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Identification of rat NKT cells and molecular analysis of their surface receptor mediated activation
(2004)
Summary: Originally, NKT cells have been defined by their expression of T-cell receptor (TCR) and NK cell markers NKRP1A in human and NK1.1 (NKRP1C) in mouse. Most of these cells express CD1d-restricted TCR with a characteristic rearrangement- Va24JaQ/Vb11 in human and Va14Ja18/Vb8.2 in mouse, and have been implicated in playing an important role in first line defence and immunoregulation. The subject of this thesis was the characterisation of the hypothetical rat NKT cell population. In the mouse system, CD1d-restricted NK1.1+ T cells represented around 30% of intrahepatic and around 3% of splenic lymphocytes and could be visualised by staining with a-GalCer-loaded mouse CD1d tetramer. Rat NKRP1A+TCR+ cells, similar to mouse NKT cells, were predominantly expressed in the liver. However, their frequency was around 5 fold lower than the frequency of mouse intrahepatic lymphocytes. F344 rat NKT cells, in contrast to mouse CD4+ or DN NK1.1+ T lymphocytes, were of CD8 rather than CD4 phenotype, and did not bind to mCD1d-a-GalCer-tetramer. Since human hepatic CD1d-restricted Va24JQ+ T cells are not as frequent as their mouse counterparts and may express CD8- a marker not expressed by mouse CD1d-restricted cells, it is possible that the phenotype of F344 rat NKT cells corresponds more to the phenotype of human than mouse NKT cells. Similar to mouse NKT cells, F344 rat liver- and spleen-derived lymphocytes were able to produce IL-4 and IFN-g; when stimulated with the synthetic ligand a-GalCer in vitro. Therefore, the lack of binding of rat lymphocytes to mouse CD1d tetramer could not be due to their inability to respond to a-GalCer. To better characterise the reactivity of rat NKRP1A+TCR+ cells to a-GalCer, the rat invariant TCR was analysed. RT-PCR of liver lymphocytes with Va14-specific primers and subsequent cloning revealed a much weaker PCR signal for rat lymphocyte cDNA than for mouse cDNA. Furthermore the analysis of rat AV14JA18 sequences showed that the rat Va14+TCR invariant could be rearranged not only with AJ18 but also with other AJ segments. The low number of clones with in frame Va14Ja18 rearrangement could suggest that only a small proportion of liver lymphocytes were CD1d restricted NKT cells. Mouse and human NKT cells are able to recognise a-GalCer presented by the CD1d-b2 microglobulin complex, leading to their activation, proliferation and cytokine secretion. In order to compare the capacity of mouse and rat CD1d to present a-GalCer, rat CD1d was cloned. Sequence analysis and functional tests in vitro confirmed the structural and functional homology of rat CD1d with mouse CD1d. In parallel, to characterise the reactivity of rat NKRP1A+TCR+ cells to a-GalCer, rat Va14+TCR invariant was cloned and expressed in the TCR- T cell hybridoma BWr/mCD28. Rat Va14TCR+CD28+ transgenic cells secreted IL-2 upon aTCR/CD3 antibody stimulation, but were not specific for a-GalCer. Such cells were also negative in staining with mCD1d-a-GalCer tetramer. The lack of reactivity to a-GalCer and the lack of binding to mouse tetramer were probably caused by amino acid alterations, particularly at position 72 (51 according to IMTG nomenclature) of cloned rat TCRinv. Reversal of these “alterations” using molecular biology techniques was performed but the expression of this TCR on the surface of BWr/mCD28 cells could not be achieved. In contrast to rat TCRinv, mouse Va14+TCR was fully functional and was specific for mouse CD1d tetramer. KT12 hybridoma and BWr/mCD28 cells expressing mouse TCRinv, when stimulated with a-GalCer presented by primary CD1d+ cells or rCD1d transgenic cell lines, produced IL-2 in an Ag- and CD1d-dependent manner. Transgenic lines expressing TCR comprising mouse Va14 and rat Vb8.4 responded to a-GalCer presented by rat and mouse CD1d, and bound mCD1 tetramer. By contrast, cell lines expressing TCR comprising mouse Va14 and rat Vb8.2 responded only to a-GalCer presented by rCD1d and bound weakly to mCD1d tetramer. This suggests that germ line encoded regions of the b-chain (CDR2 or CDR4) bind to species-specific determinants of CD1d. The cytokine secretion of the cell lines was inhibited by anti-CD80 mAb, indicating the importance of CD80-CD28 costimulation in their activation. To check whether rat NKT cells may exist in other rat strains, the frequency and functions of NKRP1A+TCR+ in F344 and LEW rat were compared. F344 and LEW, two rat strains expressing different allelic CD1d forms, varied slightly in the level of CD1d expression, as assessed by staining with a newly generated CD1d specific monoclonal antibody. By contrast, these rat strains differed in terms of a-GalCer recognition. NKRP1A+TCR+ cells were less frequent in LEW than in F344 rats, and did not respond to a-GalCer or the analogue OCH in vitro, a result which is of special interest considering the susceptibility of LEW but not F344 rats to experimentally induced organ specific autoimmune diseases. In summary, the rat and mouse CD1d-invariant TCR systems show a high degree of structural and functional homology, but it seems that invariant NKT cells in rat, similar to such cells in human, occur at lower frequency than in mice. TCR transgenic cell line species-specific patterns of CD1d a-GalCer reactivity will provide a valuable tool for the mapping of CD1d/TCR contacts. Also monoclonal antibodies specific for rat and mouse CD1d, generated in this study, provide valuable tools to determine CD1d protein expression in various rat tissues and will help to better characterise functions of CD1d-restricted rat T cells.
iNKT cells are a population of T cells with unique characteristics. In contrast to most αβ T cells which recognize peptides presented by highly polymorphic MHC molecules, iNKT cells are reactive to glycolipids presented by CD1d, a non-polymorphic MHC-I like molecule. Moreover, whereas MHC-restricted αβ T cells bear highly variable receptors (TCRs) formed after somatic recombination of the V(D)J gene segments, the TCR of iNKT cells is formed by an invariant α chain, which always contains the same gene segments: AV14 and AJ18; and a β chain of limited BV gene usage: BV8S2, BV7 or BV2, in the mouse. This invariant α chain is the reason for which these cells are named “i” and the NK part of their name refers to the expression of receptors typical of natural killer (NK) cells. iNKT cells recognize glycolipids of endogenous and microbial origin. After activation they secrete large amounts of very different cytokines such as IFN-γ and IL-4 and thus influence immune responses and pathological conditions. One of the most potent iNKT cell agonists, recognized by the semi-invariant TCR, is the synthetic glycolipid α-Galactosylceramide (α-Gal). iNKT cells can be visualized using CD1d-multimeric complexes loaded with α-Gal and flow cytometry, since this reagent has enough avidity to stain these cells. Interestingly, mouse iNKT cells can be stained with human α-Gal-loaded CD1d oligomers and human iNKT cells can also be visualized with mouse α-Gal-loaded CD1d oligomers, indicating a high degree of conservation of the recognition of α-Gal presented by CD1d through evolution. Previous studies showed that rats have the genes necessary to build semi-invariant TCRs: They have a CD1d homologue; one or two BV8S2 homologues and interestingly, up to ten AV14 gene segments, which are highly conserved when compared to the mouse genes. Importantly, it has been shown at least for two of these AV14 gene segments that they can produce invariant TCRα chains which, when coexpressed with BV8-containing β chains, react to α-Gal presented by rat CD1d. Furthermore, ex vivo stimulation of primary splenocytes with α-Gal results in the secretion of IL-4 and IFN-γ. Surprisingly, rat semi-invariant TCRs do not recognize α-Gal presented by mouse CD1d and accordingly, mouse α-Gal-loaded CD1d tetramers failed to stain a discrete population of rat iNKT cells. Taking all together, despite that strong evidence suggested that iNKT cells are present in the rat, the direct identification of such population and the analysis of CD1d-restricted immune responses were still pending for this species. Hence the work presented in this doctoral thesis was aimed to identify iNKT cells, to analyze their phenotype and also to study the distribution and function of CD1d in the rat. For these purposes, we produced essential reagents which were still lacking such as rat specific anti-CD1d monoclonal antibodies and rat CD1d oligomers. Importantly, two of three anti-rat CD1d monoclonal antibodies (all of them generated in our laboratory before this thesis was initiated) also recognized mouse CD1d and therefore allowed a direct comparison of CD1d expression between rat and mouse. Whereas CD1d distribution in the hematopoietic system was found to be extremely similar between these two species; in non-lymphatic tissues important differences were observed. Interestingly, CD1d protein was detected at not yet described sites such as the rat exocrine pancreas and rat and mouse Paneth cells. These monoclonal antibodies did not only allowed the analysis of CD1d expression, but also the first demonstration of the function of rat CD1d as an antigen presenting molecule, since cytokine release in response to α-Gal was blocked when they were added to ex vivo cultures of rat primary cells. Staining of primary rat iNKT cells (possible now with the newly generated rat CD1d oligomers) revealed interesting similarities with human iNKT cells. First, we observed that rat iNKT cells are only a minority among all NKR-P1A/B positive T cells. Human iNKT cells constitute also a very small proportion of NKR-P1A (CD161) expressing T cells, whereas in mice inbred strains which express NKR-P1C (NK1.1), most of NKRP1C expressing T cells are iNKT cells. Second, the majority of rat iNKT cells are either CD4 or DN and only a small proportion expresses CD8β. These findings are similar to humans and different to mice which lack CD8+ iNKT cells. Third, analysis of various inbred rat strains demonstrated different iNKT cell frequencies which correlated with cytokine secretion after α-Gal stimulation of primary cells. In comparison to mice, iNKT cell numbers are markedly reduced in rats. In F344 rats, inbred rat strain which released the highest cytokine amounts after α-Gal stimulation, approximately 0.25% and 0.1% of total liver and spleen lymphocytes, respectively, are iNKT cells. In contrast, in LEW rats iNKT cells were practically absent and neither IL-4 nor IFN-γ were detected after stimulation of primary cells with α-Gal. Once more, these frequencies are very close to those observed in humans. Last, as reported for human peripheral blood cells, rat iNKT cells could be easily expanded in vitro by adding α-Gal to cultures of intrahepatic lymphocytes, whereas the expansion of mouse iNKT cells was not possible using the same protocol. The presence of a multimember AV14 gene segment family in the rat is an intriguing characteristic. These AV14 gene segments are extremely homologous except in the CDR2α region. Based on the amino acid sequence of this region they have been divided into two different types: Type I and II. A specific tissue distribution of the different types was proposed in the first study where the presence of several AV14 gene segments was described. We also analyzed the AV14 gene segment usage in F344 and LEW inbred rat strains. In F344 rats we found no preferential usage of either AV14 gene segment type in the spleen and the liver but type II AV14 gene segments appeared more frequently in the thymus. In contrast, LEW rats show a preferential usage of type I AV14 gene segments in all three compartments analyzed: Thymus, spleen and liver. Taken all together, the usage of newly generated reagents allowed to gain novel insights into CD1d expression in the rat and in the mouse and to directly identify rat iNKT cells for the first time. The phenotypic and functional analysis of rat iNKT cells revealed numerous similarities with human iNKT cells. These are of special interest, since rats serve to investigate several pathological conditions including models for autoimmune diseases. The possibility now to analyze iNKT cells and CD1d-restricted T cell responses in the rat might help to understand the pathogenesis of such diseases. In addition, the uncomplicated in vitro expansion and culture of rat iNKT cells should facilitate the analysis of the immunomoldulatory capacities of these cells.
Analyse der Expression und möglicher signalinduzierender Eigenschaften des CD1d-Moleküls der Ratte
(2010)
Wie MHC Klasse I und II-Moleküle präsentieren CD1d-Moleküle dem TCR Antigene, allerdings Lipide und Glykolipide und nicht Proteinfragmente. Die Entdeckung der massiven TH1- und TH2-Zytokinproduktion von Typ I-NKT-Zellen nach CD1d-vermittelter Erkennung von α-Galactosylceramid, einem aus dem Meeresschwamm gewonnenen Glykosphingolipid, weckte großes Interesse an ihrem immunregulatorischen Potential und ihrem möglichen Nutzen für neue Immun- und Tumortherapien. Um die Funktion und die Bedeutung von CD1d besser zu verstehen, wurden in dieser Arbeit die Expressionslevel der lymphatischen Gewebe der Ratte und der Maus untersucht. Hierfür wurden die neu generierten monoklonalen Antikörper 232 und 58/4 verwendet, die die CD1d-Moleküle von Ratte und Maus binden und so den direkten Vergleich beider Spezies ermöglichen. Sowohl die isolierten Zellen des Thymus und der Milz als auch des Lymphknotens waren in der LEW- und F344-Ratte sowie in der BALB/c-Maus schwach bis stark CD1d positiv. In der LEW-Ratte und in der F344-Ratte wiesen jeweils ca. 18% der Milzzellen eine vergleichsweise erhöhte CD1d-Expression auf. Dabei handelte es sich in erster Linie um Marginalzonen-B-Zellen. Bestimmte Subpopulationen der Dendritischen Zellen und vermutlich Makrophagen stellten die restlichen CD1d stark positiven Populationen dar. Nur ca. 2% der isolierten Zellen der Lymphknoten der LEW-Ratte waren stark CD1d positiv, wohingegen der LEW-Thymus gemäß dem noch geringeren Anteil an APC kaum Zellen mit erhöhter CD1d-Expression enthielt. In der BALB/c-Maus war der Anteil CD1d stark positiver Milzzellen mit 4% deutlich geringer als in der LEW- oder F344-Milz. Abgesehen von MZ-B-Zellen konnten in der Maus kaum Populationen mit starker CD1d-Expression in den verschiedenen Färbungen festgestellt werden. Demnach stellt CD1d sowohl in der Ratte als auch in der Maus einen guten Marker für MZ-B-Zellen dar. Demgegenüber zeigten vereinzelt kleine Populationen der Milz, des Lymphknotens und des Thymus beider Spezies eine verminderte oder gar keine CD1d-Expression. Zur Analyse möglicher signalinduzierender Eigenschaften der verschiedenen Anti- CD1d-Antikörper wurden ihre Effekte auf rCD1d+ Transduktanten und primäre Zellen untersucht. 58/4 konnte im Gegensatz zu 232 spezifisch über Bindung an Ratten- CD1d Zelltod und Aggregatbildung in Tumor-B-Zellen des Menschen und der Maus, aber nicht in Tumor-T-Zellen, induzieren. Der zytoplasmatische Schwanz der CD1d-Moleküle scheint an der Aggregatbildung beteiligt zu sein. Die Bindung von 58/4 oder 232 führte in überlebenden rCD1d+ Raji-Zellen zu einer ähnlich starken Internalisierung der CD1d-Moleküle. Während nach 5-stündiger Inkubation mit 232 und erneuter CD1d-Färbung wieder die vorherige CD1d- Expression festgestellt wurde, konnte nach Inkubation mit 58/4 eine bleibende Herunterregulierung beobachtet werden. Folglich bewirkte 58/4 ein anderes bzw. stärkeres Signal in den Zellen als 232. Diese Beobachtungen stützen die Signaltransduktion als mögliche weitere Funktion der CD1d-Moleküle neben der Antigenpräsentation und definieren die monoklonalen Antikörper 232 und 58/4 als nützliche Werkzeuge für weitere Studien zur Analyse der molekularen Mechanismen der CD1d-vermittelten Signaltransduktion. Das Verständnis solcher Mechanismen bildet wiederum die Grundlage für die Entwicklung neuer Therapien z. B. zur Eliminierung CD1d exprimierender Tumore.
Aspergillus fumigatus is the most common cause for invasive fungal infections, a disease associated with high mortality in immune-compromised patients. CD1d-restricted invariant Natural Killer T (iNKT) cells compose a small subset of T cells known to impact the immune response towards various infectious pathogens. To investigate the role of human iNKT cells during A. fumigatus infection, we studied their activation as determined by CD69 expression and cytokine production in response to distinct fungal morphotypes in the presence of different CD1d⁺ antigen presenting cells using flow cytometry and multiplex ELISA. Among CD1d⁺ subpopulations, CD1d⁺CD1c⁺ mDCs showed the highest potential to activate iNKT cells on a per cell basis. The presence of A. fumigatus decreased this effect of CD1d⁺CD1c⁺ mDCs on iNKT cells and led to reduced secretion of TNF-α, G-CSF and RANTES. Production of other Th1 and Th2 cytokines was not affected by the fungus, suggesting an immune-modulating function for human iNKT cells during A. fumigatus infection.
Typ 1 NKT Zellen oder iNKT Zellen (invariante Natürliche Killer T Zellen) stellen eine Subpopulation der abT Zellen dar, die sich durch mehrere charakteristische Eigenschaften aus- zeichnet. Ihr Hauptmerkmal ist die Expression eines semi-invarianten T Zellrezeptors (TCR), der die Bindung von CD1d:Glycolipid Komplexen ermöglicht, wohingegen ‚klassische‘ T Zellen an Komplexe aus MHC (Haupthistokompatibilitätskomplex) Molekülen und Peptiden binden. Die während der Reifung im Thymus durch Transkriptionsfaktoren festgelegte Voraktivierung der iNKT Zellen ermöglicht das unmittelbare Freisetzen von Cytokinen bei Antigenkontakt, wodurch iNKT Zellen die adaptive Immunantwort stark beeinflussen können: Sie tragen sowohl zur Regulation von Autoimmunerkrankungen als auch der Bekämpfung von Krebs und Infektionen bei.
Der iNKT TCR setzt sich aus einer invarianten a-Kette (AV14/AJ18 in der Maus bzw. AV24/AJ18 im Menschen) und einer charakteristischen Auswahl an b-Ketten (vorwiegend BV8S2, BV7 und BV2 in der Maus und BV11 im Menschen) zusammen. Das Cerebrosid a-Galactosylceramid (aGC, KRN7000) stellt eines der potentesten Antigene für iNKT Zellen dar. Die Präsentation dieser Antigenklasse erfolgt durch CD1d Moleküle, die, abgesehen von tiefen hydrophoben Bindungstaschen, strukturell MHC I Molekülen ähneln, jedoch nicht polymorph sind und außerhalb des MHC Locus codiert sind. Die, zwischen Maus und Mensch hochkon- servierte, Interaktion von iNKT TCR und CD1d:aGC Komplex zeichnet sich bei potenten Antigenen durch die eingeschränkte Nutzung der Antigenspezifität bestimmenden Regionen aus: CDR1a, CDR3a und CDR2b. Die den CDR3b definierende V-D-J Umlagerung der b-Kette stellt im iNKT TCR den Bereich der höchsten Variabilität dar, beeinflusst jedoch nur die Bindung schwächerer Antigene. Natürlich auftretende Variabilität innerhalb der a-Kette kann durch Abweichungen von der kanonischen V-J Umlagerung am Beginn des CDR3a entstehen und beeinflusst ebenfalls die Bindung des iNKT TCR.
Die iNKT Zellpopulation in F344 Ratten ähnelt in Frequenz und Korezepotorexpression derjenigen des Menschen. Ratten besitzen ein CD1D Gen, welches hoch homolog zu denen der Maus ist und zwei dem BV8S2 Gensegment der Maus homologe BV Segmente (BV8S2 und BV8S4), die in F344 Ratten beide funktionell sind. Eine Besonderheit der Ratte ist jedoch das Auftreten einer AV14 Multigenfamilie von bis zu zehn Gensegmenten. Diese unterscheiden sich neben dem HV4 vor allem in ihren CDR2 Sequenzen und werden anhand dieser Unterschiede in zwei Gruppen (Typ 1 und 2) eingeteilt. Zusätzlich wurde in der iNKT Zellpopulation eine hohe Frequenz an natürlich auftretenden A93G Substitutionen in der TCR↵ Kette beschrieben und es wurde gezeigt, dass, im Gegensatz zur Kreuzreaktivität zwischen iNKT TCR und CD1d von Maus und Mensch, iNKT Zellen der Ratte nicht an Maus CD1d binden. Die Besonderheiten des Ratten iNKT TCR und deren Auswirkungen auf die TCR Expression und Ligandenbindung der Ratten iNKT Zellpopulation wurden in der vorliegenden Arbeit untersucht.
Durch in dieser Arbeit durchgeführte in vitro Mutagenesestudien konnten Position 68 in der vierten Hypervariablen Schleife (HV4↵) und Position 93 zu Be- ginn des CDR3↵ als entscheidende Modulatoren der CD1d Bindung im iNKT TCR von Ratte und Maus identifiziert werden, wobei auch speziesspezifische Unterschiede aufgedeckt werden konnten. Die Spezieskreuzreaktivität des Ratten iNKT TCR selbst hing stark von einer A93G Substitution im TCRa ab. Bei Untersuchungen der b-Kette zeigte sich, dass sowohl BV Segmente als auch CDR3b Region die Ligandenbindung in differenziellem Zusammenspiel beeinflussen, was bei Paarung mit unterschiedlichen AV14 Segmenten verschieden ausgeprägt sein konnte. Weiterhin wurden humane CD1d Dimere generiert und zum ersten Mal die Bindung von Ratten CD1d an humane iNKT TCR gezeigt.
Weiterhin wurde in dieser Arbeit das TCR Repertoire von iNKT Zellen der F344 Ratte und deren CD1d Bindungseigenschaften charakterisiert. Hierzu wurde die bereits etablierte Methode der in vitro Expansion von iNKT Zellen aus der Rattenmilz weiterentwickelt, was die Langzeitkultur und -expansion der sortierten iNKT Zellpopulation ermöglichte. Bei Untersuchung der TCR Expression konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Auswahl der im Ratten iNKT TCR genutzten BV Gensegmente ähnlich limitiert ist wie in der Maus. Neben der dominanten Nutzung der BV8S4 und BV8S2 Gensegmente wurden hauptsächlich BV8S1, BV14 und BV7 gefunden. Bei Untersuchungen der CD1d Dimerbindung der iNKT Zellpopulation konnte der Einfluss der na- türlich auftretenden A93G Substitution in der iNKT TCRa Kette bestätigt werden. Außerdem zeigte sich hier ebenfalls der Einfluss des BV Gensegments auf die Ligandenbindung, wobei BV8S4 negative Zellen im Vergleich zu BV8S4 positiven Zellen eine stärkere Ratten CD1d Dimerbindung zeigten.
In this thesis, three species were investigated for the conservation of two non-conventional T cell systems, the CD1d/ iNKT cell system and the BTN3/ Vγ9Vδ2 T cell system. Non-conventional T cells are αβ or γδ T cells that do not fit into the classical mode of antigen recognition and adaptive responses. These T cells recognize antigens different from classical peptide antigens and are not restricted to the polymorphic MHC molecules but rather to non-polymorphic antigen-presenting molecules. The iNKT cell subset is restricted by the lipid antigen-presenting molecule CD1d and carries out immunomodulatory functions by rapid cytokine secretion. The molecular basis of this system, the semi-invariant iNKT TCR chains and CD1d were proven to be expressed and compared to homologs in human and rodents. Cotton rats possess multiple members of the AV14 and BV8 family and only one isoform of CD1d which is comparable to findings in the rat.
Moreover, the reactivity of primary cells to glycolipid antigens could be shown, and an iNKT
cell-like population was detected in primary cells using newly developed cotton rat CD1d oligomers. These were also applied to test the capacity of CD1d to present typical glycolipid
antigens to iNKT TCR transductants. In addition, expression of cotton rat iNKT TCR α and β chains in TCR-negative cell lines was used to show successful pairing and detection of glycolipids in the context of CD1d. In summary, the conservation of a functional CD1d/iNKT cell system in the cotton rat could be shown, and tools were developed to study this cell subset in the course of infectious diseases. The Vγ9Vδ2 T cell subset is the major γδ T cell subset in human peripheral blood and has the unique ability to contribute to immune surveillance by detecting pyrophosphorylated metabolites of isoprenoid synthesis that indicate cell stress, transformation or infection. Up to this date, phosphoantigen-reactive γδ T cells have only been shown in primate species. However, evidence for the existence and functional conservation of the genes implied in the BTN3/Vγ9Vδ2 T cell system was found in several placental mammal species,
and two candidate species were chosen for further investigation. The nine-banded armadillo, a valuable model for leprosy research, was shown to possess homologous genes to TRGV9, TRDV2 and BTN3. In this study, the expression of productive rearrangements of TRDV2 gene segments could be shown in peripheral blood samples, but no evidence was found for the expression of a functional TRGV9 rearrangement or BTN3 molecules. Moreover, determinants of phosphoantigen-reactive Vγ9Vδ2 T cells and functional BTN3 molecules were found to still be prevalent in armadillo genes. This makes the armadillo an interesting model to study the structural determinants that allow phosphoantigen recognition by a functional Vγ9Vδ2 T cell subset although this species is merely a witness for a functional system in a placental mammal ancestor. In contrast, alpacas were shown to express functional Vγ9Vδ2 T cells which conserved many features of the human counterpart. Expression of Vγ9Vδ2 pairings could be shown by single-cell PCR and functional phosphoantigenreactive pairings were observed. This phosphoantigen reactivity was also shown in PBMC cultures with a newly developed antibody specific for alpaca Vδ2Jδ4 chains. Moreover, a more detailed study of the alpaca TCR repertoire showed similarities to “γδ high” species like
camelids and cattle which possess an extended family of TRDV genes. The γ and δ loci of alpaca
TCR genes were drafted based on genomic information and cDNA studies and provide an overview for more detailed studies. Conservation of phosphoantigen recognition by the single BTN3 molecule of alpacas was shown in 293T knock out cell lines, and BTN3 detection on PBMCs was investigated with a newly developed alpaca BTN3-specific antibody. These findings prove the existence of a functional BTN3-dependent phosphoantigen-reactive Vγ9Vδ2 T cell subset and provide a basis for the future study of this cell system in a non-primate species. Moreover, as the first non-primate candidate species with the BTN3/Vγ9Vδ2 T cell system the alpaca is an important outgroup for research in this field. The use of a single BTN3 variant in contrast to three human isoforms that work together renders the alpaca a unique and to this date indispensable model for Vγ9Vδ2 T cells.
In conclusion, this study provides an overview of the applicability of new animal models in the
study of the non-conventional T cell subsets iNKT cells and Vγ9Vδ2 T cells and leads the way for a better understanding of structural and functional relationships.