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For the differentiation of a embryonic stem cells (ESCs) to neuronal cells (NCs) a complex and coordinated gene regulation program is needed. One important control element for neuronal differentiation is the repressor element 1 silencing transcription factor (REST) complex, which represses neuronal gene expression in non-neuronal cells. Crucial effector proteins of the REST complex are small phosphatases such as the CTDSPs (C-terminal domain small phosphatases) that regulate polymerase II activity by dephosphorylating the C-terminal domain of the polymerase, thereby repressing target genes. The stepwise inactivation of REST, including the CTDSPs, leads to the induction of a neuron-specific gene program, which ultimately induces the formation of neurons. The spatio-temporal control of REST and its effector components is therefore a crucial step for neurogenesis.
In zebrafish it was shown that the REST-associated CTDSP2 is negatively regulated by the micro RNA (miR) -26b. Interestingly, the miR-26b is encoded in an intron of the primary transcript of CTDSP2. This gives the fundament of an intrinsic regulatory negative feedback loop, which is essential for the proceeding of neurogenesis. This feedback loop is active during neurogenesis, but inactive in non-neuronal cells. The reason for this is that the maturation of the precursor miR (pre-miR) to the mature miR-26 is arrested in non neuronal cells, but not in neurons. As only mature miRs are actively repressing genes, the regulation of miR-26 processing is an essential step in neurogenesis.
In this study, the molecular basis of miR-26 processing regulation in the context of neurogenesis was addressed. The mature miR is processed from two larger precursors: First the primary transcript is cleaved by the enzyme DROSHA in the nucleus to form the pre-miR. The pre-miR is exported from the nucleus and processed further through the enzyme DICER to yield the mature miR. The mature miR can regulate gene expression in association with the RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC).
Multiple different scenarios in which miR processing was regulated were proposed and experimentally tested. Microinjection studies using Xenopus leavis oocytes showed that slowdown or blockage of the nucleo-cytoplasmic transport are not the reason for delayed pre-miR-26 processing. Moreover, in vitro and in vivo miR-processing assays showed that maturation is most likely regulated through a in trans acting factor, which blocks processing in non neuronal cells.
Through RNA affinity chromatographic assays using zebrafish and murine lysates I was able to isolate and identify proteins that interact specifically with pre-miR-26 and could by this influence its biogenesis. Potential candidates are FMRP/FXR1/2, ZNF346 and Eral1, whose functional characterisation in the context of miR-biogenesis could now be addressed.
The second part of my thesis was executed in close colaboration with the laboratory of Prof. Albrecht Müller. The principal question was addressed how miR-26 influences neuronal gene expression and which genes are primarily affected. This research question could be addressed by using a cell culture model system, which mimics ex vivo the differentiation of ESCs to NCs via neuronal progenitor.
For the functional analysis of miR-26 knock out cell lines were generated by the CRISPR/Cas9 technology. miR-26 deficient ESC keep their pluripotent state and are able to develop NPC, but show major impairment in differentiating to NCs. Through RNA deep sequencing the miR-26 induced transcriptome differences could be analysed.
On the level of mRNAs it could be shown, that the expression of neuronal gene is downregulated in miR-26 deficient NCs. Interestingly, the deletion of miR-26 leads to selectively decreased levels of miRs, which on one hand regulate the REST complex and on the other hand are under transcriptional control by REST themself. This data and the discovery that induction of miR-26 leads to enrichment of other REST regulating miRs indicates that miR-26 initiates neurogenesis through stepwise inactivation of the REST complex.
Der gyrus dentatus im Hippocampus ist die primäre Zielregion kortikaler Afferenzen des Enthorinalen Cortex. Im Laufe seiner Entwicklung erlangt der gyrus dentatus durch die Etablierung einer neurogenen Nische (tertiäre Matrix) die Fähigkeit fortwährender postnataler Neurogenese. Diese wird durch eine Vielzahl von Mediatoren wie Transkriptionsfaktoren gesteuert, die die Proliferation und Zelldifferenzierung, aber auch das Überleben der hippocampalen neuralen Vorläuferzellen (NPCs, neural progenitor cells) kontrollieren. In Säugetieren steuern die homologen RAF Kinasen ARAF, BRAF und CRAF die mitogene Kaskade, die bei der adulten Neurogenese von elementarer Bedeutung ist.
In dieser Studie wurde untersucht ob die Nullmutation von CRAF eine Auswirkung auf die postnatale und adulte hippocampale Neurogenese hat.
Unsere Analysen von BRAF- und CRAF-defizienten Mäusen zeigen in der frühen Embryonalentwicklung gemeinsame Funktionen beider Kinasen, weshalb das Fehlen einer Kinase bis zu bestimmten embryonalen Entwicklungszeitpunkten durch die jeweils andere Kinase kompensiert werden kann. Letalitätsstudien zeigen jedoch, dass BRAF und CRAF bei späteren Entwicklungsstadien jeweils unabhängig für das Überleben von Tieren relevant sind. CRAF Nullmutanten werden nicht nach der erwarteten Mendelschen Frequenz geboren und nahezu 70% der Tiere sterben bereits kurz nach der Geburt. Die maximale beobachtete Lebenserwartung adulter CRAFko Tiere lag bei postnatal Tag 55. CRAFko Mäuse haben eine reduzierte Körpergröße, veränderte Hautfarbe und einen eye-open-at-birth-Phänotyp. Verhaltensexperimente in unserer Arbeitsgruppe zeigten an heterozygoten CRAF Mäusen einen Einfluss von CRAF auf das Angst - und Lernverhalten, was einen Einfluss von CRAF auf die Neurogenese-vermittelte hippocampale Funktion andeutete. Tatsächlich konnte hier die Expression von CRAF im postnatalen Gehirn von Mäusen immunhistologisch wie auch proteinbiochemisch nachgewiesen werden. Im Hippocampus zeigte sich, dass ein Funktionsverlust von CRAF zu einer erhöhten Anzahl mitotisch aktiver NPCs führt, die massive Zellzyklusveränderungen aufweisen. Zudem wurde eine fehlerhafte Reorganisation der tertiären Matrix beobachtet. NPCs CRAF-defizienter Tiere befinden sich vermehrt im Hilus und bleiben in der Entwicklung zu reifen Körnerzellen im D Zell-Vorläuferstadium stecken. Weitere Analysen zeigen, dass diese fehlplatzierten NPCs teilweise über apoptotische Signalwege eliminiert werden. Als Resultat dieser Entwicklungsstörung ist der gyrus dentatus CRAF-defizienter Tiere verkleinert und es kann eine verlangsamte neuronale Differenzierung NPC-abgeleiteter Neurone beobachtet werden. Diese Befunde zeigen erstmals einen CRAF-spezifischen Einfluss auf die Regulation elementarer, zellulärer Eigenschaften neuronaler Vorläuferzellen des Hippocampus.
Imprinted genes play important roles in brain development. As the neural developmental capabilities of human parthenogenetic embryonic stem cells (hpESCs) with only a maternal genome were not assessed in great detail, hence here the potential of hpESCs to differentiate into various neural subtypes was determined. In addition DNA methylation and expression of imprinted genes upon neural differentiation was also investigated. The results demonstrated that hpESC-derived neural stem cells (hpNSCs) showed expression of NSC markers Sox1, Nestin, Pax6, and Musashi1 (MS1), the silencing of pluripotency genes (Oct4, Nanog) and the absence of activation of neural crest (Snai2, FoxD3) and mesodermal (Acta1) markers. Moreover, confocal images of hpNSC cultures exhibited ubiquitous expression of NSC markers Nestin, Sox1, Sox2 and Vimentin. Differentiating hpNSCs for 28 days generated neural subtypes with neural cell type-specific morphology and expression of neuronal and glial markers, including Tuj1, NeuN, Map2, GFAP, O4, Tau, Synapsin1 and GABA. hpNSCs also responded to region-specific differentiation signals and differentiated into regional phenotypes such as midbrain dopaminergic- and motoneuron-type cells. hpESC-derived neurons showed typical neuronal Na+/K+ currents in voltage clamp mode, elicited multiple action potentials with a maximum frequency of 30 Hz. Cell depicted a typical neuron-like current pattern that responded to selective pharmacological blockers of sodium (tetrodotoxin) and potassium (tetraethylammonium) channels. Furthermore, in hpESCs and hpNSCs the majority of CpGs of the differentially methylated regions (DMRs) KvDMR1 were methylated whereas DMR1 (H19/Igf2 locus) showed partial or complete absence of CpG methylation, which is consistent with a parthenogenetic (PG) origin. Upon differentiation parent-of-origin-specific gene expression was maintained in hpESCs and hpNSCs as demonstrated by imprinted gene expression analyses. Together this shows that despite the lack of a paternal genome, hpNSCs are proficient in differentiating into glial- and neuron-type cells, which exhibit electrical activity similar to newly formed neurons. Moreover, maternal-specific gene expression and imprinting-specific DNA-methylation are largely maintained upon neural differentiation. hpESCs are a means to generate histocompatible and disease allele-free ESCs. Additionally, hpESCs are a unique model to study the influence of imprinting on neurogenesis.