of chemokines represents a novel and feasible strategy to support the endogenous reparatory mechanisms after MI and may compliment cell-based therapies.
Designing of implant surfaces using a suitable ligand for cell adhesion to stimulate specific biological responses of stem cells will boost the application of regenerative implants. For example, materials that facilitate rapid and guided migration of stem cells would promote tissue regeneration. When seeded on fibronectin (FN) that was homogeneously immmobilized to NCO-sP(EO-stat-PO), which otherwise prevents protein binding and cell adhesion, human mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) revealed a faster migration, increased spreading and a more rapid organization of different cellular components for cell adhesion on fibronectin than on a glass surface. To further explore, how a structural organization of FN controls the behavior of MSC, adhesive lines of FN with varying width between 10 mu m and 80 mu m and spacings between 5 mu m and 20 mu m that did not allow cell adhesion were generated. In dependance on both line width and gaps, cells formed adjacent cell contacts, were individually organized in lines, or bridged the lines. With decreasing sizes of FN lines, speed and directionality of cell migration increased, which correlated with organization of the actin cytoskeleton, size and shape of the nuclei as well as of focal adhesions. Together, defined FN lines and gaps enabled a fine tuning of the structural organization of cellular components and migration. Microstructured adhesive substrates can mimic the extracellular matrix in vivo and stimulate cellular mechanisms which play a role in tissue regeneration.
Bioactive glass (BG) scaffolds are being investigated for bone tissue engineering applications because of their osteoconductive and angiogenic nature. However, to increase the in vivo performance of the scaffold, including enhancing the angiogenetic growth into the scaffolds, some researchers use different modifications of the scaffold including addition of inorganic ionic components to the basic BG composition. In this study, we investigated the in vitro biocompatibility and bioactivity of Cu2+-doped BG derived scaffolds in either BMSC (bone-marrow derived mesenchymal stem cells)-only culture or co-culture of BMSC and human dermal microvascular endothelial cells (HDMEC). In BMSC-only culture, cells were seeded either directly on the scaffolds (3D or direct culture) or were exposed to ionic dissolution products of the BG scaffolds, kept in permeable cell culture inserts (2D or indirect culture). Though we did not observe any direct osteoinduction of BMSCs by alkaline phosphatase (ALP) assay or by PCR, there was increased vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) expression, observed by PCR and ELISA assays. Additionally, the scaffolds showed no toxicity to BMSCs and there were healthy live cells found throughout the scaffold. To analyze further the reasons behind the increased VEGF expression and to exploit the benefits of the finding, we used the indirect method with HDMECs in culture plastic and Cu2+-doped BG scaffolds with or without BMSCs in cell culture inserts. There was clear observation of increased endothelial markers by both FACS analysis and acetylated LDL (acLDL) uptake assay. Only in presence of Cu2+-doped BG scaffolds with BMSCs, a high VEGF secretion was demonstrated by ELISA; and typical tubular structures were observed in culture plastics. We conclude that Cu2+-doped BG scaffolds release Cu2+, which in turn act on BMSCs to secrete VEGF. This result is of significance for the application of BG scaffolds in bone tissue engineering approaches.
Magnesiumphosphatschäume nehmen auf Grund ihrer guten Resorbierbarkeit, unter physiologischen Bedingungen, einen immer größeren Stellenwert als Knochenersatzmaterial ein. Ein weiterer Vorteil ist der neutrale pH-Wert den das entstehende Material besitzt. Magnesiumphosphatschäume besitzen eine hochporöse offenporige Struktur um zum einen den Knochen nachzuahmen und zum anderen die Steuerung und Bildung von Knochengewebe zu ermöglichen. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurden die mechanischen Eigenschaften als auch die Zytokompatibilität der hergestellten Schäume untersucht.
Es wurden unterschiedliche Herstellungsverfahren genutzt um Magnesiumphosphatschäume zu erhalten. Zum einen das Replika- Verfahren, die dabei entstandenen Farringtonit Schäume (Mg3(PO4)2, Farringtonit) wurden zu Struvit ((NH4)Mg(PO4)•6H2O) umgewandelt bzw. mit PLGA infiltriert und auf ihre mechanische Eigenschaften hin untersucht. Zum anderen wurde ein proteinbasierter Schaumbildner verwendet. Die Zytokompatibilitätsprüfung wurde mit der Osteosarkomzelllinie MG-63 durchgeführt. Es erfolgte die Untersuchung der Zellproliferation und der Zellaktivität (WST). Zudem wurden Proben mittels Licht- und Elektronenmikroskopie analysiert. Die Feststellung der Proteinexpression erfolgte nach gelelektrophoretischer Auftrennung mittels Western Blot und PCR Analyse.
Das Ziel dieser Arbeit war es, die Modifizierung von porösem, calciumdefizitärem, nanokristallinem Hydroxylapatit mit verschiedenen Metallionen zu testen. Es wurden α‑TCP‑basierende Zementproben hergestellt, die durch zwei verschiedene Dotierungsmethoden mit bestimmten Metallionen (Cu2+, Co2+, Mn2+, Ni2+, V3+, Zn2+) modifiziert wurden. Die eine Methode bestand in der Zusinterung der entsprechenden Metallionen zum α‑TCP‑Pulver. Bei der anderen Methode waren die Ionen in unterschiedlicher Konzentration (1 mmolar, 100 μmolar, 10 μmolar) in der Binderlösung enthalten. Die hergestellten Zementproben wurden hinsichtlich bestimmter Eigenschaften wie der initialen Abbindezeit und Druckfestigkeit untersucht und zusätzlich rasterelektronenmikroskopischen, röntgen-diffraktometrischen und massenspektrometrischen Analysen unterzogen. Als Referenz diente ein bereits am Menschen erfolgreich als Knochenersatzmaterial eingesetzter nanokristalliner, calciumarmer Hydroxylapatit-Zement. Da Hydroxylapatit nahezu nur durch Osteoklasten mittels einer lokalen pH‑Wert-Absenkung resorbiert werden kann, wurden in‑vitro‑Versuche mit einer immortalisierten Makrophagen-Zelllinie durchgeführt. Über einen 15‑tägigen Versuchszeitraum wurde die Zytokompatibilität mittels bestimmter Zellproliferations- und Zellaktivitätsmessungen überprüft. Zusätzlich wurden die mit Zellen besiedelten Proben unter dem Rasterelektronenmikroskop betrachtet und eine TRAP‑Färbung durchgeführt, um die Differenzierung zu osteoklastenähnlichen Zellen beurteilen zu können.
Bei der Auswertung der Versuche wurde deutlich, dass nicht das Metall alleine maßgeblich für Veränderungen der physikalischen Eigenschaften im Vergleich zum metallfreien Referenzzement war. Auch die Art der Metallionendotierung, ob durch Zugabe mit der Binderlösung oder durch Zusinterung, hatte bei den Metallen unterschiedliche Auswirkungen auf die Zementeigenschaften. Während der Versuche wurden Abbindezeiten von 18 Minuten bis über 60 Minuten gemessen und Druckfestigkeiten zwischen 9,3 MPa und 30,5 MPa festgestellt. Bei der Auswertung der Zellversuchsreihe wurde festgestellt, dass die Zellen auf den mit Metallionen modifizierten Zementplättchen tendenziell eine niedrigere Aktivität bei gleich bleibender Proliferation aufwiesen als auf den metallfreien Referenzproben. Dieses Ergebnis konnte mikroskopisch bestätigt werden.
Calcium phosphate biocements based on calcium phosphate chemistry are well-established biomaterials for the repair of non-load bearing bone defects due to the brittle nature and low flexural strength of such cements. This article features reinforcement strategies of biocements based on various intrinsic or extrinsic material modifications to improve their strength and toughness. Altering particle size distribution in conjunction with using liquefiers reduces the amount of cement liquid necessary for cement paste preparation. This in turn decreases cement porosity and increases the mechanical performance, but does not change the brittle nature of the cements. The use of fibers may lead to a reinforcement of the matrix with a toughness increase of up to two orders of magnitude, but restricts at the same time cement injection for minimal invasive application techniques. A novel promising approach is the concept of dual-setting cements, in which a second hydrogel phase is simultaneously formed during setting, leading to more ductile cement-hydrogel composites with largely unaffected application properties.
Der Einfluss von Laktobazillen auf Oberfläche und Eigenschaften von verschiedenen Nahtmaterialien
(2015)
Hintergrund: Nach oralchirurgischen Eingriffen empfiehlt der Operateur allgemein die Vermeidung von Milchprodukten in Hinblick auf eine bessere Heilung im Wundgebiet. Dies stützt sich u.a. auf die Annahme, dass Laktobazillen und ihre Stoffwechselprodukte (z.B. Milchsäure) Nahtmaterial angreifen können. Der Aufbau dieser Studie zielte darauf ab, diesen Sachverhalt in Frage zu stellen und Funktionsverluste bei Milchsäureexposition sowie Besieldungsverhalten der Bakterien zu charakterisieren.
Material und Methoden: Polyamid (PA), Polyester/Polyethylenterephtalat (PET), Polypropylen (PP), Polyvinylidenfluorid (PVDF), Seide, Polyglycolsäure (PGA bzw. PGACL), teilweise mit Polylactid (PLA), Polydioxanon (PDO) und Polytetrafluorethylen (PTFE) kamen zur Anwendung. Die Fäden wurden mit L.acidophilus (LAC) beimpft, inkubiert und anschließen im Tensiometer mit verschiedenen Knotenvarianten getestet. Für die Keimbesiedlung (CFU) wurden die Fäden beimpft, inkubiert und das Keimmaterial anschließend mit Ultraschall- Vortex- Verfahren vom Faden abgelöst und ausgezählt. Dieses Verfahren wurde durch REM- Aufnahmen zusätzlich bewertet.
Ergebnisse: Reißfestigkeiten waren stets im Rahmen der Herstellerangaben bzw. darüber zu verzeichnen. Alle resorbierbaren Fäden hatten höhere Ausgangsreißkräfte als die nichtresorbierbaren Produkte. Die Applikation eines Knotens minderte ausschlaggebend für alle Produkte die maximale Reißfestigkeit eines Materials. Die Knotenhaltbarkeiten konnten sich während der Liegezeit im sauren wässrigen Milieu verändern. Die für klinische Anwendungen besten Ergebnisse verzeichneten PA als nichtresorbierbare, monofiles PDO und polyfiles PGA/PLA + CHX als resorbierbare Vertreter. Eine erhöhte CFU-Zahl auf polyfilen Fäden im Vergleich zu monofilen Fäden wurde bestätigt. Seide (polyfil, nicht resorbierbar) hatte mit Abstand die höchsten CFU, gefolgt von PGACL (polyfil, resorbierbar). PVDF (monofil, nichtresorbierbar) hatte die niedrigsten CFU- Werte. Im Schnitt war die CFU-Zahl von PGA/PLA+CHX (polyfil, resorbierbar) ähnlich hoch wie die von monofilen Produkten.
Diskussion: Die Annahme, dass eine Kontamination mit LAC den Heilungserfolg beeinflussen kann, wurde im Hinblick auf Materialermüdung durch Säureexposition aus Stoffwechselprodukten des Bakteriums entkräftet. Die für klinische Anwendungen besten Ergebnisse verzeichneten PA als nichtresorbierbare, polyfiles PGA/PLA + CHX als resorbierbare Vertreter. Alle getesteten Produkte entsprachen trotz LAC- Einwirkungen den Herstellerangaben und haben somit die materiellen Voraussetzungen einer vorhersagbaren Nahthaltbarkeit erbracht.
Intraperitoneal adhesions are fibrous bands that connect tissues in the peritoneal cavity that are usually separated. These adhesions form as a consequence of trauma, inflammation or surgical interventions and often result in severe consequences such as chronic pain, small bowel obstructions or female infertility.
The aim of this thesis was to develop a synthetic barrier device for adhesion prevention made of modified poly(lactide) [PLA]. Solid PLA films (SurgiWrap®) are already successfully in clinical use due to the good biocompatibility and the biodegradability of the material resulting in non-toxic degradation products since lactic acid is naturally part of the metabolic circles of the human body. Considering the brittleness and stiffness of the films, the long degradation time of several months as well as the need for suturing, there is potential for optimization. Through a copolymerization with the hydrophilic poly(ethylene glycol) [PEG], a reduction of the degradation time was intendend. Moreover, the copolymerization should also lead to an improvement of the mechanical properties of the films since PEG acts as plasticizer for PLA. Linear PLA-PEG-PLA triblock copolymers as well as star-shaped PEG-PLA copolymers were synthesized via standard ring opening polymerization to tailor the barrier properties. Besides solid films, solution electrospun meshes from PLA and the synthesized PEG-PLA copolymers were investigated for a potential application as well. Since suturing of a barrier additionally induces adhesion formation, alginate coated membranes were prepared in order to achieve self-adhesiveness. With the intention to reduce infections and consequently inflammation, electrospun meshes and solvent cast films were loaded with the antibacterial drug triclosan and drug release as well as antibacterial efficacy was investigated.
Mechanical tests confirmed that through the variation of the PEG content and branching the mechanical properties can be tailored and are in good accordance with the glass transition temperatures [Tg] of the polymers. Consequently, potentially adequate mechanical properties for surgical handling as well as for the performance within the patient’s body were successfully achieved. Degradation studies revealed that the degradation time was significantly shorter for PEG-PLA membranes than for PLA films and with an appropriate PEG content could be adjusted to the intended time frame. Cell adhesion and viability tests confirmed the non-toxicity of the clinically used PLA films as well as of PEG-PLA films and meshes. With a bioadhesion test the benefit of an alginate coated side towards the pure PLA film concerning self-adhesiveness was successfully demonstrated. Moreover, optical evaluations and a T-peel test of different alginate coated PLA films showed that the cohesion between the chemically different layers was distinctly enhanced by the use of an appropriate PEG-PLA mesh as intermediate cohesion promoting layer. In in vitro release studies with triclosan loaded films a higher release was determined for PEG-PLA than for PLA films. In agar diffusion tests a higher and longer inhibition of staphylococcus aureus growth was observed confirming the release results. Moreover, drug loaded meshes (especially drug loaded after electrospinning) showed enhanced and elongated bacterial inhibition in comparison to films.
Additive manufacturing of scaffolds with sub-micron filaments via melt electrospinning writing
(2015)
The aim of this study was to explore the lower resolution limits of an electrohydrodynamic process combined with direct writing technology of polymer melts. Termed melt electrospinning writing, filaments are deposited layer-by-layer to produce discrete three-dimensional scaffolds for in vitro research. Through optimization of the parameters (flow rate, spinneret diameter, voltage, collector distance) for poly-ϵ-caprolactone, we could direct-write coherent scaffolds with ultrafine filaments, the smallest being 817 ± 165 nm. These low diameter filaments were deposited to form box-structures with a periodicity of 100.6 ± 5.1 μm and a height of 80 μm (50 stacked filaments; 100 overlap at intersections). We also observed oriented crystalline regions within such ultrafine filaments after annealing at 55 °C. The scaffolds were printed upon NCO-sP(EO-stat-PO)-coated glass slide surfaces and withstood frequent liquid exchanges with negligible scaffold detachment for at least 10 days in vitro.
Metals are the most used materials for implant devices, especially in orthopedics, but despite their long history of application issues such as material failure through wear and corrosion remain unsolved leading to a certain number of revision surgeries. Apart from the problems associated with insufficient material properties, another serious issue is an implant associated infection due to the formation of a biofilm on the surface of the material after implantation. Thus, improvements in implant technology are demanded, especially since there is a projected rise of implants needed in the future. Surface modification methods such as physical vapour deposition (PVD), oxygen diffusion hardening and electrochemical anodization have shown to be efficient methods to improve the surfaces of metallic bulk materials regarding biomedical issues. This thesis was focused on the development of functional PVD coatings that are suitable for further treatment with surface modification techniques originally developed for bulk metals. The aim was to precisely adjust the surface properties of the implant according to the targeted application to prevent possible failure mechanisms such as coating delamination, wear or the occurrence of post-operative infections.
Initially, tantalum layers with approx 5 µm thickness were deposited at elevated substrate temperatures on cp Ti by RF magnetron sputtering. Due to the high affinity of tantalum to oxygen, these coatings are known to provide a self healing capacity since the rapid oxide formation is known to close surface cracks. Here, the work aimed to reduce the abrupt change of mechanical properties between the hard and brittle coating and the ductile substrate by creating an oxygen diffusion zone. It was found that the hardness and adhesion could be significantly increased when the coatings were treated afterwards by oxygen diffusion hardening in a two step process. Firstly, the surface was oxidized at a pressure of 6.7•10-3 mbar at 350 450 °C, followed by 1-2 h annealing in oxygen-free atmosphere at the same temperature leading to a diffusion of oxygen atoms into deeper parts of the substrate as proved by X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis. The hereby caused mechanical stress in the crystal lattice led to an increase in Vickers hardness of the Ta layers from 570 HV to over 900 HV. Investigations into the adhesion of oxygen diffusion treated samples by Rockwell measurements demonstrated an increase of critical force for coating delamination from 12 N for untreated samples up to 25 N for diffusion treated samples.
In a second approach, the development of modular targets aimed to produce functional coatings by metallic doping of titanium with biologically active agents. This was demonstrated by the fabrication of antimicrobial Ti(Ag) coatings using a single magnetron sputtering source equipped with a titanium target containing implemented silver modules under variation of bias voltage and substrate temperature. The deposition of both Ti and Ag was confirmed by X-ray diffraction and a clear correlation between the applied sputtering parameters and the silver content of the coatings was demonstrated by ICP-MS and EDX. Surface-sensitive XPS measurements revealed that higher substrate temperatures led to an accumulation of Ag in the near-surface region, while the application of a bias voltage had the opposite effect. SEM and AFM microscopy revealed that substrate heating during film deposition supported the formation of even and dense surface layers with small roughness values, which could even be enforced by applying a substrate bias voltage. Additional elution measurements using ICP-MS showed that the release kinetics depended on the amount of silver located at the film surface and hence could be tailored by variation of the sputter parameters.
In a final step, the applied Ti and Ti(Ag) coatings deposited on cp Ti, stainless steel (316L) and glass substrates were subsequently nanostructured using a self-ordering process induced by electrochemical anodization in aqueous fluoride containing electrolytes. SEM analysis showed that nanotube arrays could be grown from the Ti and Ti(Ag) coatings deposited at elevated temperatures on any substrate, whereby no influence of the substrate on nanotube morphology could be observed. EDX measurements indicated that the anodization process led to the selective etching of Ti from Ti(Ag) coating. Further experiments on coatings deposited on glass surfaces revealed that moderate substrate temperatures during deposition resulting in smooth Ti layers as determined by AFM measurements, are favorable for the generation of highly ordered nanotube arrays. Such arrays exhibited superhydrophilic behavior as proved by contact angle measurements. XRD analysis revealed that the nanostructured coatings were amorphous after anodization but could be crystallized to anatase structure by thermal treatment at temperatures of 450°C.
The key hypothesis of this work represented the question, if mimicking the zonal composition and structural porosity of musculoskeletal tissues influences invading cells positively and leads to advantageous results for tissue engineering. Conventional approaches in tissue engineering are limited in producing monolithic “scaffolds” that provide locally variating biological key signals and pore architectures, imitating the alignment of collagenous fibres in bone and cartilage tissues, respectively. In order to fill this gap in available tissue engineering strategies, a new fabrication technique was evolved for the production of scaffolds to validate the hypothesis.
Therefore, a new solidification based platform procedure was developed. This process comprises the directional solidification of multiple flowable precursors that are “cryostructured” to prepare a controlled anisotropic pore structure. Porous scaffolds are attained through ice crystal removal by lyophilisation. Optionally, electrostatic spinning of polymers may be applied to provide an external mesh on top or around the scaffolds. A consolidation step generates monolithic matrices from multi zonal structures. To serve as matrix for tissue engineering approaches or direct implantation as medical device, the scaffold is sterilized.
An Adjustable Cryostructuring Device (ACD) was successively developed; individual parts were conceptualized by computer aided design (CAD) and assembled. During optimisation, a significant performance improvement of the ACDs accessible external temperature gradient was achieved, from (1.3 ± 0.1) K/mm to (9.0 ± 0.1) K/mm. Additionally, four different configurations of the device were made available that enabled the directional solidification of collagenous precursors in a highly controlled manner with various sample sizes and shapes.
By using alginate as a model substance the process was systematically evaluated. Cryostructuring diagraphs were analysed yielding solidification parameters, which were associated to pore sizes and alignments that were determined by image processing. Thereby, a precise control over pore size and alignment through electrical regulation of the ACD could be demonstrated.
To obtain tissue mimetic scaffolds for the musculoskeletal system, collagens and calcium phosphates had to be prepared to serve as raw materials. Extraction and purification protocols were established to generate collagen I and collagen II, while the calcium phosphates brushite and hydroxyapatite were produced by precipitation reactions.
Besides the successive augmentation of the ACD also an optimization of the processing steps was crucial. Firstly, the concentrations and the individual behaviour of respective precursor components had to be screened. Together with the insights gained by videographic examination of solidifying collagen solutions, essential knowledge was gained that facilitated the production of more complex scaffolds. Phenomena of ice crystal growth during cryostructuring were discussed. By evolutionary steps, a cryostructuring of multi-layered precursors with consecutive anisotropic pores could be achieved and successfully transferred from alginate to collagenous precursors. Finally, very smooth interfaces that were hardly detectable by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) could be attained. For the used collagenous systems, a dependency relation between adjustable processing parameters and different resulting solidification morphologies was created.
Dehydrothermal-, diisocyanate-, and carbodiimide- based cross linking methods were evaluated, whereby the “zero length” cross linking by carbodiimide was found to be most suitable. Afterwards, a formulation for the cross linking solution was elaborated, which generated favourable outcomes by application inside a reduced pressure apparatus. As a consequence, a pore collapse during wet chemical cross linking could be avoided.
Complex monolithic scaffolds featuring continuous pores were fabricated that mimicked structure and respective composition of different areas of native tissues by the presence of biochemical key stimulants. At first, three types of bone scaffolds were produced from collagen I and hydroxyapatite with appropriate sizes to fit critical sized defects in rat femurs. They either featured an isotropic or anisotropic porosity and partly also contained glycosaminoglycans (GAGs). Furthermore, meniscus scaffolds were prepared by processing two precursors with biomimetic contents of collagen I, collagen II and GAGs. Here, the pore structures were created under boundary conditions, which allowed an ice crystal growth that was nearly orthogonal to the external temperature gradient. Thereby, the preferential alignment of collagen fibres in the natural meniscus tissue could be mimicked. Those scaffolds owned appropriate sizes for cell culture in well plates or even an authentic meniscus shape and size. Finally, osteochondral scaffolds, sized to either fit well plates or perfusion reactors for cell culture, were fabricated to mimic the composition of subchondral bone and different cartilage zones. Collagen I and the resorbable calcium phosphate brushite were used for the subchondral zone, whereas the cartilage zones were composed out of collagen I, collagen II and tissue mimetic contents of GAGs. The pore structure corresponded to the one that is dominating the volume of natural osteochondral tissue.
Energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) and SEM were used to analyse the composition and pore structure of the individual scaffold zones, respectively. The cross section pore diameters were determined to (65 ± 25) µm, (88 ± 35) µm and(93 ± 42) µm for the anisotropic, the isotropic and GAG containing isotropic bone scaffolds. Furthermore, the meniscus scaffolds showed pore diameters of (93 ± 21) µm in the inner meniscus zone and (248 ± 63) µm inside the outer meniscus zone. Pore sizes of (82 ± 25) µm, (83 ± 29) µm and (85 ± 39) µm were present inside the subchondral, the lower chondral and the upper chondral zone of osteochondral scaffolds. Depending on the fabrication parameters, the respective scaffold zones were also found to feature a specific micro- and nanostructure at their inner surfaces.
Degradation studies were carried out under physiological conditions and resulted in a mean mass loss of (0.52 ± 0.13) %, (1.56 ± 0.10) % and (0.80 ± 0.10) % per day for bone, meniscus and osteochondral scaffolds, respectively. Rheological measurements were used to determine the viscosity changes upon cooling of different precursors. Micro computer tomography (µ-CT) investigations were applied to characterize the 3D microstructure of osteochondral scaffolds. To obtain an osteochondral scaffold with four zones of tissue mimetic microstructure alignment, a poly (D, L-lactide-co-glycolide) mesh was deposited on the upper chondral zone by electrostatic spinning. In case of the bone scaffolds, the retention / release capacity of bone morphogenetic protein 2 (BMP-2) was evaluated by an enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Due to the high presence of attractive BMP binding sites, only less than 0.1 % of the initially loaded cytokine was released. The suitability of combining the cryostructuring process with 3D powder printed calcium phosphate substrates was evaluated with osteochondral scaffolds, but did not appear to yield more preferable results than the non-combined approach.
A new custom build confined compression setup was elaborated together with a suitable evaluation procedure for the mechanical characterisation under physiological conditions. For bone and cartilage scaffolds, apparent elastic moduli of (37.6 ± 6.9) kPa and (3.14 ± 0.85) kPa were measured. A similar behaviour of the scaffolds to natural cartilage and bone tissue was demonstrated in terms of elastic energy storage. Under physiological frequencies, less than 1.0 % and 0.8 % of the exerted energy was lost for bone and cartilage scaffolds, respectively. With average relaxation times of (0.613 ± 0.040) sec and (0.815 ± 0.077) sec, measured for the cartilage and bone scaffolds, they respond four orders of magnitude faster than the native tissues. Additionally, all kinds of produced scaffolds were able to withstand cyclic compression at un-physiological frequencies as high as 20 Hz without a loss in structural integrity.
With the presented new method, scaffolds could be fabricated whose extent in mimicking of native tissues exceeded the one of scaffolds producible by state of the art methods. This allowed a testing of the key hypothesis: The biological evaluation of an anisotropic pore structure in vivo revealed a higher functionality of immigrated cells and led finally to advantageous healing outcomes. Moreover, the mimicking of local compositions in combination with a consecutive anisotropic porosity that approaches native tissue structures could be demonstrated to induce zone specific matrix remodelling in stem cells in vitro. Additionally, clues for a zone specific chondrogenic stem cell differentiation were attained without the supplementation of growth factors.
Thereby, the hypothesis that an increased approximation of the hierarchically compositional and structurally anisotropic properties of musculoskeletal tissues would lead to an improved cellular response and a better healing quality, could be confirmed. With a special focus on cell free in situ tissue engineering approaches, the insights gained within this thesis may be directly transferred to clinical regenerative therapies.
Chemoselective poly(oxazolines) (POx) and poly[(oligo ethylene glycol) acrylates] were synthesized. An initiator was produced for the preparation of poly(oxazoline)s capable of participating in click chemistry reactions which allows the functionalization of the polymer at the α terminus which was confirmed by 1H NMR spectroscopy. The initiator was used for the polymerization of hydrophilic 2 methyl 2 oxazoline (MeOx), whereby chemoselective, alkyne functionalized polymers could be prepared for Cu-catalyzed azide–alkyne cycloaddition. The desired molecular weight could be achieved through the living, ring opening cationic polymerization and was confirmed by 1H NMR, SEC and MALDI ToF measurements. Polymers were terminated with piperidine if no further functionalization was needed, or with an ester derivate for enabling amine attachment in a subsequent step. In addition, polymers were functionalized by termination with NaN3 in order to provide the counterpart to the azide–alkyne reaction. IR spectroscopy was suitable for the azide detection. The coupling of polymers showed the reactivity and could be confirmed by SEC, 1H NMR and IR spectroscopy.
The composition of cysteine functionalized POx was completed by thiol–ene chemistry. Since the commercially available iso 2 propyl 2 oxazoline is not available for the cationic polymerization, 2 butenyl and 2 decenyl 2 oxazoline (ButenOx and DecenOx) were first prepared. The synthesis of both copolymers, based on MeOx could be confirmed by 1H NMR as well as with SEC, whereby narrow distributions with dispersities of 1.06 could be achieved. The cysteine functionalization of the copolymers was enabled by the creation of a thiazolidine component which could be synthesized by acetal and formyl protection of cysteine and subsequent functionalization with a thiol. The component enabled the reaction with a polymer by thiol–ene reaction which was started by the addition of dimethoxyphenyl-acetophenone and was catalyzed by irradiation with UV light. Both copolymers, with a shorter (polymers with BuenOx) and longer (polymers with DecenOx) hydrophobic sidechain could be functionalized. 1H NMR spectroscopic analysis showed a quantitative reaction with the thiazolidine derivate. After deprotection by acidic workup the desired, cysteine functionalized polymer could be isolated. Quantification of cysteine functions was ensured by a modified TNBSA assay, whereby the thiols were first oxidized in order to confirm an independent measurement of amine functions. Both, the TNBSA assay as well as the NMR measurement showed the desired number of cysteine residues.
The cytotoxicity of functionalized polymers with different compositions was tested by a luminescent cell viability assay (LCVA). Both, the amount of cysteine functions (5–10%) in the copolymers as well as the length of the hydrophobic side chain were varied. All polymers did not show cytotoxicity up to concentrations of 10 mg∙mL-1. The cell activity and cell numbers only decreased below 50% and 20% respectively, when copolymers with 5% cysteine and longer sidechains were measured, which was attributed to a contamination of the sample itself. The cooperation partner performed Native Chemical Ligation (NCL) with model peptides and purified the products by HPLC. A sterically non demanding peptide was synthesized, consisting of an aromatic amino acid and four glycine units. The aromatic unit was used for the quantification of the polymer–peptide conjugate in the 1H NMR spectroscopy. A polymer having five cysteine side chains has been fully implemented by NCL to a conjugate of one polymer with five peptides. A sterically more demanding peptide was additionally used and MALDI ToF measurements confirmed the successful conjugation.
Furthermore the cysteine functionalized polymer was used for nanogel synthesis. The thiol of the cysteine function was oxidized in an inverse mini-emulsion by H2O2, resulting in nanogels (~500 nm) which could be confirmed by SEM, AFM, DLS and NTA measurements.
Besides POx, oligo (ethylene glycol)acrylates (OEGA) were polymerized; by copolymerization with the reactive pentafluorophenyl acrylate (PFPA) reactive and amphiphilic polymers were obtained. The synthesis of PFPA could be confirmed spectroscopically by 1H , 19F NMR, and by FT IR. Copolymers were synthesized by RAFT polymerization with narrow dispersities. Functionalization with an amine functionalized thiazolidine led to a hydrophilic cysteine functionalized polymer after acidic deprotection. Apart from this polymer, a thioester functionalization was successfully performed by reaction of the active polymer with a cyclic amine functionalized thioester which does not release a toxic by product (such as the resulting thiol) during NCL and thus features a very high potential to replace former thioester.
Background
There is a need to establish more cell lines from breast tumors in contrast to immortalized cell lines from metastatic effusions in order to represent the primary tumor and not principally metastatic biology of breast cancer. This investigation describes the simultaneous isolation, characterization, growth and function of primary mammary epithelial cells (MEC), mesenchymal cells (MES) and adipose derived stem cells (ADSC) from four normal breasts, one inflammatory and one triple-negative ductal breast tumors.
Methods
A total of 17 cell lines were established and gene expression was analyzed for MEC and MES (n = 42) and ADSC (n = 48) and MUC1, pan-KRT, CD90 and GATA-3 by immunofluorescence. DNA fingerprinting to track cell line identity was performed between original primary tissues and isolates. Functional studies included ADSC differentiation, tumor MES and MEC invasion co-cultured with ADSC-conditioned media (CM) and MES adhesion and growth on 3D-printed scaffolds.
Results
Comparative analysis showed higher gene expression of EPCAM, CD49f, CDH1 and KRTs for normal MEC lines; MES lines e.g. Vimentin, CD10, ACTA2 and MMP9; and ADSC lines e.g. CD105, CD90, CDH2 and CDH11. Compared to the mean of all four normal breast cell lines, both breast tumor cell lines demonstrated significantly lower ADSC marker gene expression, but higher expression of mesenchymal and invasion gene markers like SNAI1 and MMP2. When compared with four normal ADSC differentiated lineages, both tumor ADSC showed impaired osteogenic and chondrogenic but enhanced adipogenic differentiation and endothelial-like structures, possibly due to high PDGFRB and CD34. Addressing a functional role for overproduction of adipocytes, we initiated 3D-invasion studies including different cell types from the same patient. CM from ADSC differentiating into adipocytes induced tumor MEC 3D-invasion via EMT and amoeboid phenotypes. Normal MES breast cells adhered and proliferated on 3D-printed scaffolds containing 20 fibers, but not on 2.5D-printed scaffolds with single fiber layers, important for tissue engineering.
Conclusion
Expression analyses confirmed successful simultaneous cell isolations of three different phenotypes from normal and tumor primary breast tissues. Our cell culture studies support that breast-tumor environment differentially regulates tumor ADSC plasticity as well as cell invasion and demonstrates applications for regenerative medicine.
Bisher getestete Knochenkleber zeigen häufig geringe Klebeeigenschaften auf Knochen bei Zutritt von Feuchtigkeit. Gegenstand dieser Arbeit war es, die Haftfähigkeit im feuchten Milieu zu verbessern. Hierfür wurde der Einfluss sternförmiger, mit Isocyanaten funktionalisierter Poly(ethylenglykol) Moleküle (NCO-sP(EO-stat-PO)) auf die Klebefestigkeit und Alterungsbeständigkeit einer photopolymerisierbaren Poly(ethylenglykol)dimethacrylat-Basis (PEGDMA) untersucht. Die Polymerisation mittels energiereicher Strahlung erlaubt hohe Reaktionsraten bei Körpertemperatur sowie zeitliche und örtliche Kontrolle über die Polymerisationsreaktion. Durch den Zusatz degradierbarer, keramischer Füllstoffe auf Calciumsulfat- und Magnesiumphosphat-Basis in die Matrix sollten durch Lösungsprozesse Poren geschaffen werden. Diese könnten das Einwachsen neuer Knochensubstanz in das ausgehärtete Material ermöglichen. Die Veränderungen der kristallinen Strukturen wurden mittels Röntgendiffraktometrie beobachtet. Zudem wurden die Proben infrarotspektroskopisch und mikroskopisch untersucht. Die Klebefestigkeit auf kortikalem Rinderknochen im Abscherversuch ebenso wie die Biegefestigkeit vor und nach Lagerung in feuchter Umgebung wurde unter Variation des NCO-sP(EO-stat-PO)-Gehaltes ermittelt. Anschließend sollten die mikroskopische Analyse und energiedispersive Röntgenspektrometrie (EDX) Aufschluss über das Bruchverhalten des Materials beim Klebeversuch geben.
Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass durch die Zugabe von 20 bis 40 Gew.-% NCO sP(EO-stat-PO) zur Matrix die Klebefestigkeit auf Knochen von initial etwa 0,15 bis 0,2 MPa auf etwa 0,3 bis 0,5 MPa gesteigert werden kann. Während alle Referenzproben ihre Haftung an Knochen innerhalb von weniger als 24 Stunden verloren, zeigten Proben mit NCO sP(EO-stat-PO) auch nach 7-tägiger Lagerung noch Festigkeiten von 0,18 bis 0,25 MPa. Die höchste Festigkeit nach 7 Tagen war bei Proben mit dem Füllstoff Newberyit und einem NCO-sP(EO-stat-PO)-Anteil von 40 Gew.-% zu verzeichnen. Diese Proben wiesen auch in der mikroskopischen Analyse und im EDX eindeutig ein rein kohäsives Versagen auf. 20%-ige Proben zeigten zumindest in geringem Maße auch adhäsives Versagen.
Die 3-Punkt Biegefestigkeit lag initial bei 3,5 bis 5,5 MPa. Durch die Lagerung in PBS sank die Festigkeit auf ~1 MPa. Die Zugabe von NCO-sP(EO-stat-PO) und die Art des eingesetzten Füllstoffes hatten kaum einen Einfluss auf diese.
Gegenstand der vorliegenden Arbeit war eine systematische Analyse der Ver-arbeitbarkeit, Abbindedauer, pH Wert- und Temperatur-Verläufe während des Abbindens und der Eigenschaften der ausgehärteten Zementpaste, welche je-weils aus Farringtonit (Mg3(PO4)2) unterschiedlicher Reaktivität bestand und mit Diammoniumhydrogenphosphat und Polyacrylsäure zur Reaktion gebracht und konventionellen wässrigen Zementsystemen gegenübergestellt wurde.
Ein besonderer Fokus wurde hierbei auf die Beurteilbarkeit der Eignung dieser Zementsysteme als injizierbare Zementpasten in möglicherweise lasttragenden Bereichen gelegt. Eine Reaktivierung von Farringtonit und anschließendes Ab-binden mit Wasser konnte durch Hochenergiemahlung für 2 h bis 24 h erzielt werden. Mechanisch aktiviertes Farringtonit mit Polyacrylsäure (100.000 g/mol) bzw. kurzzeitig gemahlenes Farringtonit mit höher molekulargewichtiger Polyac-rylsäure führte auf Grund der zum Teil summierten Reaktivität in der sauren Umgebung der Polyacrylsäure zu einer schlechten Verarbeitbarkeit und unzu-reichenden Druckfestigkeiten. Um chelatisiertes Farringtonit mit angemessenen Festigkeiten zu erhalten, zeigte sich die Anwesenheit von Ammoniumionen als vielversprechende Strategie. Als hydratisierte Produkte wurden je nach Formu-lierung Struvit (MgNH4PO4·6H2O), Newberyit (MgHPO4·3H2O) oder Mag-nesiumphosphathydrat (Mg3(PO4)2·22H2O) gewonnen. Besonders die Kombina-tion von kurzzeitig gemahlenem Farringtonit mit 17,5 Gew.%iger Poly-acrylsäure Lösung und 23,1 Gew.%iger Diammoniumhydrogenphos-phat Lösung mit einem Pulver-zu-Flüssigkeitsverhältnis von 1,5 g/ml führte zu Zementpasten, die hinsichtlich ihres Abbindeverhaltens und der mechanischen Eigenschaften denen der Einzelbestandteile überlegen waren.
Die entwickelten Zementsysteme zeigten 60 min nach Beginn des Abbindevor-gangs einen pH-Wert von 4,7 bis 6,4 und Temperaturmaxima von 28,5 °C bis 52 °C je nach Zusammensetzung. Der Mischzement, für welchen maximale Druckfestigkeiten von 15,0±4,1 MPa gemessen wurden, zeigte ein deutlich we-niger sprödes Bruchverhalten im Vergleich zu den reinen Verdünnungen. Da der spröde Charakter klassischer mineralische Knochenzemente einen limitie-renden Faktor für die Anwendung in lasttragenden Bereichen darstellt, kann dies als deutliche Verbesserung der mechanischen Eigenschaften beurteilt wer-den. Immerhin lagen die erzielten Festigkeitswerte in der Größenordnung der humanen Spongiosa. Besonders hervorzuheben ist außerdem der synergisti-sche Effekt, welcher bei Zementformulierungen aus kurzzeitig gemahlenem Farringtonit mit 17,5 Gew.%iger Polyacrylsäure Lösung und 23,1 Gew.%iger Diammoniumhydrogenphosphat Lösung mit einem Pulver-zu-Flüssigkeitsver-hältnis von 1,5 g/ml beobachtet werden konnte. Diese Formulierung wies bis zu vierfach höhere Festigkeitswerte als die Einzelbestandteile auf. Somit bildet das entwickelte Mischzement-System eine gute Basis für weitere Entwicklungen hin zu mechanisch lasttragenden Defekten.
The development and formulation of printable inks for extrusion-based 3D bioprinting has been a major challenge in the field of biofabrication. Inks, often polymer solutions with the addition of crosslinking to form hydrogels, must not only display adequate mechanical properties for the chosen application but also show high biocompatibility as well as printability. Here we describe a reproducible two-step method for the assessment of the printability of inks for bioprinting, focussing firstly on screening ink formulations to assess fibre formation and the ability to form 3D constructs before presenting a method for the rheological evaluation of inks to characterise the yield point, shear thinning and recovery behaviour. In conjunction, a mathematical model was formulated to provide a theoretical understanding of the pressure-driven, shear thinning extrusion of inks through needles in a bioprinter. The assessment methods were trialled with a commercially available crème, poloxamer 407, alginate-based inks and an alginate-gelatine composite material. Yield stress was investigated by applying a stress ramp to a number of inks, which demonstrated the necessity of high yield for printable materials. The shear thinning behaviour of the inks was then characterised by quantifying the degree of shear thinning and using the mathematical model to predict the window of printer operating parameters in which the materials could be printed. Furthermore, the model predicted high shear conditions and high residence times for cells at the walls of the needle and effects on cytocompatibility at different printing conditions. Finally, the ability of the materials to recover to their original viscosity after extrusion was examined using rotational recovery rheological measurements. Taken together, these assessment techniques revealed significant insights into the requirements for printable inks and shear conditions present during the extrusion process and allow the rapid and reproducible characterisation of a wide variety of inks for bioprinting.
Calcium phosphate biocements are inherently brittle materials due to their ceramic nature. Hence, currently applied cement formulations are only indicated for non-load bearing application sites. An approach to reduce cement brittleness is based on the use of cement – polymer composites, which combine the flexibility of a polymeric phase with the hardness and compression strength of a cement matrix. Here, a relatively new strategy is the use of “dual-setting” cements, in which the polymeric phase is simultaneously build up from monomers or prepolymers during cement setting. This approach largely maintains basic properties of the fresh paste such as rheology or setting time. Previous works on such dual setting cements were dealing with a radical polymerization reaction to create the polymeric network. This type of reaction requires the addition of a suitable initiator system (e.g. a tertiary amine in conjunction with ammonium peroxosulfate), which are often cytotoxic and may interfere with the cement setting conditions. The current thesis dealt with alternative strategies, in which the cross-linking and gelation of the second (polymeric or inorganic) cement phase is initiated by the chemical conditions of the setting reaction such that no additional initiator has to be added to the cement paste.
In a first approach a six armed star molecule functionalized with isocyanate groups as reactive termini (NCO–sP(EO-stat-PO)) was used to build up a hydrogel matrix, which was then subsequently mineralized with hydroxyapatite nanocrystals following the hydrolysis of incorporated -tricalcium phosphate particles. The stimulus to initiate hydrogel cross-linking are water molecules, which subsequently hydrolyzed isocyanate groups to amines, which then cross-linked with unreacted isocyanate to form urea-bonds. Here, it was possible to show the advantages features of a dual setting system in comparison to the simple combination of hydrogels with unreactive filler particles. By the formation of the cement matrix within the hydrogel a strength improvement by the factor of 30 could be observed. Furthermore, by applying a dual setting system higher mineral concentrations are realizable. The mechanical properties such as elasticity, compression strength and E-modulus of a composite with 30 wt% NCO–sP(EO-stat-PO) were found to be similar to the properties of cancellous bone.
With the motivation to develop a dual setting and resorbable cement, a brushite (CaHPO4·2H2O) forming cement was modified with a second inorganic silica based precursor. The latter was obtained by pre-hydrolysing tetraethyl orthosilicate (TEOS) under acidic conditions. This silica precursor was mixed with a cement powder composed of ß-tricalcium phosphate and monocalcium phosphate, whereas cement setting occurred by a dissolution–precipitation process to form a matrix of brushite. Simultaneously, the increase of the pH during setting from initially 1-2 to values > 4 initiated the condensation reaction of the hydrolysed TEOS. This resulted in an interpenetrating phase composite material in which the micropores of the cement were filled with the nanoporous silica gel. This resulted in a higher density and a compressive strength of 24 MPa, which is approximately 5-10 times higher than the CPC reference at the same powder to liquid ratio. The microporous character of the composites also altered the release of vancomycin as a model drug, whereby in contrast to the quantitative release from the CPC reference, approx. 25 % of the immobilised drug remained in the composite matrix. It was also observed, that a variation of the TEOS content in the composite enabled a control over cement phase composition to form either brushite, anhydrous monetite or a biphasic mixture of both. Cytocompatibility tests revealed that composites with the highest silicate content showed an increased cell proliferation compared to the silica-free brushite reference. Proliferation was found to be similar to a hydroxyapatite reference with a significant higher activity per cell. Mechanistically, the improved biological response could not be attributed to the released silicate ions, but to a decreased release of phosphate and adsorption of magnesium ions from the cell culture medium.
Finally, an investigated dual setting cement system was based on the combination of a brushite forming cement powder with an aqueous silk fibroin solution. Here, changes of both ion concentration and pH during cement setting were shown to build up an interpenetrating fibroin – brushite composite with combined properties of the elastic polymer and the rigid cement. Mechanistically, the low pH of the cement paste (2) as well as the free Ca2+ ions during setting resulted in a conformation change of the dissolved fibroin from random coil to ß-sheet structure. This leads to a rapid gelation and contraction of the fibroin phase with a self-densifying effect on the cement paste. The set composites showed typical ductile fracture behavior under dry testing conditions and a high elasticity under wet conditions with a mechanical strength nearly an order of magnitude higher than the fibroin free cement reference. Cell number and activity against MG63 cells were strongly increased on silk fibroin cement composite surfaces at later time points, which could be again attributed to a decreased ion release and adsorption compared to the fibroin free cements. This in turn slowed down the in vitro degradation of the CPC phase in such composites.
Intercellular adhesion plays a major role in tissue development and homeostasis. Yet, technologies to measure mature cell-cell contacts are not available. We introduce a methodology based on fluidic probe force microscopy to assess cell-cell adhesion forces after formation of mature intercellular contacts in cell monolayers. With this method we quantify that L929 fibroblasts exhibit negligible cell-cell adhesion in monolayers whereas human endothelial cells from the umbilical artery (HUAECs) exert strong intercellular adhesion forces per cell. We use a new in vitro model based on the overexpression of Muscle Segment Homeobox 1 (MSX1) to induce Endothelial-to-Mesenchymal Transition (EndMT), a process involved in cardiovascular development and disease. We reveal how intercellular adhesion forces in monolayer decrease significantly at an early stage of EndMT and we show that cells undergo stiffening and flattening at this stage. This new biomechanical insight complements and expands the established standard biomolecular analyses. Our study thus introduces a novel tool for the assessment of mature intercellular adhesion forces in a physiological setting that will be of relevance to biological processes in developmental biology, tissue regeneration and diseases like cancer and fibrosis.
Dicalcium phosphate cement preparation requires the addition of setting retarders to meet clinical requirements regarding handling time and processability. Previous studies have focused on the influence of different setting modifiers on material properties such as mechanical performance or injectability, while ignoring their influence on biological cement properties as they are used in low concentrations in the cement pastes and the occurrence of most compounds in human tissues. Here, analyses of both material and biological behavior were carried out on samples with common setting retardants (citric acid, sodium pyrophosphate, sulfuric acid) and novel (phytic acid). Cytocompatibility was evaluated by in vitro tests with osteoblastic (hFOB 1.19) and osteoclastic (RAW 264.7) cells. We found cytocompatibility was better for sodium pyrophosphate and phytic acid with a three-fold cell metabolic activity by WST-1 test, whereas samples set with citric acid showed reduced cell number as well as cell activity. The compressive strength (CS) of cements formed with phytic acid (CS = 13 MPa) were nearly equal to those formed with citric acid (CS = 15 MPa) and approximately threefold higher than for other setting retardants. Due to a proven cytocompatibility and high mechanical strength, phytic acid seems to be a candidate replacement setting retardant for dicalcium phosphate cements.
The main focus of this thesis was the processing of different calcium and magnesium phosphate cements together with an optimization of mechanical and biological properties. Therefore, different manufacturing techniques like 3D powder printing and centrifugally casting were employed for the fabrication of reinforced or biomedically improved implants.
One of the main problems during 3D powder printing is the low green strength of many materials, especially when they are only physically bonded and do not undergo a setting reaction. Such materials need post-treatments like sintering to exhibit their full mechanical performance. However, the green bodies have to be removed from the printer requiring a certain stability. With the help of fiber reinforcement, the green strength of printed gypsum samples could be increased by the addition of polymeric and glass fibers within the printing process. The results showed that fiber reinforcement during 3D powder printing is possible and opens up diverse opportunities to enhance the damage tolerance of green bodies as well as directly printed samples. The transfer to biomedically relevant materials like calcium and magnesium phosphate cements and biocompatible fibers would be the next step towards reinforced patient-specific implants.
In a second approach, centrifugally casting derived from construction industries was established for the fabrication of hollow bioceramic cylinders. The aim was the replacement of the diaphysis of long bones, which exhibit a tubular structure with a high density of cortical bone on the fringe. By centrifugation, cement slurries with and without additives could be fabricated to tubes. As a first establishment, the processing parameters regarding the material (e.g. cement composition) as well as the set-up (e.g. rotation times) had to be optimized for each system. In respect of mechanics, such tubes can keep up with 3D powder printed tubes, although the mechanical performance of 3D printed tubes is strongly dependent on printing directions. Additionally, some material compositions like dual setting systems cannot be fabricated by 3D powder printing. Therefore, a transfer of such techniques to centrifugally casting enabled the fabrication of tubular structures with an extremely high damage tolerance due to high deformation ability. A similar effect was achieved by fiber (mesh) addition, as already shown for 3D powder printing. Another possibility of centrifugally casting is the combination of different materials resulting in graded structures to adjust implant degradation or bone formation. This became especially apparent for the incorporation of the antibiotic vancomycin, which is used for the treatment of bacterial implant infections. A long-term release could be achieved by the entrapment of the drug between magnesium phosphate cement layers. Therefore, the release of the drug could be regulated by the degradation of the outer shell, which supports the release into an acidic bacterial environment. The centrifugally casting technique exhibited to be a versatile tool for numerous materials and applications including the fabrication of non-centrosymmetric patient-specific implants for the reconstruction of human long bones.
The third project aimed to manufacture strontium-substituted magnesium phosphate implants with improved biological behavior by 3D powder printing. As the promoting effect of strontium on bone formation and the inhibitory impact on bone resorption is already well investigated, the incorporation of strontium into a degradable magnesium phosphate cement promised a fast integration and replacement of the implant. Porous structures were obtained with a high pore interconnectivity that is favorable for cell invasion and bone ingrowth. Despite the porosity, the mechanical performance was comparable to pure magnesium phosphate cement with a high reliability of the printed samples as quantitatively determined by Weibull statistics. However, the biological testing was impeded by the high degradation rate and the relating ion release. The high release of phosphate ions into surrounding media and the detachment of cement particles from the surface inhibited osteoblast growth and activity. To distinguish those two effects, a direct and indirect cell seeding is always required for degradable materials. Furthermore, the high phosphate release compared to the strontium release has to be managed during degradation such that the adverse effect of phosphate ions does not overwhelm the bone promoting effect of the strontium ions.
The manufacturing techniques presented in this thesis together with the material property improvement offer a diverse tool box for the fabrication of patient-specific implants. This includes not just the individual implant shape but also the application like bone growth promotion, damage tolerance and local drug delivery. Therefore, this can act as the basis for further research on specific medical indications.
Ziel dieser Arbeit war die Herstellung fluoreszent markierter Präpolymere sowie deren Optimierung, die kontrollierte und reproduzierbare Synthese von redox-sensitiven und nicht redox-sensitiven NG mit und ohne Fluoreszenzmarkierung in einem durchschnittlichen Partikelgrößenbereich von 150 – 300 nm und mit einer Konzentration > 10*10 Partikel/ml, die Charakterisierung der NG, ihre Untersuchung bezüglich ihrer Stabilität und des Assoziationsverhaltens zu BSA sowie die Erlangung von Erkenntnissen bezüglich des Aufnahmemechanismus der NG in Abhängigkeit vom Transportpeptid Tat.
Abschließend kann zusammenfassend gesagt werden:
1. Das große Potential von PG-basierten NG für biologische bzw. medizinische Einsatzgebiete konnte weiter untermauert werden.
2. Das mit Cy5-Alkin markierte PG PG-SH-Cy5 erscheint aufgrund des relativ hohen erreichten Markierungsgrades bei der Herstellung als aussichtsreichster Kandidat für weitere Untersuchungen. Diese Umsetzung besitzt noch Optimierungspotentiale bezüglich einer Verringerung des Polymerverlusts bei der Aufarbeitung, des erreichbaren Markierungsgrades und der Markierungsausbeute. Möglichkeiten, dies zu erreichen, wurden diskutiert.
3. Klare Aussagen über den Einfluss des esterhaltigen bzw. esterfreien Ausgangspolymers PG-SH auf die Konzentration und die Partikelgröße konnten aufgrund einer nicht ausreichenden Datenlage nicht getroffen werden.
4. Die esterhaltigen PG-SH-Moleküle erscheinen aufgrund ihrer Labilität gegenüber Hydrolyse für die NP-Synthese weniger geeignet (geringere Stabilität).
5. Die Charakterisierung der aus den markierten und unmarkierten Ausgangspolymeren hergestellten NG, welche teilweise zusätzlich mit dem Transportpeptid Tat funktionalisiert wurden, erfolgte mittels NTA und zeigt für die meisten Spezies relativ schmale, gut definierte, monomodale Größenverteilungen mit einem Maximum um 100-200 nm im Bereich von ca. 40 – max. 400 nm mit Partikelkonzentrationen im Bereich von 1010 - 1011 Partikeln/ml.
6. Insgesamt konnte gezeigt werden, dass der untersuchte, von PG-SH abgeleitete NP-Typ (z. B. NG_3, redox-sensitiv unmarkiert) aufgrund seiner Einheitlichkeit, Partikelgröße und der Reproduzierbarkeit der Herstellung als gut geeignet für den geplanten Einsatz in biologischen Systemen erscheint. Von den weiter derivatisierten NG erscheinen die folgenden aufgrund der oben geschilderten Kriterien als besonders geeignet für den geplanten Einsatz in biologischen Systemen und weiterer Untersuchungen wert: NG680_(TAT)_1-4 (redox-sensitiv, markiert), NGCy5_(TAT)_1 (redox-sensitiv, markiert), NG_MA_2 (nicht redox-sensitiv, unmarkiert), NGCy7_MA_1 (nicht redox-sensitiv, markiert). Aufgrund des relativ hohen erreichbaren Markierungsgrades bei der Markierung der Ausgangspolymere erscheinen die mit Cy5-markierten Verbindungen als besonders vorteilhaft.
7. Die esterfreien, redox-sensitiven NP erwiesen sich bei 14-tägiger Lagerung unter physiologischen Bedingungen als stabil. Ihre Konzentration nahm über 14 Tage um ca. 60 % vom Ausgangswert ab. Gleichzeitig nahm der Teilchendurchmesser während des Beobachtungszeitraums um ca. 25 % zu. Die Abnahme der Teilchenzahl ist - zumindest teilweise - durch eine Vergrößerung des mittleren Teilchendurchmessers und mögliche Adsorptionseffekte an die Gefäßwände des Versuchsaufbaus zu erklären.
8. Die Konzentration der esterfreien, nicht redox-sensitiven NP verringert sich bei 14-tägiger Inkubation unter physiologischen Bedingungen deutlich auf ca. 10 % des Ausgangswerts. Der mittlere Durchmesser der Partikel bleibt innerhalb des Untersuchungszeitraums innerhalb der Fehlergrenzen konstant. Die starke Abnahme der Partikelkonzentration ist wahrscheinlich auf die Hydrolyse des verwendeten esterhaltigen Crosslinkers PEGDA zurückzuführen. Desweiteren sind Adsorptionsphänomene an Oberflächen des Versuchsaufbaus nicht auszuschließen. Insgesamt hervorzuheben ist die wesentlich höhere Stabiliät der redox-sensitiven NP unter den Versuchsbedingungen. Diese Substanzklasse sollte daher weiter verfolgt werden.
9. Es wurde gezeigt, dass sowohl die NG, die das Aufnahmeprotein Tat enthalten, als auch die NG ohne Tat mit Fluoreszenz-markiertem BSA (8,3 µg/ml) wechselwirken und zusammen mit diesem bei der Zentrifugation abgeschieden werden. Über die Art der Wechselwirkung kann keine Aussage getroffen werden.
10. Durch in vitro Zellaufnahmeuntersuchungen an Hela-Zellen konnte gezeigt werden, dass die mit Tat funktionalisierten, redox-sensitiven, Fluoreszenz-markierten NP von den Zellen aufgenommen werden. Die Aufnahme erfolgt über eine deutlich erkennbare Vesikelbildung, die an der Plasmamembran verstärkt beobachtet werden kann. Im Gegensatz hierzu konnte bei den nicht mit Tat funktionalisierten NP keine vergleichbare in vitro Zellaufnahme beobachtet werden.
Die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit bestätigen insgesamt das große Potential der von Thiol-funktionalisierten PG abgeleiteten NG für die medizinische Forschung und zukünftige Anwendungen in der Diagnostik und Therapie. Es wird eine Reihe von Ansatzpunkten aufgezeigt, auf deren Basis weitere vertiefende Untersuchungen zur Charakterisierung und Optimierung sowie zu zukünftigen nutzbringenden Anwendungen vorgenommen werden sollten.
In order to mimic the extracellular matrix for tissue engineering, recent research approaches often involve 3D printing or electrospinning of fibres to scaffolds as cell carrier material. Within this thesis, a micron fibre printing process, called melt electrospinning writing (MEW), combining both additive manufacturing and electrospinning, has been investigated and improved. Thus, a unique device was developed for accurate process control and manufacturing of high quality constructs. Thereby, different studies could be conducted in order to understand the electrohydrodynamic printing behaviour of different medically relevant thermoplastics as well as to characterise the influence of MEW on the resulting scaffold performance.
For reproducible scaffold printing, a commonly occurring processing instability was investigated and defined as pulsing, or in extreme cases as long beading. Here, processing analysis could be performed with the aim to overcome those instabilities and prevent the resulting manufacturing issues. Two different biocompatible polymers were utilised for this study: poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL) as the only material available for MEW until then and poly(2-ethyl-2-oxazoline) for the first time. A hypothesis including the dependency of pulsing regarding involved mass flows regulated by the feeding pressure and the electrical field strength could be presented. Further, a guide via fibre diameter quantification was established to assess and accomplish high quality printing of scaffolds for subsequent research tasks.
By following a combined approach including small sized spinnerets, small flow rates and high field strengths, PCL fibres with submicron-sized fibre diameters (fØ = 817 ± 165 nm) were deposited to defined scaffolds. The resulting material characteristics could be investigated regarding molecular orientation and morphological aspects. Thereby, an alignment and isotropic crystallinity was observed that can be attributed to the distinct acceleration of the solidifying jet in the electrical field and by the collector uptake. Resulting submicron fibres formed accurate but mechanically sensitive structures requiring further preparation for a suitable use in cell biology. To overcome this handling issue, a coating procedure, by using hydrophilic and cross-linkable star-shaped molecules for preparing fibre adhesive but cell repellent collector surfaces, was used.
Printing PCL fibre patterns below the critical translation speed (CTS) revealed the opportunity to manufacture sinusoidal shaped fibres analogously to those observed using purely viscous fluids falling on a moving belt. No significant influence of the high voltage field during MEW processing could be observed on the buckling phenomenon. A study on the sinusoidal geometry revealed increasing peak-to-peak values and decreasing wavelengths as a function of decreasing collector speeds sc between CTS > sc ≥ 2/3 CTS independent of feeding pressures. Resulting scaffolds printed at 100 %, 90 %, 80 % and 70 % of CTS exhibited significantly different tensile properties, foremost regarding Young’s moduli (E = 42 ± 7 MPa to 173 ± 22 MPa at 1 – 3 % strain). As known from literature, a changed morphology and mechanical environment can impact cell performance substantially leading to a new opportunity of tailoring TE scaffolds.
Further, poly(L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone-co-acryloyl carbonate) as well as poly(ε-caprolactone-co-acryloyl carbonate) (PCLAC) copolymers could be used for MEW printing. Those exhibit the opportunity for UV-initiated radical cross-linking in a post-processing step leading to significantly increased mechanical characteristics. Here, single fibres of the polymer composed of 90 mol.% CL and 10 mol.% AC showed a considerable maximum tensile strength of σmax = 53 ± 16 MPa. Furthermore, sinusoidal meanders made of PCLAC yielded a specific tensile stress-strain characteristic mimicking the qualitative behaviour of tendons or ligaments. Cell viability by L929 murine fibroblasts and live/dead staining with human mesenchymal stem cells revealed a promising biomaterial behaviour pointing out MEW printed PCLAC scaffolds as promising choice for medical repair of load-bearing soft tissue.
Indeed, one apparent drawback, the small throughput similar to other AM methods, may still prevent MEW’s industrial application yet. However, ongoing research focusses on enlargement of manufacturing speed with the clear perspective of relevant improvement. Thereby, the utilisation of large spinneret sizes may enable printing of high volume rates, while downsizing the resulting fibre diameter via electrical field and mechanical stretching by the collector uptake. Using this approach, limitations of FDM by small nozzle sizes could be overcome. Thinking visionary, such printing devices could be placed in hospitals for patient-specific printing-on-demand therapies one day. Taking the evolved high deposition precision combined with the unique small fibre diameter sizes into account, technical processing of high performance membranes, filters or functional surface finishes also stands to reason.
Knochenklebstoffe, welche eine unkonventionelle Möglichkeit im Bereich der chirurgischen Frakturversorgung darstellen, müssen bereits in vitro eine Reihe an klinischen Anforderungen erfüllen. Hinsichtlich entsprechender Prüfverfahren wurde noch keine Normierungsarbeit geleistet, weswegen Ergebnisse verschiedener Arbeiten schwierig vergleichbar sind.
Ziel der Arbeit war es daher Prüfverfahren vorzustellen, welche die Besonderheiten des „Werkstoffes Knochen“ berücksichtigen. In diesem Rahmen werden zwei neuartigen Klebstoffsysteme, ein in situ härtender Knochenzement aus Trimagnesiumphosphat, Magnesiumoxid und organischer Phytinsäure und ein lichthärtender Knochenklebstoff aus Polyethylenglycoldimethacrylat, NCO-sP(EO-stat-PO), Campherchinon und anorganischen Newberyit-Füllern, vorgestellt. Neben diesen sind drei kommerziell erhältliche Klebstoffe Gegenstand der Untersuchung. Dies sind zum einen Histoacryl® und TruGlue® Gewebekleber, zwei Klebstoffe auf Cyanoacrylat-Basis mit unterschiedlich langer Alkyl-Seitenkette, zum anderen Bioglue®, ein Gewebekleber aus Albumin und Glutaraldehyd.
Bei den Klebstoffen wurde die Zug- und Scherfestigkeit unter Einfluss der physiologischen Klebstoffalterung, der Variation der Klebefugenbreite, der Variation von komplementären Fügeteilen, sowie Fügeteiloberflächen inspiziert. Makro- und mikroskopische, sowie elektronenmikroskopischen Untersuchung der Bruchflächen auf mikrostrukturelle Besonderheiten und Versagemechanismus wurden angestellt.
Die neuartigen Klebstoffsysteme unterliegen zwar den konventionellen Cyanoacrylaten hinsichtlich mechanischer Parameter, weisen aber dennoch adäquate Klebefestigkeiten auf bei zugleich zahlreichen Vorteilen gegenüber konventionellen Systemen im Umgang mit Knochen.
Gerade der Magnesiumphosphatzement scheint auf Grund mechanischer Parameter und Vorzügen wie der guten Biokompatibilität und biologischen Abbaubarkeit, Osteoinduktivität, Osteokonduktivität, der einfachen Applizierbarkeit, einem hohen Kosten-Nutzen-Faktor oder dem günstigen Verhalten in wässrigen Milieu vielversprechend.
Untersuchungen zum Abbindeverhalten und der Injizierbarkeit von Magnesiumphosphat-Knochenzementen
(2018)
Ziel dieser Arbeit war die experimentelle Untersuchung von selbsthärtenden Magnesiumphosphat Zementen als Knochenersatzmaterial bezüglich der Verarbeitungsqualität, der Temperaturentwicklung beim Abbinden, der Injizierbarkeit und der mechanischen Eigenschaften. Der Schwerpunkt wurde dabei auf die Anpassung der rheologischen Eigenschaften der Zementpaste für eine minimal–invasive Applikation gelegt. Durch eine elektrische Aufladung der Partikeloberfläche von Farringtonit nach Adsorption von Citrat–Ionen und Zusatz der biokompatiblen Füllstoffe Struvit oder TiO2 für die Einstellung einer bimodalen Partikelgrößenverteilung, war es möglich, die Viskosität der Pasten zu erniedrigen und den filter–pressing−Effekt während der Injektion zu unterdrücken. Die Modifikation des Mg3(PO4)2 Pulvers und der flüssigen Phase erlaubte bei einer Verarbeitungszeit von ca. 10 min die nahezu quantitative Injektion des Zements durch eine 40 mm lange Kanüle mit einem inneren Durchmesser von ca. 800 μm. Zemente mit dem P/L–Verhältnis von 2,0 g/ml erreichten so eine Festigkeit von über 50 MPa nach 24 h Aushärtung. Obwohl die exotherme Abbindereaktion der Zemente teilweise zu einer Erwärmung auf bis zu 67 °C führte, geben literaturbekannte in vivo Studien keinen Hinweis auf Nebenwirkungen innerhalb des umliegenden Hart- bzw. Weichgewebes, was den Verdacht einer möglichen thermischen Nekrose aufgrund der exothermen Abbindereaktion ausschließt. Dies liegt eventuell auch darin begründet, dass die Temperaturmessungen in dieser Arbeit mit einer verhältnismäßig großen Menge an Zementpaste (∼15 g) durchgeführt wurden, während in vivo doch eher geringere Mengen (< 5 g) appliziert werden.
Biomimetic calcium phosphate (CaP) coatings imitate the trabecular bones surface structure and have shown to promote osteogenic differentiation in multipotent cells. The work of this thesis focused on the problem of former CaP coatings cracking and flaking off when being put on a bendable core structure like a 3D-printed poly (ε-caprolactone) (PCL) scaffold. The aim was to provide a chemical linkage between PCL and CaP using a star-shaped polymer (sPEG) and a phosphonate, 2-aminoethylphosphonic acid (2-AEP). First, a published CaP coating protocol was revised and investigated in terms of etching parameters for the PCL scaffold. Results presented reproducible thick coatings for all groups. The protocol was then broadened to include subsequent scaffold incubation in sPEG and 2-AEP solutions. Homogenous CaP coatings of decreased thickness presented themselves, proving feasibility. However, as is often found with physical CaP coating depositions, there were some irregular outcomes even during the same experimental group. A lower consumption of the chemical 2-AEP, for economic reasons, meant that the protocol was altered to simultaneously incubate scaffolds with sPEG and 2-AEP including preceding calculations for molar ratios. For ratios 1:1, 1:2 and 1:3, again a homogenous CaP coating was produced on most of the samples, although reproducibility issues maintained. However, the mechanical bending to induce surface cracking showed that the CaP did strongly bond to the sPEG/2-AEP, while the control CaP coating flaked off the surface in large pieces. This research demonstrates that chemically-bound CaP coatings resist flaking off the fiber surface. Future investigations should focus on the mechanisms of CaP crystallization, to improve reproducibility.
The aim of this thesis was the development of a multifunctional coating system for AuNPs based on thioether polymers, providing both excellent colloidal stability and a variable possibility to introduce functionalities for biological applications.
First, two thioether-polymer systems were synthesised as a systematic investigation into colloidal stabilisation efficacy. Besides commonly used monovalent poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG-SR), its structural analogue linear poly(glycidol) (PG-SR) bearing multiple statistically distributed thioether moieties along the backbone was synthesised. Additionally, respective thiol analogues (PEG-SH and PG-SH) were produced and applied as reference.
Successive modification of varyingly large AuNPs with aforementioned thiol- and thioether-polymers was performed via ligand exchange reaction on citrate stabilised AuNPs. An increased stabilisation efficacy of both thioether-polymers against biological and physiological conditions, as well as against freeze-drying compared to thiol analogues was determined.
Based on the excellent colloidal stabilisation efficacy and multi-functionalisability of thioether-PG, a plethora of functional groups, such as charged groups, hydrophilic/hydrophobic chains, as well as bio-active moieties namely diazirine and biotin was introduced to the AuNP surface. Moreover, the generic and covalent binding of diazirine-modified PG-SR with biomolecules including peptides and proteins was thoroughly demonstrated.
Lastly, diverse applicability and bioactivity of aforementioned modified particles in various studies was displayed, once more verifying the introduction of functionalities. On the one hand the electrostatic interaction of charged AuNPs with hydrogels based on hyaluronic acid was applied to tune the release kinetics of particles from three-dimensional scaffolds. On the other hand the strong complexation of siRNA onto two positively charged AuNPs was proven. The amount of siRNA payload was tuneable by varying the surface charge, ionic strength of the surrounding medium and the N/P ratio. Moreover, the biological activity and selectivity of the biotin-streptavidin conjugation was verified with respectively functionalised particles in controlled agglomeration test and in laser-triggered cell elimination experiments. In the latter, streptavidin-functionalised AuNPs resulted in excellent depletion of biotinylated cells whereas unfunctionalised control particles failed, excluding unspecific binding of these particles to the cell surface.
Calcium phosphate cement (CPC) is a well-established bone replacement material in dentistry and orthopedics. CPC mimics the physicochemical properties of natural bone and therefore shows excellent in vivo behavior. However, due to their brittleness, the application of CPC implants is limited to non-load bearing areas. Generally, the fiber-reinforcement of ceramic materials enhances fracture resistance, but simultaneously reduces the strength of the composite. Combining strong C-fiber reinforcement with a hydroxyapatite to form a CPC with a chemical modification of the fiber surface allowed us to adjust the fiber–matrix interface and consequently the fracture behavior. Thus, we could demonstrate enhanced mechanical properties of CPC in terms of bending strength and work of fracture to a strain of 5% (WOF5). Hereby, the strength increased by a factor of four from 9.2 ± 1.7 to 38.4 ± 1.7 MPa. Simultaneously, the WOF5 increased from 0.02 ± 0.004 to 2.0 ± 0.6 kJ∙m−2, when utilizing an aqua regia/CaCl2 pretreatment. The cell proliferation and activity of MG63 osteoblast-like cells as biocompatibility markers were not affected by fiber addition nor by fiber treatment. CPC reinforced with chemically activated C-fibers is a promising bone replacement material for load-bearing applications.
In this study, we evaluate hydrogels based on oxidized hyaluronic acid, cross-linked with adipic acid dihydrazide, for their suitability as bioinks for 3D bioprinting. Aldehyde containing hyaluronic acid (AHA) is synthesized and cross-linked via Schiff Base chemistry with bifunctional adipic acid dihydrazide (ADH) to form a mechanically stable hydrogel with good printability. Mechanical and rheological properties of the printed and casted hydrogels are tunable depending on the concentrations of AHA and ADH cross-linkers.
Reinforcing hydrogels with micro-fibre scaffolds obtained by a Melt-Electrospinning Writing (MEW) process has demonstrated great promise for developing tissue engineered (TE) constructs with mechanical properties compatible to native tissues. However, the mechanical performance and reinforcement mechanism of the micro-fibre reinforced hydrogels is not yet fully understood. In this study, FE models, implementing material properties measured experimentally, were used to explore the reinforcement mechanism of fibre-hydrogel composites. First, a continuum FE model based on idealized scaffold geometry was used to capture reinforcement effects related to the suppression of lateral gel expansion by the scaffold, while a second micro-FE model based on micro-CT images of the real construct geometry during compaction captured the effects of load transfer through the scaffold interconnections. Results demonstrate that the reinforcement mechanism at higher scaffold volume fractions was dominated by the load carrying-ability of the fibre scaffold interconnections, which was much higher than expected based on testing scaffolds alone because the hydrogel provides resistance against buckling of the scaffold. We propose that the theoretical understanding presented in this work will assist the design of more effective composite constructs with potential applications in a wide range of TE conditions.
In Tissue Engineering, scaffolds composed of natural polymers often show a distinct lack in stability. The natural polymer gelatin is highly fragile under physiological conditions, nevertheless displaying a broad variety of favorable properties. The aim of this study was to fabricate electrospun gelatin nanofibers, in situ functionalized and stabilized during the spinning process with highly reactive star polymer NCO-sP(EO-stat-PO) (“sPEG”). A spinning protocol for homogenous, non-beaded, 500 to 1000 nm thick nanofibers from different ratios of gelatin and sPEG was successfully established. Fibers were subsequently characterized and tested with SEM imaging, tensile tests, water incubation, FTIR, EDX, and cell culture. It was shown that adding sPEG during the spinning process leads to an increase in visible fiber crosslinking, mechanical stability, and stability in water. The nanofibers were further shown to be biocompatible in cell culture with RAW 264.7 macrophages.
Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit war die Herstellung und Erprobung von innovativen Anwendungsformen kalthärtender Knochenersatzmaterialien aus Calcium-, und Magnesiumphosphaten, die nach dem Abbindevorgang vorzugsweise aus dem Mineral Struvit (MgNH4PO4·6H2O) bestehen. Diese neuartigen Knochenzemente versprechen im Vergleich zu den herkömmlichen Knochenersatzmaterialien eine deutlich schnellere knöcherne Regeneration und Abbaubarkeit. Damit wird das Ziel verfolgt schneller Implantate setzen zu können und dem Patienten somit eine lange Wartezeit und dementsprechenden Leidensdruck ersparen zu können. Ebenso müssen konventionelle Produkte erst im OP angerührt und hiernach in einem schmalen Zeitfenser verarbeitet werden. Die präfabrizierten Zement-Pasten sind dagegen direkt applikationsbereit und härten erst nach Kontakt mit dem feuchten Milieu aus. In vorangegangenen Projekten wurden sowohl präfabrizierte Pasten als auch Granulate auf Basis Struvit-bildender Calcium-Magnesiumphosphate erfolgreich entwickelt. Vorteil dieser Granulate ist ihre sphärische Form. Im Hinblick auf die klinische Anwendbarkeit sollten in der vorliegenden Studie beide Anwendungsformen vorgreifend auf eine tierexperimentelle Studie hinsichtlich ihrer Materialeigenschaften in vitro getestet werden.
The aim of this thesis was the application of the functional prepolymer NCO-sP(EO-stat-PO) for the development of new biomaterials. First, the influence of the star-shaped polymers on the mechanical properties of biocements and bone adhesives was investigated. 3-armed star-shaped macromers were used as an additive for a mineral bone cement, and the influence on the mechanical properties was studied. Additionally, a previously developed bone adhesive was examined regarding cytocompatibility. The second topic was the examination of novel functionalization steps which were performed on the surface of electrospun fibers modified with NCO-sP(EO-stat-PO). This established method of functionalizing electrospun meshes was advanced regarding the modification with proteins which was then demonstrated in a biological application. Two different kinds of antibodies were immobilized on the fiber surface in a consecutive manner and the influence of these proteins on the cell behavior was investigated. The final topic involved the quantification of surface-bound peptide sequences. By functionalization of the peptides with the UV-reactive molecule 2-mercaptopyridine it was possible to quantify this compound via UV measurements by cleavage of disulfide bridges and indirectly draw conclusions about the number of immobilized peptides.
In the field of mineral biocements and bone adhesives, NCO-sP(EO-stat-PO) was able to influence the setting behavior and mechanical performance of mineral bone cements based on calcium phosphate chemistry. The addition of NCO-sP(EO-stat-PO) resulted in a pseudo-ductile fracture behavior due to the formation of a hydrogel network in the cement, which was then mineralized by nanosized hydroxyapatite crystals following cement setting. Accordingly, a commercially available aluminum silicate cement from civil engineering could be modified.
In addition, it could be shown that the use of NCO-sP(EO-stat-PO) is beneficial for adjusting specific material properties of bone adhesives. Here, the crosslinking behavior of the prepolymer in an aqueous medium was exploited to form an interpenetrating network (IPN) together with a photochemically curing poly(ethylene glycol) dimethacrylate (PEGDMA) matrix. This could be used for the development of a bone adhesive with an improved adhesion to bone in a wet environment. The developed bone adhesive was further investigated in terms of possible influences of the initiator systems. In addition, the material system was tested for cytocompatibility by using different cell lines.
Moreover, the preparation of electrospun fiber meshes via solution electrospinning consisting of poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) as a backbone polymer and NCO-sP(EO-stat-PO) as functional additive is an established method for the application of the meshes as a replacement of the native extracellular matrix (ECM). In general, these fibers reveal diameters in the nanometer range, are protein and cell repellent due to the hydrophilic properties of the prepolymer and show a specific biofunctionalization by immobilization of peptide sequences. Here, the isocyanate groups presented on the fiber surface after electrospinning were used to carry out various functionalization steps, while retaining the properties of protein and cell repellency. The modification of the electrospun fibers involved the immobilization of analogs or antagonists of tumor necrosis factor (TNF) and the indirect detection of these by interaction with a light-producing enzyme. Here, a multimodal modification of the fiber surface with RGD to mediate cell adhesion and two different antibodies could be achieved. After culturing the cell line HT1080, the pro- or anti-inflammatory response of cells could be detected by IL-8 specific ELISA measurements.
Furthermore, the quantification of molecules on the surface of electrospun fibers was investigated. It was tested whether the detection by means of super-resolution microscopy would be possible. Therefore, experiments were performed with short amino acid sequences such as RGD for quantification by fluorescence microscopy. Based on earlier results, in which a UV-spectrometrically active molecule was used to detect the quantification of RGD, it was shown that short peptides can also be quantified in a small scale on flat functional substrates (2D) such as NCO-sP(EO-stat-PO) hydrogel coatings, and modified electrospun fibers produced from PLGA and NCO-sP(EO-stat-PO) (3D). In addition, a collagen sequence was used to prove that a successful quantification can be carried out as well for longer peptide chains.
These studies have revealed that NCO-sP(EO-stat-PO) can serve as a functional additive for many applications and should be considered for further studies on the development of novel biomaterials. The rapid crosslinking reaction, the resulting hydrogel formation and the biocompatibility are to be mentioned as positive properties, which makes the prepolymer interesting for future applications.
The aim of the work was the development of thiol-ene cross-linked hydrogels based on functionalized poly(glycidol)s (PG) and hyaluronic acid (HA) for extrusion based 3D bioprinting. Additionally, the functionalization of the synthesized PG with peptides and the suitability of these polymers for physically cross-linked gels were investigated, in a proof of principle study in order to demonstrate the versatile use of PG polymers in hydrogel development.
First, the precursor polymers of the different hydrogel systems were synthesized. For thiol-ene cross-linked hydogels, linear allyl-functionalized PG (P(AGE-co-G)) and three different thiol-(SH-)functionalized polymers, ester-containing PG-SH (PG SHec), ester-free PG-SH (PG-SHef) and HA-SH were synthesized and analysed, The degree of functionalization of these polymers was adjustable.
For physically cross-linked hydrogels, peptide-functionalized PG (P(peptide-co-G)), was synthesized through polymer analogue thiol-ene modification of P(AGE-co-G).
Subsequently, thiol-ene cross-linked hydrogels were prepared with the synthesized thiol- and allyl-functionalized polymers. Depending on the origin of the used polymers, two different systems were obtained: on the one hand synthetic hydrogels consisting of PG-SHec/ef and P(AGE-co-G) and on the other hand hybrid gels, consisting of HA-SH and P(AGE-co-G). In synthetic gels, the degradability of the gels was determined by the applied PG-SH. The use of PG-SHec resulted in hydrolytically degradable hydrogels, whereas the cross-linking with PG-SHef resulted in non-degradable gels.
The physical properties of these different hydrogel systems were determined by swelling, mechanical and diffusion studies and subsequently compared among each other. In swelling studies the differences of degradable and non-degradable synthetic hydrogels as well as the differences of synthetic compared to hybrid hydrogels were demonstrated.
Next, the stiffness and the swelling ratios (SR) of the established hydrogel systems were examined in dependency of different parameters, such as incubation time, polymer concentration and UV irradiation. In general, these measurements revealed the same trends for synthetic and hybrid hydrogels: an increased polymer concentration as well as prolonged UV irradiation led to an increased network density. Moreover, it was demonstrated that the incorporation of additional non-bound HMW HA hampered the hydrogel cross-linking resulting in gels with decreased stiffness and increased SR. This effect was strongly dependent on the amount of additional HMW HA.
The diffusion of different molecular weight fluorescein isothiocyanate-dextran (FITC-dextran) through hybrid hydrogels (with/without HMW HA) gave information about the mesh size of these gels. The smallest FITC-dextran (4 kDa) completely diffused through both hydrogel systems within the first week, whereas only 55 % of 40 kDa and 5-10 % HMW FITC-dextrans (500 kDa and 2 MDa) could diffuse through the networks.
The applicability of synthetic and hybrid hydrogels for cartilage regeneration purpose was investigated through by biological examinations. It was proven that both gels support the survival of embedded human mesenchymal stromal cells (hMSCs) (21/28 d in vitro culture), however, the chondrogenic differentiation was significantly improved in hybrid hydrogels compared to synthetic gels. The addition of non-bound HMW HA resulted in a slightly less distinct chondrogenesis.
Lastly the printability of the established hydrogel systems was examined. Therefore, the viscoelastic properties of the hydrogel solutions were adjusted by incorporation of non-bound HMW HA. Both systems could be successfully printed with high resolution and high shape fidelity.
The introduction of the double printing approach with reinforcing PCL allowed printing of hydrogel solutions with lower viscosities. As a consequence, the amount of additional HMW HA necessary for printing could be reduced allowing successful printing of hybrid hydrogel solutions with embedded cells. It was demonstrated that the integrated cells survived the printing process with high viability measured after 21 d. Moreover, by this reinforcing technique, robust hydrogel-containing constructs were fabricated.
In addition to thiol-ene cross-linked hydrogels, hydrogel cross-linking via ionic interactions was investigated with a hybrid hydrogel based on HMW HA and peptide-functionalized PG. Rheological measurements revealed an increase in the viscosity of a 2 wt.% HMW HA solution by the addition of peptide-functionalized PG. The increase in viscosity could be attributed to the ionic interactions between the positively charge PG and the negatively charge HMW HA.
In conclusion, throughout this thesis thiol-ene chemistry and PG were introduced as promising cross-linking reaction and polymer precursor for the field of biofabrication. Furthermore, the differences of hybrid and synthetic hydrogels as well as chemically and physically cross-linked hydrogels were demonstrated.
Moreover, the double printing approach was demonstrated to be a promising tool for the fabrication of robust hydrogel-containing constructs. It opens the possibility of printing hydrogels that were not printable yet, due to too low viscosities.
Biofabrication is an advancing new research field that might, one day, lead to complex products like tissue replacements or tissue analogues for drug testing. Although great progress was made during the last years, there are still major hurdles like new types of materials and advanced processing techniques. The main focus of this thesis was to help overcoming this hurdles by challenging and improving existing fabrication processes like extrusion-based bioprinting but also by developing new techniques. Furthermore, this thesis assisted in designing and processing materials from novel building blocks like recombinant spider silk proteins or inks loaded with charged nanoparticles.
A novel 3D printing technique called Melt Electrospinning Writing (MEW) was used in Chapter 3 to create tubular constructs from thin polymer fibers (roughly 12 μm in diameter) by collecting the fibers onto rotating and translating cylinders. The main focus was put on the influence of the collector diameter and its rotation and translation on the morphology of the constructs generated by this approach. In a first step, the collector was not moving and the pattern generated by these settings was analyzed. It could be shown that the diameter of the stationary collectors had a big impact on the morphology of the constructs. The bigger the diameter of the mandrel (smallest collector diameters 0.5 mm, biggest 4.8 mm) got, the more the shape of the generated footprint converged into a circular one known from flat collectors. In a second set of experiments the mandrels were only rotated. Increasing the rotational velocity from 4.2 to 42.0 rpm transformed the morphology of the constructs from a figure-of-eight pattern to a sinusoidal and ultimately to a straight fiber morphology. It was possible to prove that the transformation of the pattern was comparable to what was known from increasing the speed using flat collectors and that at a critical speed, the so called critical translation speed, straight fibers would appear that were precisely stacking on top of each other. By combining rotation and translation of the mandrel, it was possible to print tubular constructs with defined winding angles. Using collections speeds close to the critical translation speed enabled higher control of fiber positioning and it was possible to generate precisely stacked constructs with winding angles between 5 and 60°.
In Chapter 4 a different approach was followed. It was based on extrusion-based bioprinting in combination with a hydrogel ink system. The ink was loaded with nanoparticles and the nanoparticle release was analyzed. In other words, two systems, a printable polyglycidol/hyaluronic acid ink and mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSN), were combined to analyze charge driven release mechanism that could be fine-tuned using bioprinting. Thorough rheological evaluations proved that the charged nanoparticles, both negatively charged MSN-COOH and positively charged MSN-NH2, did not alter the shear thinning properties of the ink that revealed a negative base charge due to hyaluronic acid as one of its main components. Furthermore, it could be shown that the particles did also not have a negative effect on the recovery properties of the material after exposure to high shear. During printing, the observations made via rheological testing were supported by the fact that all materials could be printed at the same settings of the bioprinter. Using theses inks, it was possible to make constructs as big as 12x12x3 mm3 composed of 16 layers. The fiber diameters produced were about 627±31 μm and two-component constructs could be realized utilizing the two hydrogel print heads of the printer to fabricate one hybrid construct. The particle distribution within those constructs was homogeneous, both from a microscopic and a macroscopic point of view. Particle release from printed constructs was tracked over 6 weeks and revealed that the print geometry had an influence on the particle release. Printed in a geometry with direct contact between the strands containing different MSN, the positively charged particles quickly migrated into the strand previously containing only negatively charged MSN-COOH. The MSN-COOH seemed to be rather released into the surrounding liquid and also after 6 weeks no MSN-COOH signal could be detected in the strand previously only containing MSN-NH2. In case of a geometry without direct contact between the strands, the migration of the positively charged nanoparticles into the MSN-COOH containing strand was strongly delayed. This proved that the architecture of the printed construct can be used to fine-tune the particle release from nanoparticle containing printable hydrogel ink systems.
Chapter 5 discusses an approach using hydrogel inks based on recombinant spider silk proteins processed via extrusion-based bioprinting. The ink could be applied for printing at protein concentrations of 3 % w/v without the addition of thickeners or any post process crosslinking. Both, the recombinant protein eADF4(C16) and a modification introducing a RGD-sequence to the protein (eADF4(C16)-RGD), could be printed revealing a very good print fidelity. The RGD modification had positive effect on the adhesion of cells seeded onto printed constructs. Furthermore, human fibroblasts encapsulated in the ink at concentrations of 1.2 million cells per mL did not alter the print fidelity and did not interfere with the crosslinking mechanism of the ink. This enabled printing cell laden constructs with a cell survival rate of 70.1±7.6 %. Although the cell survival rate needs to be improved in further trials, the approach shown is one of the first leading towards the shift of the window of biofabrication because it is based on a new material that does not need potentially harmful post-process crosslinking and allows the direct encapsulation of cells staying viable throughout the print process.
Aim of this thesis was the development of functionalizable hydrogel coatings for melt electrowritten PCL scaffolds and of bioprintable hydrogels for biofabrication.
Hydrogel coatings of melt electrowritten scaffolds enabled to control the surface hydrophilicity, thereby allowing cell-material interaction studies of biofunctionalized scaffolds in minimal protein adhesive environments. For this purpose, a hydrophilic star- shaped crosslinkable polymer was used and the coating conditions were optimized. Moreover, newly developed photosensitive scaffolds facilitated a time and pH independent biofunctionalization.
Bioprintable hydrogels for biofabrication were based on the allyl-functionalization of gelatin (GelAGE) and modified hyaluronic acid-products, to enable hydrogel crosslinking by means of the thiol-ene click chemistry. Optimization of GelAGE hydrogel properties was achieved through an in-depth analysis of the synthesis parameters, varying Ene:SH ratios, different crosslinking molecules and photoinitiators. Homogeneity of thiol-ene crosslinked networks was compared to free radical polymerized hydrogels and the applicability of GelAGE as bioink for extrusion-based bioprinting was investigated. Purely hyaluronic acid-based bioinks were hypothesized to maintain mechanical- and rheological properties, cell viabilities and the processability, upon further decreasing the overall hydrogel polymer and thiol content.
Hydrogel coatings: Highly structured PCL scaffolds were fabricated with MEW and subjected to coatings with six-armed star-shaped crosslinkable polymers (sP(EO-stat-PO)). Crosslinking results from the aqueous induced hydrolysis of reactive isocyanate groups (NCO) of sP(EO-stat-PO) and increased the surface hydrophilicity and provided a platform for biofunctionalizations in minimal protein adhesive environments. Not only the coating procedure was optimized with respect to sP(EO-stat-PO) concentrations and coating durations, instead scaffold pre-treatments were developed, which were fundamental to enhance the final hydrophilicity to completely avoid unspecific protein adsorption on sP(EO-stat-PO) coated scaffolds. The sP(EO-stat-PO) layer thickness of around 100 nm generally allows in vitro studies not only in dependence on the scaffold biofunctionalization but also on the scaffold architecture. The hydrogel coating extent was assessed via an indirect quantification of the NCO-hydrolysis products. Knowledge of NCO-hydrolysis kinetics enabled to achieve a balance of sufficiently coated scaffolds while maintaining the presence of NCO-groups that were exploited for subsequent biofunctionalizations. However, this time and pH dependent biofunctionalization was restricted to small biomolecules. In order to overcome this limitation and to couple high molecular weight biomolecules another reaction route was developed. This route was based on the photolysis of diazirine moieties and enabled a time and pH independent scaffold biofunctionalization with streptavidin and collagen type I. The fibril formation ability of collagen was used to obtain different collagen conformations on the scaffolds and a preliminary in vitro study demonstrated the applicability to investigate cell-material interactions.
The herein developed scaffolds could be applied to gain deeper insights into the fundamentals of cellular sensing. Especially the complexity by which cells sense e.g. collagen remain to be further elucidated. Therefore, different hierarchies of collagen-like conformations could be coupled to the scaffolds, e.g. gelatin or collagen-derived peptide sequences, and the activation of DDR receptors in dependence on the complexity of the coupled substances could be determined. Due to the strong streptavidin-biotin bond, streptavidin functionalized scaffolds could be applied as a versatile platform to allow immobilization of any biotinylated molecules.
Gelatin-based bioinks: First the GelAGE products were synthesized with respect to molecular weight distributions and amino acid composition integrity. A detailed study was conducted with varying molar ratios of reactants and synthesis durations and implied that gelatin degradation was most dominant for high alkaline synthesis conditions with long reaction times. Gelatin possesses multiple functionalizable groups and the predominant functionalization of amine groups was confirmed via different model substances and analyses. Polymer network homogeneity was proven for the GelAGE system compared to free radical polymerized hydrogels with GelMA. A detailed analysis of hydrogel compositions with varying functional group ratios and UV- or Vis-light photoinitiators was executed. The UV-initiator concentration is restricted due to cytotoxicity and potential cellular DNA damages upon UV-irradiation, whereas the more cytocompatible Vis- initiator system enabled mechanical stiffness tuning over a wide range by controlling the photoinitiator concentration at constant Ene:SH ratios and polymer weight percentages. Versatility of the GelAGE bioink for different AM techniques was proved by exploiting the thermo-gelling behavior of differently degraded GelAGE products for stereolithography and extrusion-based printing. Moreover, the viability of cell-laden GelAGE constructs was demonstrated for extrusion-based bioprinting. By applying different multifunctional thiol-macromolecular crosslinkers the mechanical and rheological properties improved concurrently to the processability. Importantly, lower thiol-crosslinker concentrations were required to yield superior mechanical strengths and physico-chemical properties of the hydrogels as compared to the small bis-thiol-crosslinker. Extrusion-based bioprinting with distinct encapsulated cells underlined the need for individual optimization of cell-laden hydrogel formulations.
Not only the viability of encapsulated cells in extrusion-based bioprinted constructs should be assessed, instead other parameters such as cell morphology or production of collagen or glycosaminoglycans should be considered as these represent some of the crucial prerequisites for cartilage Tissue Engineering applications. Moreover, these studies should be expanded to the stereolithographic approach and ultimately the versatility and cytocompatibility of formulations with macromolecular crosslinkers would be of interest. Macromolecular crosslinkers allowed reducing polymer weight percentages and amounts of thiol groups and are thus expected to contribute to increased cytocompatibility, especially in combination with the more cytocompatible Vis-initiator system, which remains to be elucidated.
Hyaluronic acid-based bioinks: Different molecular weight hyaluronic acid (HA) products were synthesized to bear ene- (HAPA) or thiol-functionalities (LHASH) to enable pure HA thiol-ene crosslinked hydrogels. Depending on the molecular weight of modified HA products, polymer weight percentages and Ene:SH ratios, a wide range of mechanical stiffness was covered. However, the manageability of high molecular weight HA (HHAPA) product solutions (HHAPA + LHASH) was restricted to 5.0 wt.-% as a consequence of the high viscosity. Based on the same HA thiol component (LHASH), hybrid hydrogels of HA with GelAGE were compared to pure HA hydrogels. Although the overall polymer weight percentage of HHAPA + LHASH hydrogels was significantly lowered compared to hybrid hydrogels (GelAGE + LHASH), similar mechanical and physico-chemical properties of pure HA hydrogels were determined with maintained Ene:SH ratios. Low viscous low molecular weight HA precursor solutions (LHAPA + LHASH) prevented the applicability for extrusion-based bioprinting, whereas the non-thermoresponsive HHAPA + LHASH system could be bioprinted with only one-fourth of the polymer content of hybrid formulations. The high viscous behavior of HHAPA + LHASH solutions, lower polymer weight percentages, decreased printing pressures and consequently declined shear stress during printing, were hypothesized to contribute to high cell viabilities in extrusion-based bioprinted constructs compared to the hybrid bioink.
The low molecular weight HA precursor formulation (LHAPA + LHASH) was not applicable for extrusion-based printing, but this system has potential for other AM techniques such as stereolithography. Similar to the GelAGE system a more detailed study on the functions of encapsulated cells would be useful to further develop this system. Moreover, the initiation with the Vis-initiator should be conducted.
Synthetic bone replacement materials have their application in non-load bearing defects with the function of (re-)construction or substitution of bone. This tissue itself represents a biological composite material based on mineralized collagen fibrils and combines the mechanical strength of the mineral with the ductility of the organic matrix. By mimicking these outstanding properties with polymer-cement-composites, an imitation of bone is feasible. A promising approach for such replacement materials are dual setting systems, which are generated by dissolution-precipitation reaction with cement setting in parallel to polymerization and gelation of the organic phase forming a coherent hydrogel network. Hereby, the high brittleness of the pure inorganic network was shifted to a more ductile and elastic behavior.
The aim of this thesis was focused on the development of different dual setting systems to modify pure calcium phosphate cements’ (CPCs’) mechanical performance by incorporation of a hydrogel matrix.
A dual setting system based on hydroxyapatite (HA) and cross-linked 2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate (HEMA) via radical polymerization was advanced by homogenous incorporation of a degradable cross-linker composed of poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) as well as poly(lactic acid) (PLA) with reactive terminal methacrylate functionalities (PEG-PLLA-DMA). By integration of this high molecular weight structure in the HEMA-hydrogel network, a significant increase in energy absorption (toughness) under 4-point bending testing was observed. An addition of only 10 wt% hydrogel precursor (referred to the liquid phase) resulted in a duplication of stress over a period of 8 days. Additionally, the calculated elasticity was positively affected and up to six times higher compared to pure HA. With a constantly applied force during compressive strength testing, a deformation and thus strain levels of about 10 % were reached immediately after preparation.
For higher degradability, the system was modified in a second approach regarding organic as well as inorganic phase. The latter component was changed by brushite forming cement that is resorbable in vivo due to solubility processes. This CPC was combined with a hydrogel based on PEG-PLLA-DMA and other dimethacrylated PEGs with different molecular weights and concentrations. Hereby, new reaction conditions were created including a shift to acidic conditions. On this ground, the challenge was to find a new radical initiator system. Suitable candidates were ascorbic acid and hydrogen peroxide. that started the polymerization and successful gelation in this environment. These highly flexible dual set composites showed a very high ductility with an overall low strength compared to HA-based models. After removal of the applied force during compressive strength testing, a complete shape recovery was observed for the samples containing the highest polymeric amount (50 wt%) of PEG-PLLA-DMA.
Regarding phase distribution in the constructs, a homogenously incorporated hydrogel network was demonstrated in a decalcifying study with ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid. Intact, coherent hydrogels remained after dissolution of the inorganic phase via calcium ion complexation.
In a third approach, the synthetic hydrogel matrix of the previously described system was replaced by the natural biopolymer gelatin. Simultaneously to brushite formation, physical as well as chemical cross-linking by the compound genipin was performed in the dual setting materials. Thanks to the incorporation of gelatin, elasticity increased significantly, in which concentrations up to 10.0 w/v% resulted in a certain cohesion of samples after compressive strength testing. They did not dissociate in little pieces but remained intact cuboid specimens though having cracks or fissures. Furthermore, the drug release of two active pharmaceutical ingredients (vancomycin and rifampicin) was investigated over a time frame of 5 weeks. The release exponent was determined according to Korsmeyer-Peppas with n = 0.5 which corresponds to the drug liberation model of Higuchi. A sustained release was observed for the antibiotic vancomycin encapsulated in composites with a gelatin concentration of 10.0 w/v% and a powder-to-liquid ratio of 2.5 g/mL.
With respect to these developments of different dual setting systems, three novel approaches were successfully established by polymerization of monomers and cross-linking of precursors forming an incorporated, homogenous hydrogel matrix in a calcium phosphate network. All studies showed an essential transfer of mechanical performance in direction of flexibility and bendability.
2D electrophysiology is often used to determine the electrical properties of neurons, while in the brain, neurons form extensive 3D networks. Thus, performing electrophysiology in a 3D environment provides a closer situation to the physiological condition and serves as a useful tool for various applications in the field of neuroscience. In this study, we established 3D electrophysiology within a fiber-reinforced matrix to enable fast readouts from transfected cells, which are often used as model systems for 2D electrophysiology. Using melt electrowriting (MEW) of scaffolds to reinforce Matrigel, we performed 3D electrophysiology on a glycine receptor-transfected Ltk-11 mouse fibroblast cell line. The glycine receptor is an inhibitory ion channel associated when mutated with impaired neuromotor behaviour. The average thickness of the MEW scaffold was 141.4 ± 5.7µm, using 9.7 ± 0.2µm diameter fibers, and square pore spacings of 100 µm, 200 µm and 400 µm. We demonstrate, for the first time, the electrophysiological characterization of glycine receptor-transfected cells with respect to agonist efficacy and potency in a 3D matrix. With the MEW scaffold reinforcement not interfering with the electrophysiology measurement, this approach can now be further adapted and developed for different kinds of neuronal cultures to study and understand pathological mechanisms under disease conditions.
Biofabrication aims to fabricate biologically functional products through bioprinting or bioassembly (Groll et al 2016 Biofabrication 8 013001). In biofabrication processes, cells are positioned at defined coordinates in three-dimensional space using automated and computer controlled techniques (Moroni et al 2018 Trends Biotechnol. 36 384–402), usually with the aid of biomaterials that are either (i) directly processed with the cells as suspensions/dispersions, (ii) deposited simultaneously in a separate printing process, or (iii) used as a transient support material. Materials that are suited for biofabrication are often referred to as bioinks and have become an important area of research within the field. In view of this special issue on bioinks, we aim herein to briefly summarize the historic evolution of this term within the field of biofabrication. Furthermore, we propose a simple but general definition of bioinks, and clarify its distinction from biomaterial inks.
Dual setting cements composed of an in situ forming hydrogel and a reactive mineral phase combine high compressive strength of the cement with sufficient ductility and bending strength of the polymeric network. Previous studies were focused on the modification with non-degradable hydrogels based on 2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate (HEMA). Here, we describe the synthesis of suitable triblock degradable poly(ethylene glycol)-poly(lactide) (PEG-PLLA) cross-linker to improve the resorption capacity of such composites. A study with four different formulations was established. As reference, pure hydroxyapatite (HA) cements and composites with 40 wt% HEMA in the liquid cement phase were produced. Furthermore, HEMA was modified with 10 wt% of PEG-PLLA cross-linker or a test series containing only 25% cross-linker was chosen for composites with a fully degradable polymeric phase. Hence, we developed suitable systems with increased elasticity and 5-6 times higher toughn ess values in comparison to pure inorganic cement matrix. Furthermore, conversion rate from alpha-tricalcium phosphate (alpha-TCP) to HA was still about 90% for all composite formulations, whereas crystal size decreased. Based on this material development and advancement for a dual setting system, we managed to overcome the drawback of brittleness for pure calcium phosphate cements.
Calcium phosphate cements (CPC) represent valuable synthetic bone grafts, as they are self-setting, biocompatible, osteoconductive and in their composition similar to the inorganic phase of human bone. Due to their long shelf-life, neutral setting and since water is sufficient for setting, hydroxyapatite (HA) forming cements are processed in different paste formulations. Those comprise dual setting, Ca2+ binding and premixed cement systems. With dual setting formulations, both dissolution and precipitation of the cement raw powder occur simultaneously to the polymerization of water-soluble monomers to form a hydrogel. Chelating agents are able to form complexes with Ca2+ released from the raw powder. Premixed systems mostly contain the raw powder of the cement and a non-aqueous binder liquid which delays the setting reaction until application in the moist physiological environment. In the present work, two of those reaction mechanisms allowed the development of HA based cement applications.
Drillable cements are of high clinical interest, as the quality of screw and plate osteosynthesis techniques can be improved by cement augmentation. A drillable, dual setting composite from HA and a poly(2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate) hydrogel was analyzed with respect to the influence of monomer content and powder-to-liquid ratio on setting kinetics and mechanical outcome. While the conversion to HA and crystal growth were constantly confined with increased monomer amount, a minimum concentration of 50 % was required to see impressive ameliorations including a low bending modulus and high fracture energy at improved bending strength. Increasing the liquid amount enabled injection of the paste as well as drilling after 10 min of pre-setting.
While classic bone wax formulations have drawbacks such as infection, inflammation, hindered osteogenesis and a lack of biodegradability, the as-presented premixed formulation is believed to exhibit outmatching properties. It consisted of HA raw powders and a non-aqueous, but water-miscible carrier liquid from poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG). The bone wax was proved to be cohesive and malleable, it withstood blood pressure conditions and among deposition in an aqueous environment, PEG was exchanged such that porous, nanocrystalline HA was formed. Incorporation of a model antibiotic proved the suitability of the novel bone wax formulation for drug release purposes.
Prefabricated laminates from premixed carbonated apatite forming cement and poly(ε-caprolactone) fiber mats with defined pore architecture were presented as a potential approach for the treatment of 2-dimensional, curved cranial defects. They are flexible until application and were produced in a layer-by-layer approach from both components such that the polymer scaffold prevents the cement from flowing. It was demonstrated that solution electrospinning with a patterned collector for the fabrication of perforated fiber mats was suitable, as high fiber volume contents in combination with an appropriate interface enabled the successful fabrication of mechanically reinforced laminates. Mild immersion of the scaffolds under alkaline conditions additionally improved the interphase followed by an increase in bending-strength.
Since few years, magnesium phosphate cements (MPC) have attracted increasing attention for bone replacement. Compared to CPC, MPC exhibit a higher degradation potential and high early strength and they release biologically valuable Mg2+. However, common systems offer some challenges while using them in non-classic cement formulations such as the need for foreign ion supply, the potential acidity of the reaction or the fast setting kinetics. Here, it was possible to develop a chelate-setting MPC paste with a broad spectrum of potential applications.
The general mechanism of the novel setting principle was tested in a proof-of-principle manner. The cement paste consisted of farringtonite with differently concentrated phytic acid solution for chelate formation with Mg2+ from the raw powder. Adjusting the phytic acid content and adding a magnesium oxide as setting regulator to compensate its retarding effect resulted in drillable formulations. Additionally, there is a strong clinical demand for well working bone adhesives especially in a moist environment. Mostly the existing formulations are non-biodegradable. Ex vivo adhesion of the above presented MPC under wet conditions on bone demonstrated over a course of 7 d shear strengths of 0.8 MPa. Further, the hardened cement specimens showed a mass loss of 2 wt.% within 24 d in an aqueous environment and released about 0.17 mg/g of osteogenic Mg2+ per day. Together with the demonstrated cytocompatibility towards human fetal osteoblasts, this cement system showed promising characteristics in terms of degradable biocements with special application purposes.
Background
The spectrum of indications for the use of membranes and scaffolds in the field of oral and maxillofacial surgery includes, amongst others, guided bone regeneration (GBR). Currently available membrane systems face certain disadvantages such as difficult clinical handling, inconsistent degradation, undirected cell growth and a lack of stability that often complicate their application. Therefore, new membranes which can overcome these issues are of great interest in this field.
Methods
In this pilot study, we investigated polycaprolactone (PCL) scaffolds intended to enhance oral wound healing by means of melt electrospinning writing (MEW), which allowed for three-dimensional (3D) printing of micron scale fibers and very exact fiber placement. A singular set of box-shaped scaffolds of different sizes consisting of medical-grade PCL was examined and the scaffolds’ morphology was evaluated via scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Each prototype sample with box sizes of 225 μm, 300 μm, 375 μm, 450 μm and 500 μm was assessed for cytotoxicity and cell growth by seeding each scaffold with human osteoblast-like cell line MG63.
Results
All scaffolds demonstrated good cytocompatibility according to cell viability, protein concentration, and cell number. SEM analysis revealed an exact fiber placement of the MEW scaffolds and the growth of viable MG63 cells on them. For the examined box-shaped scaffolds with pore sizes between 225 μm and 500 μm, a preferred box size for initial osteoblast attachment could not be found.
Conclusions
These well-defined 3D scaffolds consisting of medical-grade materials optimized for cell attachment and cell growth hold the key to a promising new approach in GBR in oral and maxillofacial surgery.
In the treatment of bone non-unions, an alternative to bone autografts is the use of bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs), e.g., BMP–2, BMP–7, with powerful osteoinductive and osteogenic properties. In clinical settings, these osteogenic factors are applied using absorbable collagen sponges for local controlled delivery. Major side effects of this strategy are derived from the supraphysiological doses of BMPs needed, which may induce ectopic bone formation, chronic inflammation, and excessive bone resorption. In order to increase the efficiency of the delivered BMPs, we designed cryostructured collagen scaffolds functionalized with hydroxyapatite, mimicking the structure of cortical bone (aligned porosity, anisotropic) or trabecular bone (random distributed porosity, isotropic). We hypothesize that an anisotropic structure would enhance the osteoconductive properties of the scaffolds by increasing the regenerative performance of the provided rhBMP–2. In vitro, both scaffolds presented similar mechanical properties, rhBMP–2 retention and delivery capacity, as well as scaffold degradation time. In vivo, anisotropic scaffolds demonstrated better bone regeneration capabilities in a rat femoral critical-size defect model by increasing the defect bridging. In conclusion, anisotropic cryostructured collagen scaffolds improve bone regeneration by increasing the efficiency of rhBMP–2 mediated bone healing.
Despite advances in cartilage repair strategies, treatment of focal chondral lesions remains an important challenge to prevent osteoarthritis. Articular cartilage is organized into several layers and lack of zonal organization of current grafts is held responsible for insufficient biomechanical and biochemical quality of repair-tissue. The aim was to develop a zonal approach for cartilage regeneration to determine whether the outcome can be improved compared to a non-zonal strategy. Hydrogel-filled polycaprolactone (PCL)-constructs with a chondrocyte-seeded upper-layer deemed to induce hyaline cartilage and a mesenchymal stromal cell (MSC)-containing bottom-layer deemed to induce calcified cartilage were compared to chondrocyte-based non-zonal grafts in a minipig model. Grafts showed comparable hardness at implantation and did not cause visible signs of inflammation. After 6 months, X-ray microtomography (µCT)-analysis revealed significant bone-loss in both treatment groups compared to empty controls. PCL-enforcement and some hydrogel-remnants were retained in all defects, but most implants were pressed into the subchondral bone. Despite important heterogeneities, both treatments reached a significantly lower modified O’Driscoll-score compared to empty controls. Thus, PCL may have induced bone-erosion during joint loading and misplacement of grafts in vivo precluding adequate permanent orientation of zones compared to surrounding native cartilage.
Es wurde die Expression der osteogenen Markerproteine Alkalische Phosphatase, Bone Sialoprotein, Kollagen Typ I und Osteopontin von humanen mesenchymalen Stromazellen nach Kultur auf elektrogesponnenen Scaffolds analysiert. Die Scaffolds wurden mittels der Melt electrospinning writing Methode erstellt und unterschieden sich in ihrer Maschenweite. Anhand weiterer Kontrollversuche auf Monolayern wurde ein möglicher Einfluss der Geometrie auf die Proteinexpression untersucht.
Bei der Implantatversorgung von Patienten mit Osteoporose besteht weiterhin eine hohe Komplikationsrate vor allem durch aseptische Prothesenlockerungen. Eine vielversprechende Möglichkeit diese zu minimieren stellt eine Funktionalisierung der Implantate mit Strontium dar.
Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit war es dabei die Wirkung lokal verfügbaren Strontiums auf osteoklastäre und osteoblastäre Zellen zu untersuchen.
Mittels elektrochemischer Abscheidung erfolgte die Beschichtung von Titanproben mit strontiumdotiertem Struvit, wobei sieben verschiedene Dotierkonzentrationen zwischen 6 µg und 487 µg Strontium pro Probe hergestellt wurden. Die Untersuchungen an osteoklastären RAW 264.7 Zellen erfolgten mittels Bestimmung von Zellzahl und -aktivität, verschiedener mikroskopischer Methoden sowie auf genetischer Ebene. Osteoblastäre MG63-Zellen wurden orientierend anhand von Zellzahl und Zellaktivität untersucht.
Zellbiologisch konnte ein hemmender Einfluss von Strontium auf Differenzierung sowie Proliferation und Aktivität osteoklastärer Zellen gezeigt werden. Die Dotierkonzentration mit den günstigsten Eigenschaften war unter vorliegenden Versuchsbedingungen 487 µg Strontium pro Probe, da sich hierbei zudem eine erhaltene ostoblastäre Proliferation und Aktivität zeigte.