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Regulation of mitotic progression : Focus on Plk1 function and the novel Ska complex at kinetochores
(2006)
During mitosis the duplicated chromosomes have to be faithfully segregated into the nascent daughter cells in order to maintain genomic stability. This critical process is dependent on the rearrangement of the interphase microtubule (MT) network, resulting in the formation of a bipolar mitotic spindle. For proper chromosome segregation all chromosomes have to become connected to MTs emanating from opposite spindle poles. The MT attachment sites on the chromosomes are the kinetochores (KTs), which are also required to monitor the integrity of KT-MT interactions via the spindle assembly checkpoint (SAC). The first part of this work concerns the action of Polo-like kinase 1 (Plk1). Plk1 is one of the most prominent mitotic kinases and is involved in the regulation of multiple essential steps during mitosis consistent with its dynamic localisation to spindle poles, KTs and the central spindle. Despite a nice model of Plk1 targeting to different mitotic structures via its phosphopeptide binding Polo-box domain (PBD), the exact molecular details of Plk1 functioning, in particular at the KTs, remain obscure. By two different approaches we obtained cells with an unlocalised Plk1 kinase activity: first by generating stable HeLa S3 cell lines, which upon induction expressed the PBD and thus displaced endogenous Plk1 from its sites of action. Secondly, by rescuing cells RNAi-depleted of Plk1 with the catalytic Plk1 domain only. Centrosome maturation, bipolar spindle assembly and loss of cohesion between the chromatid arms proceeded normally in either cells, in contrast to Plk1-depleted cells, arguing that PBD-mediated targeting of Plk1 is less critical for the tested functions. Remarkably, however, both the PBD expressing as well as the Plk1-depleted cells rescued with the catalytic domain of Plk1 arrested in early mitosis in a SAC-dependent manner with uncongressed chromosomes. These data disclose a so far unrecognised role of Plk1 in proper chromosome congression and point at a particular requirement for PBD-mediated localised Plk1 activity at the KTs. In the second part of the thesis, we characterised a novel spindle and KT associated protein, termed Ska1, which was originally identified in a spindle inventory. Ska1 associated with KTs following MT attachment during prometaphase and formed a complex with at least another novel protein of identical localisation, called Ska2. Ska1 was required for Ska2 stability in vivo and depletion of either Ska1 or Ska2 resulted in the loss of both proteins from the KTs. The absence of Ska proteins did not disrupt overall KT structure but most strikingly induced cells to undergo a prolonged SAC-dependent delay in a metaphase-like state. The delay was characterised by weakened kinetochore-fibre stability, recruitment of Mad2 protein to a few KTs and the occasional loss of individual chromosomes from the metaphase plate. These data indicate that the Ska1/2 complex plays a critical role in the maintenance of a KT-MT attachments and/or SAC silencing.
DNA microarrays have become a standard technique to assess the mRNA levels for complete genomes. To identify significantly regulated genes from these large amounts of data a wealth of methods has been developed. Despite this, the functional interpretation (i.e. deducing biological hypothesis from the data) still remains a major bottleneck in microarray data analysis. Most available methods display the set of significant genes in long lists, from which common functional properties have to be extracted. This is not only a tedious and time-consuming task, which becomes less and less feasible with increasing numbers of experimental conditions, but is also prone to errors, since it is commonly done by eye. In the course of this work methods have been developed and tested, that allow for a computerbased analysis of functional properties being relevant in the given experimental setting. To this end the Gene Ontology was chosen as an appropriate source of annotation data, because it combines human-readability with computer-accessibility of the annotations term and thus allows for a statistical analysis of functional properties. Here the gene-annotations are integrated in a Correspondence Analysis which allows to visualize genes, hybridizations and functional categories in a single plot. Due to the increasing amounts of available annotations and the fact that in most settings only few functional processes are differentially regulated, several filter criteria have been developed to reduce the number of displayed annotations to a set being relevant in the given experimental setting. The applicability of the presented visualization and filtering have both been validated on datasets of varying complexity. Starting from the well studied glucose-pathway in S. cerevisiae up to the comparison of different tumor types in human. In both settings the method generated well interpretable plots, which allowed for an immediate identification of the major functional differences between the experimental conditions [90]. While the integration of annotation data like GO facilitates functional interpretation, it lacks the capability to identify key regulatory elements. To facilitate such an analysis, the occurrence of transcription factor binding sites in upstream regions of genes has been integrated to the analysis as well. Again this methodology was biologically validated on S. cerevisiae as well human cancer data sets. In both settings TFs known to exhibit central roles for the observed transcriptional changes were plotted in marked positions and thus could be immediately identified [206]. In essence, integration of supplementary information in Correspondence Analysis visualizes genes, hybridizations and annotation data in a single, well interpretable plot. This allows for an intuitive identification of relevant annotations even in complex experimental settings. The presented approach is not limited to the shown types of data, but is generalizable to account for the majority of the available annotation data.
BAKTERIELLE ENDOSYMBIONTEN DER BIENENWÖLFE Symbiontische Interaktionen zwischen verschiedenen Arten stellen allgegenwärtige und essentielle Bestandteile natürlicher Systeme dar und haben wahrscheinlich die Evolution jedes rezenten Lebewesens beeinflusst. Insekten als die diverseste Metazoen-Klasse der Erde profitieren von dem außerordentlichen metabolischen Potenzial vieler Mikroorganismen in einer großen Anzahl mutualistischer Assoziationen. Die große Mehrheit der bisher untersuchten Symbiosen zwischen Insekten und Mikroorganismen stellen Interaktionen dar, in denen die Wirte durch die Symbionten mit essentiellen Nährstoffen versorgt werden. Es sind jedoch auch einige Fälle bekannt, in denen symbiontische Bakterien eine wichtige Rolle für die intraspezifische olfaktorische Kommunikation spielen oder zur Verteidigung gegen Pathogene oder Parasitoide dienen. Die vorliegende Arbeit untersucht eine hoch spezialisierte Assoziation zwischen einer Grabwespen-Art, dem Europäischen Bienenwolf (Philanthus triangulum, Hymenoptera, Crabronidae), und Bakterien aus der Familie der Actinomyceten. Die bakteriellen Symbionten sind an einem einzigartigen Ort zu finden: Sie werden in den Reservoiren spezialisierter Antennendrüsen weiblicher Bienenwölfe kultiviert. Das Weibchen sezerniert vor der Eiablage große Mengen dieser Bakterien in die unterirdischen Brutkammern. Wenn die Bienewolf-Larve einige Tage später ihre Nahrungsaufnahme an den von der Mutter als Nahrungsvorrat bereitgestellten Honigbienen beendet hat, nimmt sie die Bakterien auf und spinnt sie in ihren Kokon mit ein. Dort erfüllen die Symbionten eine wichtige Funktion, indem sie den Schimmelbefall herabsetzen und dadurch die Überlebenschancen der Larve im Kokon während der langen und gefährlichen Winterruhe signifikant erhöhen. Experimente, in denen Bienenwolf-Weibchen ohne die Bakterien aufgezogen wurden, und Beobachtungen an Bienenwolf-Larven deuten darauf hin, dass die Symbionten vertikal von der Mutter an die Töchter weitergegeben werden. Vermutlich werden die Bakterien während des Schlupfes oder kurz davor vom Kokon in die Antennendrüsen-Reservoire aufgenommen. Phylogenetische Untersuchungen von Wirten und Symbionten sowie Transfer-Experimente mit den Bakterien wären notwendig, um herauszufinden, ob ein horizontaler Austausch der Symbionten zwischen verschiedenen Bienenwolf-Arten möglich ist. Genetische Analysen zeigen, dass die Symbionten einer unbeschriebenen Art der Gattung Streptomyces innerhalb der Actinomyceten angehören. 16s rDNA Primer und eine fluoreszenzmarkierte Oligonukleotid-Sonde wurden entwickelt, um die Bienenwolf-Symbionten mittels PCR und Fluoreszenz-in-situ-Hybridisierung (FISH) spezifisch nachweisen zu können. Mit Hilfe von PCR und Sequenzierungen der 16s rDNA konnten nah verwandte Endosymbionten in den Antennen von 28 Arten und Unterarten der Gattung Philanthus festgestellt werden, nicht aber in anderen Gattungen der Unterfamilie Philanthinae (Aphilanthops, Clypeadon, Cerceris), so dass die Symbiose auf die Gattung Philanthus beschränkt zu sein scheint. Phylogenetische Untersuchungen auf der Grundlage nahezu kompletter 16s rDNA-Sequenzen belegen, dass die Symbionten aller analysierten Bienenwolf- Arten eine monophyletische Gruppe innerhalb der Gattung Streptomyces bilden, was darauf hindeutet, dass die Symbiose hoch spezifisch ist und wahrscheinlich das Ergebnis einer langen Koevolution und Kospeziation darstellt. Anhand von Sequenzunterschieden zwischen den Symbionten lässt sich das Alter der Assoziation zwischen Philanthus und Streptomyces auf etwa 26-67 Millionen Jahre schätzen, was der Entstehung der Gattung Philanthus entsprechen könnte. Auf der Basis von 16s rDNA Sequenzen und Ultrastruktur-Daten wurden die Antennensymbionten der Bienenwölfe als neues Taxon ‚Candidatus Streptomyces philanthi’ beschrieben, wobei die Symbionten verschiedener Wirtsarten als Ökotypen behandelt und nach der Wirtsart benannt wurden (z.B. ‚Candidatus Streptomyces philanthi triangulum’). Wie die Bakterien von der Assoziation mit Bienenwölfen profitieren, ist noch unklar. Auf jeden Fall wird ihnen vom Wirt eine unbesetzte und wahrscheinlich konkurrenzfreie ökologische Nische in den Antennen sowie eine zuverlässige Weitergabe an die nächste Generation garantiert. Außerdem sprechen einige Hinweise für eine Versorgung der Bakterien mit Nährstoffen durch den Bienenwolf: (1) Weibchen legen manchmal mehrere Brutkammern pro Tag an und sezernieren jedes Mal große Mengen an Bakterien; die Bakterien müssen sich also in den Drüsen-Reservoiren schnell vermehren, um den Vorrat an Symbionten wieder aufzufüllen. (2) Die Reservoire sind von Typ 3-Drüsenzellen umgeben, die die Bakterien mit Nährstoffen versorgen könnten. (3) Eine der Reservoir-Wände weist eine netzartige Struktur auf, die möglicherweise den Eintritt von Hämolymphe und damit von Nährstoffen in das Reservoir zulässt. Dies wird durch chemische Analysen der Kohlenwasserstoffe in der Hämolymphe und in dem Antennendrüsen-Sekret untermauert, die sehr ähnliche Zusammensetzungen aufweisen. Die Assoziation zwischen Bienenwölfen und Streptomyceten stellt den ersten bekannten Fall einer Symbiose dar, bei der Bakterien in den Antennen von Insekten kultiviert werden, und sie repräsentiert eines von wenigen Beispielen für Actinomyceten als Symbionten von Insekten. Weitere Untersuchungen evolutionärer und ökologischer Aspekte dieser Symbiose werden wertvolle Erkenntnisse über die Bedeutung von Actinomyceten für die Pathogen-Abwehr bei Insekten liefern und könnten sogar zur Entdeckung neuer Sekundärmetabolite mit antibiotischen Eigenschaften für die Verwendung in der Humanmedizin führen. CHEMISCHE KOMMUNIKATION UND PARTNERWAHL BEIM EUROPÄISCHEN BIENENWOLF Chemische Signale stellen sowohl die älteste als auch die am weitesten verbreitete Form von Kommunikation zwischen Organismen dar. Bei Insekten spielen Pheromone eine essentielle Rolle für die intraspezifische Kommunikation, und eine Vielzahl aktueller Untersuchungen belegt die Bedeutung olfaktorischer Signale für die Balz und Paarung. Die meisten dieser Studien konzentrieren sich jedoch auf Weibchen-Pheromone, während von Männchen produzierte Pheromone trotz ihrer ökologischen und evolutionären Bedeutung für die Partneranlockung und Partnerwahl bisher wenig Beachtung gefunden haben. Männchen des Europäischen Bienenwolfes etablieren und verteidigen Territorien, die sie mit einem Kopfdrüsen-Sekret markieren. Dieses Sekret wirkt höchstwahrscheinlich als ein Sex- Pheromon und lockt paarungsbereite Weibchen an. Da Männchen-Territorien meist aggregiert in der Nähe von Weibchennestern auftreten, haben die Weibchen die Möglichkeit, zwischen verschiedenen potenziellen Paarungspartnern zu wählen. Die chemischen Analysen der vorliegenden Arbeit zeigen, dass die Zusammensetzung und Menge des männlichen Markierpheromons vom Verwandtschaftsgrad, der Herkunft, dem Alter und der Größe der Männchen abhängen. Das Pheromon beinhaltet demnach Informationen über eine Vielzahl von Eigenschaften der Männchen, die für die Weibchenwahl von Bedeutung sein könnten. Sowohl die genetische Distanz („optimal outbreeding“) als auch die allgemeine genetische Qualität („good genes“) eines Männchens könnte die Partnerwahl der Bienenwolf-Weibchen beeinflussen. In dieser Arbeit für den Europäischen Bienenwolf entwickelte polymorphe Mikrosatelliten legen den Grundstein für Vaterschaftsanalysen und ermöglichen so die Durchführung und Auswertung von Experimenten zur Weibchenwahl bei dieser Art.
Clonality analysis in B-Cell Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia (B-CLL) associated with Richter's syndrome
(2006)
B-cell chronic lymphocytic leukemia (B-CLL) comprises 90% of chronic lymphoid leukemias in Western countries and patients with B-CLL have a heterogeneous clinical course. Approximately 3-5% of B-CLL patients encounter transformation to an aggressive lymphoma, mainly diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) or Hodgkin’s lymphoma (HL) which has been defined as Richter’s syndrome and is associated with a poor clinical outcome. The mutational status of the immunoglobulin heavy chain variable region (IgVH) gene not only implies the developmental stage at which the neoplastic transformation occurs in a given B-cell lymphoma, but also constitutes an important prognostic factor in B-CLL, since B-CLL patients with unmutated IgVH genes usually have a poor clinical outcome. Sparse molecular analyses performed in Richter’s syndrome so far suggest that it can occur in B-CLL patients carrying mutated or unmutated IgVH genes, and tumor cells in DLBCL or HL can be clonally identical to the B-CLL clone or arise as an independent, secondary lymphoma. To determine the clonal relationship between DLBCL or Hodgkin/Reed-Sternberg (HRS) cells and pre-existing B-CLL cells in a larger series, to identify the IgVH gene usage and the mutational status and to explore possible prognostic factors in B-CLL undergoing Richter’s transformation, we utilized a PCR-based GeneScan approach with subsequent sequencing of the IgVH genes. In cases with HRS/HRS-like cells laser capture microdissection (LCM) was employed to isolate these cells. In addition, a thorough morphological and immunohistochemical analysis was performed. In total, specimens from 48 patients were investigated including 40 cases of Richter’s syndrome and additional 8 cases of B-CLL cases with the presence of CD30-positive HRS-like cells. Among 40 cases of Richter’s syndrome, 34 B-CLL cases showed transformation to DLBCL and 6 cases transformed from B-CLL to HL. Sequencing was performed in 23 paired B-CLL and DLBCL cases. In 18 cases, B-CLL and DLBCL were clonally identical, whereas DLBCL developed as a clonally independent neoplasm in 5 patients. Among the clonally related pairs, 11 out of 15 cases carried unmutated IgVH genes in both the B-CLL and DLBCL component, whereas 5 of 6 B-CLL cases that showed transformation to HL carried mutated IgVH genes. HRS cells in two samples and HRS-like cells in one sample were clonally distinct from the B-CLL clone and infected by EBV, whereas one sample of HRS-like cells was related to the clone from the surrounding B-CLL cells and did not express latent membrane protein-1 (LMP1). The VH genes VH3-23, VH3-74, VH1-2 and VH3-9 were overused in B-CLL cases that transformed to DLBCL, whereas VH4-34 and VH3-48 were used in over half of the B-CLL cases with transformation to HL. Immunohistochemical staining of ZAP70 was significantly associated with unmutated IgVH genes in B-CLL cases undergoing Richter’s transformation. Clinical follow-up data could be obtained from 24 patients. The median survival times of B-CLL patients with transformation to DLBCL or HL were 7 and 21 months, respectively. No significantly different survival times were found between clonally related or unrelated cases, or between IgVH-mutated or -unmutated cases. We conclude that in Richter’s transformation, DLBCL can evolve by clonal transformation of the pre-existing B-CLL clone or occur as an independent, clonally unrelated neoplasm. In the majority of cases (78% in our series), B-CLL and DLBCL are clonally identical. In a subset of patients, however, DLBCL develops as an independent secondary neoplasm that is not clonally related to the B-CLL. Clonal transformation into DLBCL predominantly occurs in B-CLL patients with unmutated IgVH genes, whereas most B-CLL patients that show transformation to HL or CD30-positive HRS-like cells carry mutated IgVH genes. The tendency that IgVH-unmutated B-CLL transforms to DLBCL and IgVH-mutated B-CLL transforms to HL implies different transformation pathways in the two subtypes of Richter’s syndrome. In addition, important pathogenetic differences are likely to exist between DLBCL cases derived from a pre-existing B-CLL as compared to de novo DLBCL cases, since de novo DLBCL is usually characterized by mutated IgVH genes. The biased usage of IgVH genes in the two subtypes of Richter’s syndrome suggests a possible role for antigen involvement in tumorigenesis also in B-CLL cases that undergo Richter’s transformation. Finally, EBV-association in the HL variant of Richter’s syndrome occurs more frequently in clonally unrelated secondary malignancies.
Best disease, also termed vitelliform macular dystrophy type 2, VMD2, (OMIM #153700), is an autosomal dominant, early onset macular dystrophy associated with a remarkable accumulation of lipofuscin-like material within and beneath the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE). The VMD2 gene mutated in Best disease encodes a 585 amino acid putative transmembrane protein named bestrophin, and is preferentially expressed in the RPE. The protein has a complex membrane topology with 4-6 putative transmembrane domains (TMDs) and is presumably involved in Ca2+-dependent transport of chloride ions across the membrane. The vast majority of known disease-associated alterations are missense mutations nonrandomly distributed across the highly conserved N-terminal half of the protein with clusters near the predicted TMDs. The mechanism connecting Best disease pathology with the identified mutations or the Cl- channel function is not yet clear. To further elucidate the biological function of the bestrophin protein and to identify the molecular mechanisms underlying the disease, a search for interacting partners of bestrophin was performed using the GAL4-based yeast two hybrid system (Y2H). Screening of a bovine RPE cDNA library with various truncated bestrophin baits resulted in the identification of 53 putative interacting partners of bestrophin. However, verification of the interaction has excluded all candidate clones. Our comprehensive Y2H analyses suggest that bestrophin may not be suitable for traditional yeast two hybrid screens likely due to the fact that the protein is integral to the membrane and even fragments thereof may not be transported to the nucleus which is, however a prerequisite for protein interaction in the yeast system. Bestrophin belongs to a large family of integral membrane proteins with more than 100 members identified to date originating from evolutionarily diverse organisms such as mammals, insects and worms. The most distinctive feature of the bestrophin family, besides the invariant RFP (arginine-phenylalanine-proline) domain, is an evolutionarily highly conserved N-terminal region. To clarify the phylogenetic relationship among bestrophin homologues and to identify structural and functional motifs conserved across family members, a bioinformatics/phylogenetic study of the conserved N-terminal region was conducted. Phylogenetic analysis of the bestrophin homologues reveals existence of four evolutionary conserved family members in mammals, with high homology to the human VMD2, VMD2-L1 to L3 proteins. The significant level of protein sequence similarity between divergent species suggests that each of the bestrophin family members has a unique, Chapter One: Summary 2 evolutionarily conserved function and that the divergence of bestrophin into several family members occurred before the divergence of individual mammalian species.
Allergic disease are inflammatory disorders in which aberrant immune regulation occurs, and susceptible individuals mount allergen specific T helper 2 (Th2) responses, which drives disease pathology. Recent studies indicate that Th2 responses that are characteristic of allergic manifestations can be regulated by both naturally occurring CD4+CD25+ regulatory (Treg) cells and antigen-driven IL-10-secreting CD4+ regulatory T cells. Evidence is also emerging that successful Allergen specific immunotherapy (SIT) might work through the induction of IL-10-secreting regulatory T cells. In the first part of this work, I demonstrated the efficiency of allergen specific immunotherapy in the mouse model for allergic airway inflammation. Here I could show that intranasal administration of SIT abrogates allergic symptoms more efficiently, than the subcutaneous treatment. Furthermore, an IL-4/IL-13 (QY) inhibitor was used as an adjuvant for SIT, which has been demonstrated to have an anti-allergic potential, when administered prophylactically during allergic sensitization. However, the combination therapy with SIT and the inhibitory molecule QY did not show any significant enhancement in regards to all measured allergic parameters, when compared to monotherapy with SIT. These results provide the evidence, that shift from Th2 to Th1 cytokine profile might not be a key event in successful SIT. Subsequently, the investigation of immune mechanisms under successful SIT demonstrate that the increase of IL-10 secreting CD4+ T regulatory cells is associated with the suppression of airway inflammation in our mouse system, suggesting that these T cell subsets might be involved in the regulatory mechanisms of allergic disorders. In agreement with these findings is the second part of this work, where superagonistic a-CD28 mAb´s were used for the expansion of T regulatory cell subsets in our murine model for allergic airway inflammation. Here I could show, that the application of a-CD28 mAb during allergic sensitization, resulted in the establishment of a Th2 state, rather than a stimulation of a Treg cell population, supporting the Th2 promoting role of a-CD28 mAb together with TCR engagement. However, interesting findings were obtained by application of the superagonistic a-CD28 mAb in the challenge phase in established allergy. Conversely to the previous experiment, therapeutic administration of a-CD28 mAb lead to the generation of IL-10 secreting CD4+CD25+ T cell population in line with the induction of anti-allergic effects. Taking together the results of this study argue for the anti-inflammatory properties of T regulatory cells in allergic disease and highlights importance of these T cell subsets in the suppression of Th2 cell-driven response to allergen. Moreover, these observations suggest that the induction of IL-10 in vivo by T regulatory cells may represent a novel treatment strategy for allergic disorders.
Herbivorous insects are the major link between primary producers and a multitude of animals at higher trophic levels. Elucidating the causes and consequences of their distribution patterns in the "green world" is thus essential for our understanding of numerous ecological processes on multiple spatial scales. We can ask where and why a certain herbivore can be found in the landscape, within the habitat, on which plant within the habitat and finally, where on that plant. Depending on spatial scale the distribution of herbivores is shaped by different processes (fitness considerations, physiological abilities, population dynamics, dispersal behavior, history of the landscape etc.). Scaling down from fragmented landscapes to individual host plants this thesis analyzes the distribution patterns of the strictly monophagous herbivore Cassida canaliculata Laich. (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), which feeds and oviposits exclusively on meadow sage, Salvia pratensis L. (Lamiales: Lamiaceae), and compares it to those of the polyphagous tansy leaf beetle Galeruca tanaceti L. (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), which does not oviposit on its host plants, but on dry non-host structures. The specialist Cassida canaliculata depended on all spatial scales (fragmented landscape, microhabitat and host plant individual) mainly on the distribution and quality of its single host plant species Salvia pratensis, whereas enemy-free-space - i.e. avoidance of parasitism and predation of egg clutches, larvae, and pupae - seemed to influence oviposition site choice only on the scale of the host plant individual. On this spatial scale, offspring of Cassida canaliculata had a higher chance of survival on large host plant individuals, which were also preferred for oviposition by the females. In contrast, the distribution patterns of the generalist Galeruca tanaceti was shaped by the interaction with its parasitoid regarding both microhabitat choice and egg distribution within individual host plants. On the microhabitat scale, beetles could escape from their parasitoids by ovipositing into high and dense vegetation. Regarding oviposition site choice within a host plant individual, females oviposited as high as possible in the vegetation and could thus reduce both the risk of parasitism and the probability of winter mortality. The results of my thesis show that the degree of specificity of a herbivore is of central importance for the resulting egg distribution pattern on all spatial scales.
A hitherto unresolved problem is how workers are prevented from reproducing in large insect societies. The queen informs about her fertility and health which ensures sufficient indirect fitness benefits for workers. In the ant Camponotus floridanus, I found such a signal located on eggs of highly fertile queens. Groups of workers were regularly provided with different sets of brood. Only in groups with queen eggs workers refrain from reproducing. Thus, the eggs seem to inform the workers about queen presence. The signal on queen eggs is presumably the same that enables workers to distinguish between queen and worker-laid eggs, latter are destroyed by workers. Queen and worker-laid eggs differ in their surface hydrocarbons in a similar way as fertile queens differ from workers in the composition of their cuticular hydrocarbons. When I transferred hydrocarbons from the queen cuticle to worker eggs the eggs were no longer destroyed, indicating that they now carry the signal. These hydrocarbons thus represent a queen signal that regulates worker reproduction in this species. But the signal is not present in all fertile queens. Founding queens with low egg-laying rates differ in the composition of cuticular hydrocarbons from queens with high productivity. Similar differences in the composition of surface hydrocarbons were present on their eggs. The queen signal develops along with an increasing fertility and age of the queen, and this is perceived by the workers. Eggs from founding queens were destroyed like worker eggs. This result shows that founding queens lack the appropriate signal. In these little colony foundations chemical communication of queen status may not be necessary to prevent workers from reproducing, since workers may benefit more from investing in colony growth and increased productivity of large colonies rather than from producing male eggs in incipient colonies. If the queen is missing or the productivity of the queen decreases, workers start laying eggs. There is some evidence from correlative studies that, under queenless conditions, worker police each other because of differences in individual odors as a sign of social status. It can be expressed as either aggressive inhibition of ovarian activity, workers with developed ovaries are attacked by nest-mates, or destruction by worker-laid eggs. I found that in C. floridanus workers, in contrast to known studies, police only by egg eating since they are able to discriminate queen- and worker-laid eggs. Workers with developed ovaries will never attacked by nest-mates. This is further supported by qualitative and quantitative differences in the cuticular hydrocarbon profile of queens and workers, whereas profiles of workers with and without developed ovaries show a high similarity. I conclude that workers discriminate worker eggs on the basis of their hydrocarbon profile, but they are not able to recognize egg-laying nest-mates. Improving our knowledge of the proximate mechanisms of the reproductive division of labor in evolutionary derived species like C. floridanus will help to understand the evolution of extreme reproductive altruism involving sterility as a characteristic feature of advanced eusocial systems.
This work deals with channel-tunnel dependent multidrug efflux pumps and type I secretion systems, more concrete with the improved classification of the adaptor protein family, the characterization of the TolC-homologue protein HI1462 of Haemophilus influenzae, and the molecular characterization of the interaction between TolC and AcrA of Escherichia coli.
Summary Timber harvesting is currently the most common commercial utilisation activity in tropical forests. Assessing the effects of logging on different aspects of biodiversity and general ecosystem properties is hence of prime importance if the few remaining areas of intact tropical forest are to be protected effectively and efficiently. Tropical amphibian communities are an appropriate model system for studies on the impacts of human-induced environmental changes on the dynamics of complex biological systems. This thesis elaborates on patterns of diversity changes in tropical forest amphibian communities facing habitat alterations associated with selective logging in two globally important eco-regions (Côte d’Ivoire, Upper Guinea, West Africa and Guyana, the Guiana Shield, northern South America). The thesis is organised along two main themes. After a general introduction, a section on general methodology and an introduction to the model systems studied, the first theme moves from general patterns to underlying processes. A second theme running through both chapters carries from undisturbed systems to disturbed systems. A final section integrates findings and addresses implications for conservation management of anthropogenically altered tropical forests. Several case studies at the species- population and community level are being presented and data on the direct and indirect impacts of anthropogenic habitat alteration on respective organizational levels are provided. A key statement that is stressed on throughout the studies is the fact that common measures of diversity, such as species richness and species-diversity only inadequately reflect processes of diversity change following anthropogenic disturbance. They also fail to describe actual impacts on the dynamics of complex biological systems. It is argued that commonly used measures produce an incoherent and insufficient picture of diversity patterns and the underlying processes that shape these patterns. Thus, an understanding of higher levels of diversity, such as β-diversity and functional diversity (and hence compositional patterns) appears to be the key to effectively mitigating the impacts of human-induced disturbance on amphibian communities. It is shown that the predictability of amphibian community composition depends on the respective level of anthropogenic disturbance imposed on a particular habitat. Hence, human activities that lead to changes in the structure of a forest, such as logging, not only alter simple system descriptors, such as the number of species in a given community, but rather alter the dynamics of the entire system. In this context, functional diversity is shown to be an important aspect underlying the actual mechanism that leads to the observed change of predictability patterns. Functional differences between species, rather than number of species per se appear to be the decisive factor in sustaining desirable ecosystem states and thus in maintaining important ecosystem services. Because biological diversity appears to play a substantial role in ecosystem resilience required to safeguard essential ecosystem functions in the face of environmental change, the thesis calls for a critical revision of common diversity assessments approaches. The studies advocate the reconsideration of the uncritical use of widespread measures and descriptors of biodiversity on grounds of inconsistent patterns found throughout numerous studies, including those presented herein.
In this thesis two genes involved in causing neurodegenerative phenotypes in Drosophila are described. olk (omb-like), a futsch allele, is a micotubule associated protein (MAP) which is homologous to MAP1B and sws (swiss cheese) a serine esterase of yet unknown function within the nervous system. The lack of either one of these genes causes progressive neurodegeneration in two different ways. The sws mutant is characterized by general degeneration of the adult nervous system, glial hyperwrapping and neuronal apoptosis. Deletion of NTE (neuropathy target esterase), the SWS homolog in vertebrates, has been shown to cause a similar pattern of progressive neural degeneration in mice. NTE reacts with organophosphates causing axonal degeneration in humans. Inhibition of vertebrate NTE is insufficient to induce paralyzing axonal degeneration, a reaction called "aging reaction" is necessary for the disease to set in. It is hypothesized that a second "non-esterase" function of NTE is responsible for this phenomenon. The biological function of SWS within the nervous system is still unknown. To characterize the function of this protein several transgenic fly lines expressing different mutated forms of SWS were established. The controlled expression of altered SWS protein with the GAL4/UAS system allowed the analysis of isolated parts of the protein that were altered in the respective constructs. The characterization of a possible non-esterase function was of particular interest in these experiments. One previously described aberrant SWS construct lacking the first 80 amino acids (SWSΔ1-80) showed a deleterious, dominant effect when overexpressed and was used as a model for organophosphate (OP) intoxication. This construct retains part of its detrimental effect even without catalytically active serine esterase function. This strongly suggests that there is another characteristic to SWS that is not defined solely by its serine esterase activity. Experiments analyzing the lipid contents of sws mutant, wildtype (wt) and SWS overexpressing flies gave valuable insights into a possible biological function of SWS. Phosphatidylcholine, a major component of cell membranes, accumulates in sws mutants whereas it is depleted in SWS overexpressing flies. This suggests that SWS is involved in phosphatidylcholine regulation. The produced α-SWS antibody made it possible to study the intracellular localization of SWS. Images of double stainings with ER (endoplasmic reticulum) markers show that SWS is in great part localized to the ER. This is consistent with findings of SWS/ NTE localization in yeast and mouse cells. The olk mutant also shows progressive neurodegeneration but it is more localized to the olfactory system and mushroom bodies. Regarding specific cell types it seemed that specifically the projection neurons (PNs) are affected. A behavioral phenotype consisting of poor olfactory memory compared to wt is also observed even before histologically visible neurodegeneration sets in. Considering that the projection neurons connect the antennal lobes to the mushroom bodies, widely regarded as the "learning center", this impairment was expected. Three mutants where identified (olk1-3) by complementation analysis with the previously known futschN94 allele and sequencing of the coding sequence of olk1 revealed a nonsense mutation early in the protein. Consistent with the predicted function of Futsch as a microtubule associated protein (MAP), abnormalities are most likely due to a defective microtubule network and defects in axonal transport. In histological sections a modified cytoskeletal network is observed and western blots confirm a difference in the amount of tubulin present in the olk1 mutant versus the wt. The elaboration of neuronal axons and dendrites is dependent on a functional cytoskeleton. Observation of transport processes in primary neural cultures derived from olk1 mutant flies also showed a reduction of mitochondrial transport. Interaction with the fragile X mental retardation gene (dfmr1) was observed with the olk mutant. A dfmr1/ olk1 double mutant shows an ameliorated phenotype compared to the olk1 single mutant. tau, another MAP gene, was also shown to be able to partially rescue the olk1 mutant.
Localization of BMP receptors in distinct plasma membrane domains and its impact on BMP signaling
(2006)
Endocytosis of growth factor receptors plays an important role in the activation and propagation as well as the attenuation of signaling pathways. Its malfunctioning can cause several pathologies, e.g. by controlling the level of receptors at the cell surface. BMPs are members of the TGF-ß superfamily and are involved in the regulation of proliferation, differentiation, chemotaxis and apoptosis. BMP signaling is initiated at two types of transmembrane serine/threonine kinases, BRI and BRII. BMP receptor activation occurs upon ligand binding to preformed complexes (PFCs) or BMP2-induced signaling complexes (BISCs) composed of BRI and BRII. Binding of BMP2 to PFCs results in activation of the Smad pathway, whereas BISCs initiate the activation of Smad-independent pathways via p38 resulting in the induction of Alkaline phosphatase (ALP). BMP receptor endocytosis has not been extensively studied and the potential role of localization to different regions of the plasma membrane in determining the signaling pathways activated by PFCs and BISCs was not explored so far. In the present work, the localization of BMP receptors in distinct membrane domains and the consequential impact on BMP signaling were investigated. By separating detergent-resistant membranes (DRMs) from cell lysates and subsequent gradient ultracentrifugation, it could be demonstrated that BRI and BRII cofractionate with cav-1, the marker protein of caveolae. Moreover, both receptor types interacted with cav-1 and showed a partially colocalization with cav-1 at the plasma membrane. Although these results point to a caveolar localization, BMP receptors cofractionated also with DRMs in cells exhibiting no caveolae, suggesting an additional non-caveolar raft localization. Beyond that, BRII could also be localized to clathrin-coated pits (CCPs) by means of immuno-electronmicroscopy studies. The second part of this thesis demonstrated that both membrane regions influence BMP signaling in distinct ways. Smad1/5 was shown to be phosphorylated independently of endocytic events at the cell surface. On the one hand, disruption of DRM regions by cholesterol depletion inhibited specifically BMP2-mediated ALP production, while Smad signaling was unaffected. On the other hand, inhibition of clathrin-mediated endocytosis by specific inhibitors affected BMP2-induced Smad signaling as well as the induction of ALP, suggesting that both Smad-dependent and Smad-independent signaling pathways are required for BMP2 induced ALP production. These findings propose an important regulatory impact of different endocytic routes and membrane regions on BMP signaling as well as that a distinct membrane localization of BMP receptors account for specific signaling properties initiated at PFCs or BISCs.
Study of Omp85 Family Proteins YaeT and YtfM and Multidrug Export Machineries in Escherichia coli
(2006)
In this study the Omp85 family proteins YaeT and YtfM of Escherichia coli were investigated by using biochemical and electrophysiological methods as well as bioinformatical and structural analysis. In addition, knock-out strains were constructed to further study the relevance of these proteins in vivo. The prediction that Omp85 proteins are composed of two domains, a periplasmic amino-terminal POTRA (polypeptide translocation associated) domain and a carboxy-terminal domain anchoring these proteins in the outer membrane, was confirmed by the construction of mutants. It could be shown that the carboxy-terminal part of the proteins is able to insert into the outer bacterial membrane, even if the POTRA domain is removed. Furthermore, pore-forming activity in the black-lipid bilayer was observed for both full-length proteins as well as their carboxy-terminal membrane located parts. The channels formed by both proteins in the black lipid bilayer showed variable single channel conductance states rather than a defined value for conductance. In 1M KCl, e.g. YaeT forms pores with a channel conductance of 100 to 600 pS containing a most abundant value at 400 pS. This variability is at least reasonable for YaeT due to a prerequisite flexibility of its channel for OMP insertion. YaeT was identified to form a cation selective, YtfM an anion selective channel, which is less pH dependent than YaeT. Another feature of the YaeT channel is that its selectivity and conductance is influenced by charged detergent molecules indicating an accumulation of these molecules in hydrophobic pockets inside the compact channel. YaeT revealed heat-modifiable mobility in SDS-PAGE which is characteristic for β-barrel OMPs, whereas YtfM did not show this behaviour. This result could be explained by sequence alignment and structural comparison of YaeT and YtfM via CD and FTIR spectra displaying much higher β-strand content for the carboxy-terminal part of YaeT compared to YtfM. Since the carboxy-terminal parts were shown to have pore forming ability and are inserted in the OM in vivo, the substitution of the essential protein YaeT by its carboxy-terminal mutant was attempted in a yaeT knock-out strain. The carboxy-terminal half of YaeT was not sufficient to compensate depletion of the full-length protein indicating an important role of the amino-terminus for cell viability. In contrary, YtfM is shown to be a non-essential protein and lack of YtfM had no effects on the composition and integrity of the OM. However, chromosomal deletion of ytfM remarkably reduced the growth rate of cells. This study provides the first detailed investigation of the structure of YaeT and describes its electrophysiological behaviour, which could be a basis for further studies of YaeT and its substrate proteins. Furthermore, YtfM was characterised and its in vivo function was investigated revealing YtfM as the second Omp85 family protein of importance in E. coli. In a second part of this study assembly and function of multidrug efflux pumps were investigated. Drug efflux pumps are tripartite export machineries in the cell envelope of Gram-negative bacteria conferring multidrug resistance and therefore causing severe problems for medical treatment of diseases. Protein structures of all three efflux pump components are solved, but the exact interaction sites are still unknown. Assembly of a hybrid exporter system composed of the Pseudomonas aeruginosa channel tunnel OprM, the E. coli adaptor protein AcrA and its associated transporter AcrB could be shown by chemical cross-linking, even though this efflux pump is not functional. Exchange of the hairpin domain of AcrA by the corresponding hairpin from the adaptor protein MexA of P. aeruginosa restored functionality tested by antibiotic sensitivity assays. This shows the importance of the MexA hairpin domain for functional interaction with the OprM channel tunnel. Interestingly, the hybrid protein was also able to assemble with TolC as outer membrane component to form a functional efflux pump indicating a higher flexibility of TolC compared to OprM concerning interaction partners. Based on these results, an interaction model of the hairpin domain and the channel tunnel on molecular level for AcrA and TolC as well as MexA and OprM, respectively, is presented. This model provides a basis for directed mutagenesis to reveal the exact contact sites of the hairpin of the adapter protein and the outer membrane component
Amphibian communities of the dry forest of Western Madagascar : taxonomy, ecology and conservation
(2006)
The amphibian fauna of the Kirindy dry forest in western Madagascar Abstracts of chapter 5 and 6 Living apart together – patterns of tadpole communities in a western Madagascan dry forest Whether communities are established in a deterministic or in a stochastic manner depends to a large degree on the spatial scale considered. In this study we use a tadpole community in the dry forest of western Madagascar to show that when within-site habitat diversity is considered, communities may also differ in two community parameters (species composition and species richness) within one geographic scale. Forest ponds and riverbed ponds are two types of breeding habitat that are both used by anurans but that differ generally in their temporal availability, predation pressure, and environmental characteristics. In forest ponds, tadpole communities were very predictable by the physical properties of the ponds and by their vegetation characteristics. In contrast, the riverbed communities were not predictable. We offer two hypotheses to explain this phenomenon. This study clearly demonstrates differing patterns in community organization in two natural habitats within one site, and therefore, highlights the importance of considering local conditions and within-site habitat diversity in community studies. Modeling the habitat use of an endangered dry-forest frog from Western Madagascar A crucial factor for the successful reproduction and thus conservation of an amphibian species is the availability of suitable waters as breeding sites. In this chapter, we examine the use of breeding sites of an endangered, local endemic frog of Western Madagascar, Aglyptodactylus laticeps, over a three year period. Logistic regression was used to model the relationship between the species’ breeding habitat use and environmental variables. This model was aimed to be predictive, rather than explanatory, and only environmental variables were included that are assessable in a time and cost effective manner, and that can therefore be used as an easy-to-use management tool in applied conservation. On the local scale of the Kirindy concession, A. laticeps is restricted to forest with a relatively low degree of disturbance and closed canopy cover. The model identified three environmental variables that suffice to satisfactorily predict the use of respective breeding sites, namely leaf litter, vegetation coverage and surface water plants. Based on these results, we present recommendations for the conservation management of this frog. Furthermore, the presence or absence of this species within its natural range indicates the relative degree of environmental integrity of its habitat, and we therefore consider this species as a suitable indicator species of temporary aquatic habitats within the dry forest that are characterized by a low water permanency and high leaf litter coverage. This study demonstrates that models constructed from basic ecological knowledge of relevant species may serve as valuable management tools in applied conservation.
Sugar reward learning in Drosophila : neuronal circuits in Drosophila associative olfactory learning
(2006)
Genetic intervention in the fly Drosophila melanogaster has provided strong evidence that the mushroom bodies of the insect brain act as the seat of memory traces for aversive and appetitive olfactory learning (reviewed in Heisenberg, 2003). In flies, electroshock is mainly used as negative reinforcer. Unfortunately this fact complicates a comparative consideration with other inscets as most studies use sugar as positive reinforcer. For example, several lines of evidence from honeybee and moth have suggested another site, the antennal lobe, to house neuronal plasticity underlying appetitive olfactory memory (reviewed in Menzel, 2001; Daly et al., 2004). Because of this I focused my work mainly on appetitive olfactory learning. In the first part of my thesis, I used a novel genetic tool, the TARGET system (McGuire et al., 2003), which allows the temporally controlled expression of a given effector gene in a defined set of cells. Comparing effector genes which either block neurotransmission or ablate cells showed important differences, revealing that selection of the appropriate effector gene is critical for evaluating the function of neural circuits. In the second part, a new engram of olfactory memory in the Drosophila projection neurons is described by restoring Rutabaga adenlylate cyclase (rut-AC) activity specifically in these cells. Expression of wild-type rutabaga in the projection neurons fully rescued the defect in sugar reward memory, but not in aversive electric shock memory. No difference was found in the stability of the appetitive memories rescued either in projection neurons or Kenyon cells. In the third part of the thesis I tried to understand how the reinforcing signals for sugar reward are internally represented. In the bee Hammer (1993) described a single octopaminergic neuron – called VUMmx1 – that mediates the sugar stimulus in associative olfactory reward learning. Analysis of single VUM neurons in the fly (Selcho, 2006) identified a neuron with a similar morphology as the VUMmx1 neuron. As there is a mutant in Drosophila lacking the last enzymatic step in octopamine synthesis (Monastirioti et al., 1996), Tyramine beta Hydroxylase, I was able to show that local Tyramine beta Hydroxylase expression successfully rescued sugar reward learning. This allows to conclude that about 250 cells including the VUM cluster are sufficient for mediating the sugar reinforcement signal in the fly. The description of a VUMmx1 similar neuron and the involvement of the VUM cluster in mediating the octopaminergic sugar stimulus are the first steps in establishing a neuronal map for US processing in Drosophila. Based on this work several experiments are contrivable to reach this ultimate goal in the fly. Taken together, the described similiarities between Drosophila and honeybee regarding the memory organisation in MBs and PNs and the proposed internal representation of the sugar reward suggest an evolutionarily conserved mechanism for appetitive olfactory learning in insects.
Olfaction plays an important role in a variety of behaviors throughout the life of the European honeybee. Caste specific, environmentally induced and aging/experiencedependent differences in olfactory behavior represent a promising model to investigate mechanisms and consequences of phenotypic neuronal plasticity within the olfactory pathway of bees. This study focuses on the two different female phenotypes within the honeybee society, queens and workers. In this study, for the first time, structural plasticity in the honeybee brain was investigated at the synaptic level. Queens develop from fertilized eggs that are genetically not different from those that develop into workers. Adult queens are larger than workers, live much longer, and display different behaviors. Developmental trajectory is mainly determined by nutritional factors during the larval period. Within the subsequent post-capping period, brood incubation is precisely controlled, and pupae are incubated close to 35°C via thermoregulatory activity of adult workers. Behavioral studies suggest that lower rearing temperatures cause deficits in olfactory learning in adult bees. To unravel possible neuronal correlates for thermoregulatory and caste dependent influences on olfactory behavior, I examined structural plasticity of developing as well as mature olfactory synaptic neuropils. Brood cells were reared in incubators and pupal as well as adult brains were dissected for immunofluorescent staining. To label synaptic neuropils, I used an antibody to synapsin and fluophore-conjugated phalloidin which binds to filamentous (F-) actin. During development, neuronal F-actin is expressed in growing neurons, and in the mature nervous system, F-actin is most abundant in presynaptic terminals and dendritic spines. In the adult brains, this double labeling technique enables the quantification of distinct synaptic complexes microglomeruli [MG]) within olfactory and visual input regions of the mushroom bodies (MBs) prominent higher sensory integration centers. Analyses during larval-adult metamorphosis revealed that the ontogenetic plasticity in the female castes is reflected in the development of the brain. Distinct differences among the timing of the formation of primary and secondary olfactory neuropils were also revealed. These differences at different levels of the olfactory pathway in queens and workers correlate with differences in tasks performed by both female castes. In addition to caste specific differences, thermoregulation of sealed brood cells has important consequences on the synaptic organization within the MB calyces of adult workers and queens. Even small differences in rearing temperatures affected the number of MG in the olfactory calyx lip regions. In queens, the highest number of MG in the olfactory lip developed at 1°C below the temperature where the maximum of MG is found in workers (33.5 vs. 34.5°C). Apart from this developmental neuronal plasticity, this study exhibits a striking age-related plasticity of MG throughout the extended life span of queens. Interestingly, MG numbers in the olfactory lip increased with age, but decreased within the adjacent visual collar of the MB calyx. To conclude, developmental and adult plasticity of the synaptic circuitry in the sensory input regions of the MB calyx may underlie caste- and age-specific adaptations and long-term plasticity in behavior.
In this century new experimental and computational techniques are adding an enormous amount of information, revealing many biological mysteries. The complexities of biological systems still broach new questions. Till now the main approach to understand a system has been to divide it in components that can be studied. The upcoming new paradigm is to combine the pieces of information in order to understand it at a global level. In the present thesis we have tried to study infectious diseases with such a global ‘Systems Biology’ approach. In the first part the apoptosis pathway is analyzed. Apoptosis (Programmed cell death) is used as a counter measure in different infections, for example viral infections. The interactions between death domain containing proteins are studied to address the following questions: i) How specificity is maintained - showing that it is induced through adaptors, ii) how proliferation/ survival signals are induced during activation of apoptosis – suggesting the pivotal role of RIP. The model also allowed us to detect new possible interacting surfaces. The pathway is then studied at a global level in a time step simulation to understand the evolution of the topology of activators and inhibitors of the pathway. Signal processing is further modeled in detail for the apoptosis pathway in M. musculus to predict the concentration time course of effector caspases. Further, experimental measurements of caspase-3 and viability of cells validate the model. The second part focuses on the phagosome, an organelle which plays an essential role in removal of pathogens as exemplified by M. tuberculosis. Again the problem is addressed in two main sections: i) To understanding the processes that are inhibited by M. tuberculosis; we focused on the phospholipid network applying a time step simulation in section one, which plays an important role in inhibition or activation of actin polymerization on the phagosome membrane. ii) Furthermore, actin polymers are suggested to play a role in the fusion of the phagosome with lysosome. To check this hypothesis an in silico model was developed; we find that the search time is reduced by 5 fold in the presence of actin polymers. Further the effect of length of actin polymers, dimensions of lysosome, phagosome and other model parameter is analyzed. After studying a pathway and then an organelle, the next step was to move to the system. This was exemplified by the host pathogen interactions between Bordetella pertussis and Bordetella bronchiseptica. The limited availability of quantitative information was the crucial factor behind the choice of the model type. A Boolean model was developed which was used for a dynamic simulation. The results predict important factors playing a role in Bordetella pathology especially the importance of Th1 related responses and not Th2 related responses in the clearance of the pathogen. Some of the quantitative predictions have been counterchecked by experimental results such as the time course of infection in different mutants and wild type mice. All these computational models have been developed in presence of limited kinetic data. The success of these models has been validated by comparison with experimental observations. Comparative models studied in chapters 6 and 9 can be used to explore new host pathogen interactions. For example in chapter 6, the analysis of inhibitors and inhibitory paths in three organism leads to the identification of regulatory hotspots in complex organisms and in chapter 9 the identification of three phases in B. bronchiseptica and inhibition of IFN-γ by TTSS lead us to explore similar phases and inhibition of IFN-γ in B. pertussis. Further an important significance of these models is to identify new components playing an essential role in host-pathogen interactions. In silico deletions can point out such components which can be further analyzed by experimental mutations.
In this study pore forming proteins of the gram-negative bacteria B. burgdorferi, B. duttonii and E.coli were investigated. Therefore the study is subdivided into three parts. In the first part outer membrane preparation of three relapsing fever Borrelia were investigated. In the second part the putative TolC homologue BB0124 of B. burgdorferi, the Lyme borreliosis agent, was studied. In the last part the influence of point mutants within the greasy slide of the maltose specific porin (LamB) of E. coli were shown. In the first part of this study outer membrane preparations of three Borrelia relapsing fever strains have been studied for pore-forming activity in the black lipid bilayer assay. Histograms of conductance fluctuations were obtained from single-channel experiments with outer membrane preparations of B. hermsii, B. recurentis and B. duttonii. All strains had a different conductance fluctuation pattern with a broad range of single-channel conductance values varying from 0.5 nS – 11 nS. Common for all three strains was a high pore-forming activity at around 0.5 nS. Furthermore the proteins of the outer membrane of B. duttonii were separated by chromatographic methods. Some eluate fractions contained a channel-forming protein, which was forming stable channels with a single-channel conductance of 80 pS in 1 M KCl. Characterization of this channel showed that it is slightly anionic selective and voltage independent. The small single-channel conductance suggests that it is a specific pore. However, a substrate specificity could not be determined. In the second part, for the B. burgdorferi HB19 and p66 knock out strain HB19/K02, their outer membrane preparations were characterized in the black lipid bilayer assay. Comparing the histograms of single-channel conductions fluctuations of both strains showed no single-channel activity at 11.5 nS for the p66 knock out strain. This verifies earlier studies that P66 is a pore-forming protein in B. burgdorferi. Furthermore, one fraction obtained by anion exchange chromatography of the p66 knock out outer membrane protein preparation showed a uniform channel-forming activity with a single channel conductance of 300 pS. The electrophysically characterization of the 300 pS channel showed that it is not ionselective or voltage dependent. By mass spectrometry using peptide mass finger prints, BB0142 could be identified as the sole channel forming candidate in the active fraction. A BLAST search and a conserved domain search showed that BB0142 is a putative TolC homologue in B. burgdorferi. Furthermore the location of the bb0142 gene within the chromosome is in an operon encoding a multidrug efflux pump. In this study the expression of an outer membrane component of a putative drug efflux system of B. burgdorferi was shown for the first time. In the third part functional studies of the maltooligosaccharide-specific LamB channel were performed. The 3D-structure of LamB suggests that a number of aromatic residues (Y6, Y41, W74, F229, W358 and W420) within the channel lumen is involved in carbohydrate and ion transport. All aromatic residues were replaced by alanine (A) scanning mutagenesis. Furthermore, LamB mutants were created in which one, two, three, four and five aromatic residues were replaced to study their effects on ion and maltopentaose transport through LamB. The purified mutant proteins were reconstituted into lipid bilayer membranes and the single-channel conductance was studied. The results suggest that all aromatic residues provide some steric hindrance for ion transport through LamB. Highest impact is provided by Y6 and Y41, which are localized opposite to Y118, which forms the central constriction of the LamB channel. Stability constants for binding of maltopentaose to the mutant channels were measured using titration experiments with the carbohydrate. The mutation of one or several aromatic amino acids led to a substantial decrease of the stability constant of binding. The highest effect was observed when all aromatic amino acids were replaced by alanine because no binding of maltopentaose could be detected in this case. However, binding was again possible when Y118 was replaced by tryptophane (W). The carbohydrate-induced block of the channel function could also be used for the study of current noise through the different mutant LamB-channels. The analysis of the power density spectra of some of the mutants allowed the evaluation of the on- and off-rate constants (k1 and k-1) of carbohydrate binding to the binding-site inside the channels. The results suggest that both on- and off-rate constants were affected by the mutations. For most mutants k1 decreased and k-1 increased.
Insights into the evolution of protein domains give rise to improvements of function prediction
(2005)
The growing number of uncharacterised sequences in public databases has turned the prediction of protein function into a challenging research field. Traditional annotation methods are often error-prone due to the small subset of proteins with experimentally verified function. Goal of this thesis was to analyse the function and evolution of protein domains in order to understand molecular processes in the cell. The focus was on signalling domains of little understood function, as well as on functional sites of protein domains in general. Glucosaminidases (GlcNAcases) represent key enzymes in signal transduction pathways. Together with glucosamine transferases, they serve as molecular switches, similar to kinases and phosphatases. Little was known about the molecular function and structure of the GlcNAcases. In this thesis, the GlcNAcases were identified as remote homologues of N-acetyltransferases. By comparing the homologous sequences, I was able to predict functional sites of the GlcNAcase family and to identify the GlcNAcases as the first family member of the acetyltransferase superfamily with a distinct catalytic mechanism, which is not involved in the transfer of acetyl groups. In a similar approach, the sensor domain of a plant hormone receptor was studied. I was able to predict putative ligand-binding sites by comparing evolutionary constraints in functionally diverged subfamilies. Most of the putative ligand-binding sites have been experimentally confirmed in the meantime. Due to the importance of enzymes involved in cellular signalling, it seems impossible to find substitutions of catalytic amino acids that turn them catalytically inactive. Nevertheless, by scanning catalytic positions of the protein tyrosine phosphatase families, I found many inactive domains among single domain and tandem domain phosphatases in metazoan proteomes. In addition, I found that inactive phosphatases are conserved throughout evolution, which led to the question about the function of these catalytically inactive phosphatase domains. An analysis of evolutionary site rates of amino acid substitutions revealed a cluster of conserved residues in the apparently redundant domain of tandem phosphatases. This putative regulatory center might be responsible for the experimentally verified dimerization of the active and inactive domain in order to control the catalytic activity of the active phosphatase domain. Moreover, I detected a subgroup of inactive phosphatases, which presumably functions in substrate recognition, based on different evolutionary site rates within the phosphatase family. The characterization of these new regulatory modules in the phosphatase family raised the question whether inactivation of enzymes is a more general evolutionary mechanism to enlarge signalling pathways and whether inactive domains are also found in other enzyme families. A large-scale analysis of substitutions at catalytic positions of enzymatic domains was performed in this work. I identified many domains with inactivating substitutions in various enzyme families. Signalling domains harbour a particular high occurrence of catalytically inactive domains indicating that these domains have evolved to modulate existing regulatory pathways. Furthermore, it was shown that inactivation of enzymes by single substitutions happened multiple times independently in evolution. The surprising variability of amino acids at catalytic positions was decisive for a subsequent analysis of the diversity of functional sites in general. Using functional residues extracted from structural complexes I could show that functional sites of protein domains do not only vary in their type of amino acid but also in their structural location within the domain. In the process of evolution, protein domains have arisen from duplication events and subsequently adapted to new binding partners and developed new functions, which is reflected in the high variability of functional sites. However, great differences exist between domain families. The analysis demonstrated that functional sites of nuclear domains are more conserved than functional sites of extracellular domains. Furthermore, the type of ligand influences the degree of conservation, for example ion binding sites are more conserved than peptide binding sites. The work presented in this thesis has led to the detection of functional sites in various protein domains involved in signalling pathways and it has resulted in insights into the molecular function of those domains. In addition, properties of functional sites of protein domains were revealed. This knowledge can be used in the future to improve the prediction of protein function and to identify functional sites of proteins.
The vertebrate spinal cord is composed of billions of neurons and glia cells, which are formed in a highly coordinated manner during early neurogenesis. Specification of these cells at distinct positions along the dorsoventral (DV) axis of the developing spinal cord is controlled by a ventrally located signaling center, the medial floor plate (MFP). Currently, the origin and time frame of specification of this important organizer are not clear. During my PhD thesis, I have analyzed the function of the novel secreted growth factor Midkine-a (Mdka) in zebrafish. In higher vertebrates, mdk and the related factor pleiotrophin (ptn) are widely expressed during embryogenesis and are implicated in a variety of processes. The in-vivo function of both factors, however, is unclear, as knock-out mice show no embryonic phenotype. We have isolated two mdk co-orthologs, mdka and mdkb, and one single ptn gene in zebrafish. Molecular phylogenetic analyses have shown that these genes evolved after two large gene block duplications. In contrast to higher vertebrates, zebrafish mdk and ptn genes have undergone functional divergence, resulting in mostly non-redundant expression patterns and functions. I have shown by overexpression and knock-down analyses that Mdka is required for MFP formation during zebrafish neurulation. Unlike the previously known MFP inducing factors, mdka is not expressed within the embryonic shield or tailbud but is dynamically expressed in the paraxial mesoderm. I used epistatic and mutant analyses to show that Mdka acts independently from these factors. This indicates a novel mechanism of Mdka dependent MFP formation during zebrafish neurulation. To get insight into the signaling properties of zebrafish Mdka, the function of both Mdk proteins and the candidate receptor Anaplastic lymphoma kinase (Alk) have been compared. Knock-down of mdka and mdkb resulted in the same reduction of iridophores as in mutants deficient for Alk. This indicates that Alk could be a putative receptor of Mdks during zebrafish embryogenesis. In most vertebrate species a lateral floor plate (LFP) domain adjacent to the MFP has been defined. In higher vertebrates it has been shown that the LFP is located within the p3 domain, which forms V3 interneurons. It is unclear, how different cell types in this domain are organized during early embryogenesis. I have analyzed a novel homeobox gene in zebrafish, nkx2.2b, which is exclusively expressed in the LFP. Overexpression, mutant and inhibitor analyses showed that nkx2.2b is activated by Sonic hedgehog (Shh), but repressed by retinoids and the motoneuron-inducing factor Islet-1 (Isl1). I could show that in zebrafish LFP and p3 neuronal cells are located at the same level along the DV axis, but alternate along the anteroposterior (AP) axis. Moreover, these two different cell populations require different levels of HH signaling and nkx2.2 activities. This provides new insights into the structure of the vertebrate spinal cord and suggests a novel mechanism of neural patterning.
Flagellar motility and chemotaxis are essential virulence traits required for the ability of Helicobacter pylori to colonize the gastric mucosa. The flagellar regulatory network and the complex chemotaxis system of H. pylori are fundamentally different from other bacteria, despite many similarities. In H. pylori expression of the flagella is controlled by a complex regulatory cascade involving the two-component system FlgR-HP244, the sigma factors 54 and 28 and the anti-sigma 28 factor FlgM. Thus far, the input signal for histidine kinase HP244, which activates the transcriptional regulator FlgR, which triggers sigma factor 54-dependent transcription of the flagellar class 2 genes, is not known. Based on a yeast two-hybrid screen a highly significant protein-protein interaction between the H. pylori protein HP137 and both the histidine kinase HP244 and the flagellar hook protein HP908 (FlgE´) has been reported recently (Rain et al., 2001). So far, no function could be assigned to HP137. Interestingly, the interaction between HP137 and histidine kinase HP244 was observed in the characteristic block N sequence motif of the C-terminal ATP-binding kinase domain. In this work a potential role of HP137 in a feedback regulatory mechanism controlling the activity of histidine kinase HP244 in the flagellar regulation of H. pylori was investigated. Although the substitution of the gene encoding HP137 by a kanamycin cassette resulted in non-motile bacteria, the failure to restore motility by the reintroduction of hp137 in cis into the mutant strain, and the observation that HP137 has no significant effect on the activity of histidine kinase HP244 in vitro indicated that HP137 is not directly involved in flagellar regulation. Therefore, it was demonstrated that HP137 does not participate in the regulation of flagellar gene expression, neither in H. pylori nor in the closely related bacterium C. jejuni. Chemotactic signal transduction in H. pylori differs from the enterobacterial paradigm in several respects. In addition to a CheY response regulator protein (CheY1) H. pylori contains a CheY-like receiver domain (CheY2) which is C-terminally fused to the histidine kinase CheA. Furthermore, the genome of H. pylori encodes three CheV proteins consisting of an N-terminal CheW-like domain and a C-terminal receiver domain, while there are no orthologues of the chemotaxis genes cheB, cheR, and cheZ. To obtain insight into the mechanism controlling the chemotactic response of H. pylori the phosphotransfer reactions between the purified two-component signalling modules were investigated in vitro. Using in vitro phosphorylation assays it was shown that both H. pylori histidine kinases CheAY2 and CheA´ lacking the CheY-like domain (CheY2) act as ATP-dependent autokinases. Similar to other CheA proteins CheA´ shows a kinetic of phosphorylation represented by an exponential time course, while the kinetics of phosphorylation of CheAY2 is characterized by a short exponential time course followed by the hydrolysis of CheAY2~P. Therefore, it was demonstrated that the presence of the CheY2-like receiver domain influences the stability of the phosphorylated P1 domain of the CheA part of the bifunctional protein. Furthermore, it was proven that both CheY1 and CheY2 are phosphorylated by CheAY2 and CheA´~P and that the three CheV proteins mediate the dephosphorylation of CheA´~P, although with a clearly reduced efficiency as compared to CheY1 and CheY2. Moreover, CheA´ is capable of donating its phospho group to the CheY1 protein from C. jejuni and to CheY protein from E. coli. Retrophosphorylation experiments indicated that CheY1~P is able to transfer the phosphate group back to the HK CheAY2 and the receiver domain present in the bifunctional CheAY2 protein acts as a phosphate sink fine tuning the activity of the freely diffusible CheY1 protein, which is thought to interact with the flagellar motor. Hence, in this work evidence of a complex phosphorelay in the chemotaxis system was obtained which has similarities to other systems with multiple CheY proteins. The role of the CheV proteins remain unclear at the moment, but they might be engaged in a further fine regulation of the phosphate flow in this complex chemotaxis system and the independent function of the two domains CheA´ and CheY2 is not sufficient for normal chemotactic signalling in vivo.
It has been known for a long time that Drosophila can learn to discriminate not only between different odorants but also between different concentrations of the same odor. Olfactory associative learning has been described as a pairing between odorant and electric shock and since then, most of the experiments conducted in this respect have largely neglected the dual properties of odors: quality and intensity. For odorant-coupled short-term memory, a biochemical model has been proposed that mainly relies on the known cAMP signaling pathway. Mushroom bodies (MB) have been shown to be necessary and sufficient for this type of memory, and the MB-model of odor learning and short-term memory was established. Yet, theoretically, based on the MB-model, flies should not be able to learn concentrations if trained to the lower of the two concentrations in the test. In this thesis, I investigate the role of concentration-dependent learning, establishment of a concentration-dependent memory and their correlation to the standard two-odor learning as described by the MB-model. In order to highlight the difference between learning of quality and learning of intensity of the same odor I have tried to characterize the nature of the stimulus that is actually learned by the flies, leading to the conclusion that during the training flies learn all possible cues that are presented at the time. The type of the following test seems to govern the usage of the information available. This revealed a distinction between what flies learned and what is actually measured. Furthermore, I have shown that learning of concentration is associative and that it is symmetrical between high and low concentrations. I have also shown how the subjective quality perception of an odor changes with changing intensity, suggesting that one odor can have more than one scent. There is no proof that flies perceive a range of concentrations of one odorant as one (odor) quality. Flies display a certain level of concentration invariance that is limited and related to the particular concentration. Learning of concentration is relevant only to a limited range of concentrations within the boundaries of concentration invariance. Moreover, under certain conditions, two chemically distinct odorants could smell sufficiently similarly such, that they can be generalized between each other like if they would be of the same quality. Therefore, the abilities of the fly to identify the difference in quality or in intensity of the stimuli need to be distinguished. The way how the stimulus is analyzed and processed speaks in favor of a concept postulating the existence of two separated memories. To follow this concept, I have proposed a new form of memory called odor intensity memory (OIM), characterized it and compared it to other olfactory memories. OIM is independent of some members of the known cAMP signaling pathway and very likely forms the rutabaga-independent component of the standard two-odor memory. The rutabaga-dependent odor memory requires qualitatively different olfactory stimuli. OIM is revealed within the limits of concentration invariance where the memory test gives only sub-optimal performance for the concentration differences but discrimination of odor quality is not possible at all. Based on the available experimental tools, OIM seems to require the mushroom bodies the same as odor-quality memory but its properties are different. Flies can memorize the quality of several odorants at a given time but a newly formed memory of one odor interferes with the OIM stored before. In addition, the OIM lasts only 1 to 3 hours - much shorter than the odor-quality memory.
Emery-Dreifuss muscular dystrophy (EDMD) is a rare genetic disorder characterised by early contractures of the elbows, Achilles tendons and spine, slowly progressive muscle wasting and cardiomyopathy associated with cardiac conduction defect. The autosomal dominant form is caused by mutations in the LMNA gene which gives rise to lamin A and lamin C proteins by alternative splicing. These A-type lamins, together with B-type lamins, form the nuclear lamina, a network of intermediate filament proteins underlining the nuclear envelope. In order to ascertain the role lamin A and C separately contribute to the molecular phenotype, we analysed ten LMNA mutations and one single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) in transfection studies in COS7 fibroblasts and, partially, in C2C12 myoblasts. The EGFP or DsRed2 tagged lamins were exogenously expressed either individually or both A-types together and examined by light and electron microscopy. The protein mobility of lamin A mutants was determined by FRAP analysis. Additionally, a co-immunoprecipitation binding assay of in vitro synthesised A-type lamins and emerin was performed.Eight of the LMNA mutations (R50S, R133P, E358K, E358K+C<T1698, E361K, R527P, L530P, R541S and G602S) and the SNP C<T1698, when expressed in lamin A, exhibited a range of nuclear mis-localisation patterns from a wild type phenotype to the formation of nuclear aggregates. Two mutations (T150P and delQ355) led to the severe mis-localisation of the exogenous protein and additionally affected nuclear envelope reassembly and mid-body protein composition after mitosis. Exogenously expressed DsRed2 tagged wild type and mutant lamin C was only inserted into the nuclear lamina if co-expressed with the equivalent EGFP tagged lamin A construct, except for the T150P mutation which prevented either lamin from reaching the nuclear lamina. The T150P, R527P and L530P mutations reduced the ability of lamin A, but not lamin C from binding to emerin. These data indicate that mutations in the rod domain of lamin A mainly impair its function as a structural protein, whereas mutations of the globular tail domain appear to disrupt protein-protein interactions important for gene regulation and signal transduction processes. In addition, our results suggest specific functional roles for the emerin-lamin A and emerin-lamin C containing protein complexes; this is the first report to propose that the A-type lamin mutations may be differentially dysfunctional for the same LMNA mutation.
In this thesis, I introduce the Virtual Brain Protocol, which facilitates applications of the Standard Brain of Drosophila melanogaster. By providing reliable and extensible tools for the handling of neuroanatomical data, this protocol simplifies and organizes the recurring tasks involved in these applications. It is demonstrated that this protocol can also be used to generate average brains, i.e. to combine recordings of several brains with the same features such that the common features are emphasized. One of the most important steps of the Virtual Insect Protocol is the aligning of newly recorded data sets with the Standard Brain. After presenting methods commonly applied in a biological or medical context to align two different recordings, it is evaluated to what extent this alignment can be automated. To that end, existing Image Processing techniques are assessed. I demonstrate that these techniques do not satisfy the requirements needed to guarantee sensible alignments between two brains. Then, I analyze what needs to be taken into account in order to formulate an algorithm which satisfies the needs of the protocol. In the last chapter, I derive such an algorithm using methods from Information Theory, which bases the technique on a solid mathematical foundation. I show how Bayesian Inference can be applied to enhance the results further. It is demonstrated that this approach yields good results on very noisy images, detecting apparent boundaries between structures. The same approach can be extended to take additional knowledge into account, e.g. the relative position of the anatomical structures and their shape. It is shown how this extension can be utilized to segment a newly recorded brain automatically.
Chemical neurotransmission is a complex process of central importance for nervous system function. It is thought to be mediated by the orchestration of hundreds of proteins for its successful execution. Several synaptic proteins have been shown to be relevant for neurotransmission and many of them are highly conserved during evolution- suggesting a universal mechanism for neurotransmission. This process has checkpoints at various places like, neurotransmitter uptake into the vesicles, relocation of the vesicles to the vicinity of calcium channels in order to facilitate Ca2+ induced release thereby modulating the fusion probability, formation of a fusion pore to release the neurotransmitter and finally reuptake of the vesicles by endocytosis. Each of these checkpoints has now become a special area of study and maintains its own importance for the understanding of the overall process. Ca2+ induced release occurs at specialized membrane structures at the synapse known as the active zones. These are highly ordered electron dense grids and are composed of several proteins which assist the synaptic vesicles in relocating in the vicinity of Ca2+ channels thereby increasing their fusion probability and then bringing about the vesicular fusion itself. All the protein modules needed for these processes are thought to be held in tight arrays at the active zones, and the functions of a few have been characterized so far at the vertebrate active zones. Our group is primarily interested in characterizing the molecular architecture of the Drosophila synapse. Due to its powerful genetics and well-established behavioural assays Drosophila is an excellent system to investigate neuronal functioning. Monoclonal antibodies (MABs) from a hybridoma library against Drosophila brain are routinely used to detect novel proteins in the brain in a reverse genetic approach. Upon identification of the protein its encoding genetic locus is characterized and a detailed investigation of its function is initiated. This approach has been particularly useful to detect synaptic proteins, which may go undetected in a forward genetic approach due to lack of an observable phenotype. Proteins like CSP, Synapsin and Sap47 have been identified and characterized using this approach so far. MAB nc82 has been one of the shortlisted antibodies from the same library and is widely used as a general neuropil marker due to the relative transparency of immunohistochemical whole mount staining obtained with this antibody. A careful observation of double stainings at the larval neuromuscular junctions with MAB nc82 and other pre and post-synaptic markers strongly suggested an active zone localization of the nc82 antigen. Synaptic architecture is well characterized in Drosophila at the ultrastructural level. However, molecular details for many synaptic components and especially for the active zone are almost entirely unknown. A possible localization at the active zone for the nc82 antigen served as the motivation to initiate its biochemical characterization and the identification of the encoding gene. In the present thesis it is shown by 2-D gel analysis and mass spectrometry that the nc82 antigen is a novel active zone protein encoded by a complex genetic locus on chromosome 2R. By RT-PCR exons from three open reading frames previously annotated as separate genes are demonstrated to give rise to a transcript of at least 5.5 kb. Northern blots produce a prominent signal of 11 kb and a weak signal of 2 kb. The protein encoded by the 5.5 kb transcript is highly conserved amongst insects and has at its N-terminus significant homology to the previously described vertebrate active zone protein ELKS/ERC/CAST. Bioinformatic analysis predicts coiled-coil domains spread all over the sequence and strongly suggest a function involved in organizing or maintaining the structure of the active zone. The large C-terminal region is highly conserved amongst the insects but has no clear homologues in veretebrates. For a functional analysis of this protein transgenic flies expressing RNAi constructs under the control of the Gal4 regulated enhancer UAS were kindly provided by the collaborating group of S.Sigrist (Gِttingen). A strong pan-neuronal knockdown of the nc82 antigen by transgenic RNAi expression leads to embryonic lethality. A relatively weaker RNAi expression results in behavioural deficits in adult flies including unstable flight and impaired walking behavior. Due to this peculiar phenotype as observed in the first knockdown studies the gene was named “bruchpilot” (brp) encoding the protein “Bruchpilot (BRP)” (German for crash pilot). A pan-neuronal as well as retina specific downregulation of this protein results in loss of ON and OFF transients in ERG recordings indicating dysfunctional synapses. Retina specific downregulation also shows severely impaired optomotor behaviour. Finally, at an ultrastructural level BRP downregulation seems to impair the formation of the characteristic T-shaped synaptic ribbons at the active zones without significantly altering the overall synaptic architecture (in collaboration with E.Asan). Vertebrate active zone protein Bassoon is known to be involved in attaching the synaptic ribbons to the active zones as an adapter between active zone proteins RIBEYE and ERC/CAST. A mutation in Bassoon results in a floating synaptic ribbon phenotype. No protein homologous to Bassoon has been observed in Drosophila. BRP downregulation also results in absence of attached synaptic ribbons at the active zones. This invites the speculation of an adapter like function for BRP in Drosophila. However, while Bassoon mutant mice are viable, BRP deficit in addition to the structural phenotype also results in severe behavioural and physiological anomalies and even stronger downregulation causes embryonic lethality. This therefore suggests an additional and even more important role for BRP in development and normal functioning of synapses in Drosophila and also in other insects. However, how BRP regulates synaptic transmission and which other proteins are involved in this BRP dependant pathway remains to be investigated. Such studies certainly will attract prominent attention in the future.
The development of ethanol tolerance is due to changes in synaptic plasticity. Since the mechanisms mediating synaptic plasticity are probably defective in the mutant hangAE10, it was a goal of the present study to find out how HANG contributes to synaptic plasticity. In particular, it was important to clarify in which neuronal process HANG plays a role. Antibody stainings against HANG revealed that the protein is localized in all neuronal nuclei of larval and adult brains; the staining is absent in hangAE10, thus confirming that this P-element insertion stock is a protein null for HANG. Detailed analysis of the subnuclear distribution of HANG showed that HANG immunoreactivity is enriched at distinct spots in the nucleus in a speckled pattern; these speckles are found at the inside of the nuclear membrane and do not colocalize with chromatin nor with the nucleolus; thus, HANG is probably involved in the stabilization, processing or export of RNAs. As synaptic plasticity can be studied in single neurons at the larval neuromuscular junction, the morphology of the synaptic terminals of hangAE10 mutants was analyzed at muscle 6/7, segment A4. These studies revealed that hangAE10 mutants display a 40 % increase in bouton number and axonal branch length; in addition, some boutons have an abnormal hourglass-like shape, suggesting that they are arrested in a semi-separated state following the initiation of bouton division. The increase in bouton number of hang mutants is mainly due to an increase in numbers of type Ib boutons. The analysis of the distribution of several synaptic markers in hang mutants did not show abnormalities. The presynaptic expression of HANG in hang mutants rescues the increase in bouton number and axonal branch length, thus proving that the phenotypes seen in the P-element insertion hangAE10 are attributable to the lack of HANG rather than to effects of the P-element marker rosy or to a secondary hit on the same chromsome during mutagensis. This finding is further supported by the fact that postsynaptic expression of HANG does not rescue the abnormal NMJ morphology of hangAE10. Alterations in cAMP levels regulate the number of boutons; since hang mutants display an increase in bouton number, the questions was whether this morphological abnormality was due to defects in cAMP signalling. To test this hypothesis, hangAE10 NMJs were compared to those of the hypomorphic allele dnc1 that has a defective cAMP cascade. Some aspects of the NMJ phenotype (e.g. the increase in bouton number and the unaltered ratio of active zones per bouton area) are similar in hangAE10 and dnc1, other differ. Expression of a UAS-dnc transgene in hangAE10 mutants does not modify the phenotype. In summary, the results of this study indicate that nuclear protein HANG might be involved in isoform-specific splicing of genes required for synaptic plasticity at the NMJ.
Somites are repeated epithelial segments that are generated in a rhythmic manner from the presomitic mesoderm (PSM) in the embryonic tailbud. Later, they differentiate into skeletal muscle, cartilage and dermis. Somitogenesis is regulated by a complex interplay of different pathways. Notch/Delta signaling is one of the pathways well characterized in zebrafish through mutants affected in its different components. Previous work in mouse, chicken and zebrafish has shown that also additional components are required during somitogenesis, most importantly through an FGF and Retinoic acid (RA) gradient, as well as Wnt signaling. However, no zebrafish mutants with defects in these pathways showing specific somite malformations are described. This was explained by functional redundancies among related genes that have resulted from a whole genome duplication which occurred in a teleost fish ancestor 350 million years ago. As distinct duplicates exist in different teleost species, a large scale mutagenesis screen in the medaka (Oryzias latipes) has been performed successfully in Kyoto, Japan. I analyzed nine of the isolated medaka mutants that show variable aspects of somitic phenotypes. This includes a complete or partial loss of somite boundaries (e.g. bms and sne), somites with irregular sizes and shapes (e.g. krz and fsl) or partially fused and enlarged somites (e.g. dpk). Although some of these medaka mutants share characteristics with previously described zebrafish somite mutants, most of the mutants represent unique phenotypes, not obtained in the zebrafish screens. In-situ hybridization analyses with marker genes implicated in the segmentation clock (e.g. her7), establishment of anterior-posterior (A-P) polarity (e.g. mesp) and differentiation of somites (e.g. myf5, lfng) revealed that the medaka mutants can be separated into two classes. Class I shows defects in tailbud formation and PSM prepatterning, and lateron somite boundary formation was impaired in these mutants. A unique member of this class with a novel phenotype is the doppelkorn (dpk) mutant that has single fused or enlarged somites. This phenotype has not been reported till now in zebrafish somite mutants. In-situ analyses on dpk showed that stabilization of the cyclically expressed somitogenesis clock genes must be affected in this mutant. This is accompanied by a disrupted regulation of A-P polarity genes like mesp. This suggests that dpk is a mutant deficient in the wave front, which is necessary for the down-regulation of oscillating genes in the anterior PSM. Furthermore, as the initiation of oscillation of all three cyclic her genes was unaffected in dpk embryos, I could exclude that this mutant in affected in the Notch/Delta pathway. Another mutant that belongs to this class is the samidare (sam) mutant. Morphologically, sam mutants are similar to zebrafish after eight (aei). In both cases, the first 7-9 somites are formed properly, but after this somite formation ceases. Different to the situation in aei, sam mutant embryos presented an additional defect in the mid-hindbrain boundary (MHB) region. Similar MHB defects were described in the zebrafish fgf8 mutant acerebellar (ace). In ace zebrafish mutant, somites were only slightly defective, although FGF signaling has been shown to be important for somite formation in chicken, mouse and zebrafish. This was explained by functional redundancy between fgf8 and fgf24 ligands in the tailbud of zebrafish. Thus, it is interesting to suggest that the sam mutant, based on the parallel defects in somites and MHB, is a potential member of the FGF signaling pathway muatnts. It was shown that FGF plays a crucial role during MHB formation in medaka. In addition, I showed that fgf8 acts non-redundantly during tailbud formation and somitogenesis in medaka. Furthermore, I showed that FGF signaling regulates somite size also in medaka and that fgfr1 is the only FGF receptor expressed in the tailbud and somites. In class II medaka somite mutants, PSM prepatterning appears normal, whereas A-P polarity, boundary formation, epithelialization or the later differentiation of somites appears to be affected. Such mutants have not been isolated so far in zebrafish, mice or chicken. Therefore, medaka class II somite mutants seem to be a novel group of mutants that opens new perspectives to analyze A-P polarity regulation, determination and boundary formation in the presence of a normally functioning clock in the PSM. Identifying the encoding genes for all analyzed medaka somite mutants will contribute to the understanding of the molecular interactions of different signaling pathways involved during somitogenesis, and is expected to result in the identification of new components.
The genetics of species differences is an outstanding question in evolutionary biology. How do species evolve to become phenotypically distinct and how is the genetic architecture organized that underlie species differences? Phenotypic diverged traits are supposed to be frequently involved in prezygotic isolation, i.e. they prevent the formation of hybrids, whereas postzygotic isolation occurs when hybrids experience a fitness reduction. The parasitic wasp genus Nasonia represents an appropriate model system to investigate the genetics of species differences as well as the genetics of postzygotic isolation. The genus consists of three species N. vitripennis, N. longicornis and N. giraulti that differ particularly in male traits that are assumed to posses an adaptive significance: courtship behaviour and wing size differences. The courtship behaviour consists of cyclically repeated series of head nods that are separated by pauses. The stereotypic performance allowed to split up the display into distinct courtship components. Males of N. vitripennis bear vestigial forewings and are incapable of flight, whereas N. longicornis wear intermediate sized wings and N. giraulti is fully capable of flying. Nasonia species can produce interspecific hybrids after removing Wolbachia bacteria induced hybrid incompatibilities with antibiotics. Postzygotic isolation occurs to different extent and is asymmetric among reciprocal crosses, e.g. inviability is stronger in the N. vitripennis (♀) x N. longicornis (♂) cross than in the N. longicornis (♀) x N. vitripennis (♂) cross. The formation of hybrids allow to study the genetic of species differences in QTL (quantitative trait locus) analyses as well as the genetics of postzygotic isolation causing hybrid inviability. The aim of the study was to investigate the genetic architecture of differences in courtship behaviour and wing size between N. vitripennis and N. longicornis and to assess the genetics of postzygotic isolation to gain clues about the evolutionary processes underlying trait divergence and establishment of reproductive isolation between taxa. In a QTL analysis based on 94 F2-hybrid individuals of an LV cross only few QTL for wing size differences have been found with relatively large effects, although a large proportion of the phenotypic variance remained unexplained. The QTL on courtship behaviour analysis based on 94-F2 hybrid males revealed a complex genetic architecture of courtship behaviour with QTL of large phenotypic effects that explained more than 40 % of the phenotypic variance in one case. Additionally, an epistatic analysis (non-additive interlocus interaction) of courtship QTL revealed frequent genetic interchromsomal relations leading in some instances to hybrid specific effects, e.g. reversion of phenotypic effects or the transgression of phenotypes. A QTL analysis based on a threefold sample size revealed, however, an overestimation of QTL effects in the analysis based on smaller sample size pointing towards a genetic architecture of many loci with small effects governing the phenotypic differences in courtship behaviour. Furthermore, the the study comprised the analysis of postzygotic isolation in the reciprocal crosses N. vitripennis (♀) x N. longicornis (♂) versus N. longicornis (♀) x N. vitripennis (♂) located several loci distributed over different chromosomes that are involved in hybrid incompatibility. The mapping of hybrid incompatibility regions reproduced for the first time the observed asymmetries in the strength of postzygotic isolation in reciprocal crosses of between the more distant related taxa within the genus Nasonia. Stronger postzygotic incompatibilities in the VL cross are supposed to result from the superposition of nuclear-nuclear incompatibilities with nuclear-cytoplasmic incompatibilities, whereas the coincidences of these to types of incompatibilities were found to be much weaker in the reciprocal LV cross.
The genus Pogonomyrmex is predisposed for analyzing the evolution of ant colony characteristics in general and the sociogenetic structure in particular, due to the renowned biology of several species and the diversity of mating frequency and queen number. This variation in the sociogenetic structure of colonies produces a high variance in intracolonial relatedness which can be a major component driving the evolution of various colony characteristics. To exactly determine the variability of the intracolonial relatedness in the genus Pogonomyrmex both were analyzed, the number of matrilines and patrilines, in selected members of Pogonomyrmex, namely P. (sensu stricto) rugosus, P. (sensu stricto) badius and P. (Ephebomyrmex) pima using DNA fingerprint techniques. The evolution of these colony characteristics were tried to be explained within a phylogenetic framework. For that purpose we constructed a gene-tree of 39 species of the genus Pogonomyrmex. The taxon sampling covered about 83 % of the North American species and 43 % of the South American species. Effective multiple mating of queens was confirmed for P. rugosus (me=4.1) and P. badius (me=6.7). Additionally, both species are monogynous. These results corroborate behavioral observations of multiple mating for these species. Multiple mating is now known from 9 Pogonomyrmex species (behavioral evidence for 3 species – genetic evidence for 6 species). However, in P. (E.) pima all queens that were analyzed were single mated (me=1.0). Therefore, multiple mating may have either evolved early during the evolution of the genus Pogonomyrmex and has subsequently been lost in the subgenus Ephebomyrmex (plesiomorphic hypothesis), or it has first been evolved in the subgenus Pogonomyrmex sensu stricto (apomorphic hypothesis). In P. huachucanus, a species basal to the North- American sensu stricto complex, smaller effective mating number of queens compared to its sensu stricto relatives (J. Gadau and C.-P. Strehl, unpublished) probably do mirror a change from monandry to polyandry during the evolution of more advanced sensu stricto species, which would support the apomorphic hypothesis. The intracolonial relatedness in P. (E.) pima is however rather low. This is probably the result of multiple reproducing queens (polygyny). Polygyny is also documented for at least four other species of the subgenus Ephebomyrex, but so far P. (E.) pima is the only species with genetic evidence. It might be that there was an evolutionary trade-off within the subgenus Ephebomyrmex between polyandry and polygyny. Therefore, both subgenera retained a high intracolonial genetic diversity. This high genetic diversity might be one cause for the success and radiation of the genus Pogonomyrmex in arid environments. Evolution might have favored high genetic diversity of Pogonomyrmex colonies, because it helps colonies to improve their colonial organization and efficiency in performing external tasks. At least in P. badius a link between patrilines and physical polyethism was found, indicative of an improvement of colonial organization via polyandry. Furthermore, the documented extreme levels of polyandry might help P. badius females to overcome the possibility of inbreeding due to restricted dispersal. Restricted dispersal is also found in P. (E.) pima due to wingless, intermorphic queens. However, in P. (E.) pima inbreeding is probably prevented by outcrossing via males because no significant inbreeding is found. In the presented gene trees the subgenus Pogonomyrmex Ephebomyrmex was separated from the subgenus Pogonomyrmex sensu stricto. Therefore, P. Ephebomyrmex might be elevated to generic status, also due to its distinct morphological and life history characters. Nevertheless, for a precise taxonomic revision a broader complement of species has to be applied. Regularly a low number of unrelated workers was found in P. rugosus colonies, which probably stem from brood raids between mature and founding colonies. It is well known that most founding colonies are destroyed by neighboring conspecific mature colonies, but so far it was assumed that the brood of these colonies was also destroyed. This often neglected aspect might be an important fitness token for mature colonies.
Corynebacterium glutamicum is together with C. callunae and C. efficiens a member of the diverse group of mycolic-acid containing actinomycetes, the mycolata. These bacteria are potent producer of glutamate, lysine and other amino acids on industrial scale. The cell walls of most actinomycetes contain besides an arabinogalactan-peptidoglycan complex large amounts of mycolic acids. This three-layer envelope is called MAP (mycolyl-arabinogalactan-peptidoglycan) complex and it represents a second permeability barrier beside the cytoplasmic membrane similar to the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria. In analogy to the situation in the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria, channels are present in the mycolic acid layer of the mycobacterial cell wall for the passage of hydrophilic solutes. Molecular studies have provided far-reaching findings on the amino acid flux and its balance in C. glutamicum in general, but the L-glutamate export still remains unknown. The properties of the outer layers, typical of mycolata, seem to be of major importance in this process, and diffusion seems to play a key role for this part of the cell wall. The major aim of this thesis was to identify and study novel channel-forming proteins of the amino acid producers C. glutamicum, C. callunae and C. efficiens. Cell wall extracts of the organisms were investigated and a novel pore-forming protein, named PorH, that is homologue in all three organisms, was detected and characterized. PorHC.glut was isolated from C. glutamicum cells cultivated in minimal medium. The protein was identified in lipid bilayer experiments and purified to homogeneity by fast-protein liquid chromatography across a HiTrap-Q column. The purified protein forms cation-selective channels with a diameter of about 2.2 nm and an average single-channel conductance of about 2.5 nS in 1 M KCl in the lipid bilayer assay. Organic solvent extracts were used to study the permeability properties of the cell wall of C. callunae and C.efficiens. The cell extracts contained channel-forming activity, the corresponding proteins were purified to homogeneity by fast-protein liquid chromatography across a HiTrap-Q column and named PorHC.call and PorHC.eff. Channels formed by PorHC.call are cation-selective with a diameter of about 2.2 nm and an average single-channel conductance of 3 nS, whereas PorHC.eff forms slightly anion selective channels with an average single-channel conductance of 2.3 nS in 1 M KCl in the lipid bilayer assay. The PorH proteins were partially sequenced and the corresponding genes, which were designated as porH, were identified in the published genome sequence of C. glutamicum and C. efficiens. The chromosome of C. callunae is not sequenced, but PorHC.call shows a high homology to PorHC.eff and PorHC.glut. The proteins have no N-terminal extension, only the inducer methionine, which suggests that secretion of the proteins could be very similar to that of PorAC.glut of C. glutamicum. PorHC.glut is coded in the bacterial chromosome by a gene that is localized in the vincinity of the porAC.glut gene, within a putative operon formed by 13 genes that are encoded by the minus strand. Both porins are cotranscribed and coexist in the cell wall, which was demonstrated in RT-PCR and immunological detection experiments. The arrangement of porHC.glut and porAC.glut on the chromosome is similar to that of porBC.glut and porCC.glut and it was found that PorAC.glut, PorHC.glut, PorBC.glut and PorCC.glut coexist in the cell wall of C. glutamicum. The molecular mass of about 6 kDa of the PorH channel forming proteins is rather small and suggests that the cell wall channels are formed by oligomers. A possibly hexameric form was demonstrated for PorHC.glut in Western blot analysis with anti- PorHC.glut antibodies. Secondary structure predictions for PorHC.glut, PorHC.call and PorHC.eff predict that a stretch of about 42 amino acids of PorHC.glut and 28 amino acids of PorHC.call and PorHC.eff forms amphipathic -helices with a total length of 6.3 nm and 4.2 nm respectively. This should be sufficient to cross the mycolic acid layer. Another objective of this work was to establish an heterologous expression system for corynebacterial channel-forming proteins, to investigate the channel-forming properties of the up to now only hypothetical porins PorA, PorB, PorC from C. efficiens and PorC from C. glutamicum. We could demonstrate with recombinant expression experiments in E. coli that porBC.eff and porCC.eff encode for channel-forming proteins. They are, like PorBC.glut, anion-selective with a similar single-channel conductance of 1 nS in 1 M KCl.
Rhodococcus equi is a Gram-positive intracellular pathogen which can cause severe bronchopneumonia in foals. In recent years, the role of this bacterium as human pathogen has been noted, as R.equi infections in humans have increase in frequency. This increase is associated with the rise in immunosupressed individuals, specially AIDS patients, where infection leads to symptoms and pathology similar to those seen in foals with a high mortality rate. Due to its capability to survive and multiply in murine and equine macrophages, R.equi has been classified as a facultative intracellular bacterium. R.equi is found frequently in macrophages in alveolar infiltrate from infected animals. The pathogenicity of R.equi depends on its ability to exist and multiply inside macrophages and has been associated with the presence of virulence plasmids. It has been observed that, inside foal alveolar macrophages, R.equi-containing vacuoles (RCVs) do not mature into phagolysosomes. However, most of the intracellular events during R.equi infection have not been investigated in detail. The aim of this study was to elucidate the intracellular compartmentation of R.equi and the mechanism by which the bacteria avoid destruction in host macrophages. The importance of the virulence-associated plasmids of R.equi for the establishment of RCVs was also evaluated. Furthermore, the intracellular fate of viable and non-viable R.equi was compared in order to study whether viability of R.equi influeciantes the establishment of RCVs. In this study, the RCV was characterized by using a variety of endocytic markers to follow the path of the bacteria trhough murine macropages. Transmission electron microscopy-base analysis showed that R.equi was found equally frequently in phagosomes with loosely or thightly apposed membranes, and RCV often contains numerous membranous vesicles. Laser scanning microscopy of infected macrophages showed that the majority of phagosomes containing R.equi acquired transiently the early endosomal markers Rab5, Ptlns3P, and EEA-1, suggesting initially undisturbed phagosome maturation. Although the RCV acquired some late endosomal markers, such as Rab7, LAMP-1, and Lamp-2, they did not acquired vATPase, did not interact with pre-labeled lysosomes, and failed to acidify. These data clearly suggest that the RCV is a compartment which has left vacuoles that resemble multivesicular body compartments (MVB), which are transport intermediates between early and late endosomes and display internal vesicles very similar to the ones observed within RCVs. Analyisis of several R.equi strains containing either VapA- or VapB-expressing plasmids or neither demonstrated that the possession of the virulence-associated plasmids does not affect phagosome trafficking over a two hour period of infection. The finding that non-viable R.equi was still able to inhibit phagosome maturation (although not to the same extent as viable R.equi did) suggests that heat-insensitive factors, such as cell periphery lipids, may play a major role in inhibition of phagosome maturation, although heat-sensitive factors may also be involved.
A large variety of sex determination systems have been described in fish. However, almost no information is available about sex determination in the classical fish models, the zebrafish Danio rerio and the pufferfish Takifugu rubripes. A DNA-binding protein gene called dmrt1bY (or DMY) has been recently described as an outstanding candidate for the primary sex-determining gene in the medaka fish Oryzias latipes. But this gene is not the universal master sex-determining gene in teleost fish, since dmrt1bY is not found in most other fishes. Hence, other fish models need to be examined including the platyfish Xiphophorus maculatus. Xiphophorus maculatus has three types of sex chromosomes (X, Y and W; females are XX, WX or WY; males are XY or YY). Its gonosomes are at an early stage of differentiation. The sex-determining locus on the sex chromosomes is flanked by two receptor tyrosine kinase genes, the Xmrk oncogene and its protooncogenic progenitor gene egfrb, which both delimit a region of about 0.6 centiMorgans. This situation should allow the positional cloning of the sex-determining gene (SD) of the platyfish. For this purpose, Bacterial Artificial Chromosome (BAC) contigs were assembled from a BAC library of XY males constructed in our laboratory, using the oncogene Xmrk, egfrb, as well as a Y-specific pseudogene called ps-criptY as starting points. The ps-criptY sequence was found to be closely linked to the SD gene, since no recombination was observed between SD and ps-criptY in more than 400 individuals tested. Two major BAC contigs for the X chromosome (about 2.5 Mb) and three major BAC contigs for the Y chromosome (about 3.5 Mb) were built up and analyzed by strategic sequencing. These are some of the largest contigs ever assembled for the sex chromosomes of a non-mammalian vertebrate species. The molecular analysis of the ps-criptY contig was the major objective of this work. The Y-specific ps-criptY contig has been extended over 1 Mb in this work with 58 identified molecular markers. Approximatively 700 kb of non-redundant sequences has been obtained from this contig by strategic sequencing. Numerous Y-linked markers from the contig including ps-criptY were also detected on the X chromosome. Nevertheless, major structural differences were observed between the X and Y chromosomes. Particularly, a large region, which is present at one copy on the X chromosome and contains several candidate genes, was found to be duplicated on the Y chromosome. Evidence for an inversion in the sex-determining region and for the Y-specific accumulation of a repeated sequence called XIR was also obtained. Such events might correspond to an initiation of differentiation between both types of gonosomes. Accumulation of transposable elements was also observed in the ps-criptY contig. A DNA transposable element, helitron, was isolated from the sex-determining region of X. maculatus. Three copies of helitron are located on the ps-criptY contig and one copy on the X-linked contig (helitron has roughly 15 copies per haploid genome). No in-frame stop codon, truncation or intron was found in these four copies, which present high nucleotide identities to each other. This suggests that helitron elements might be active or have been recently active in X. maculatus. A consensus open reading frame of helitron was also assembled from medaka (Oryzias latipes) genomic sequences. Two candidate genes from the ps-criptY contig are also located on the W chromosome in the X. maculatus Usumacinta strain (heterogamety). These markers show the relationship between the different types of gonosomes and allow to compare the male and female heterogameties in the platyfish. Several gene candidates were identified in the ps-criptY contig. However, some of them such as msh2, cript, igd and acr probably correspond to pseudogenes. Interestingly, a novel gene, called swimy, is exclusively expressed in spermatogonia of the adult testis. Swimy is a gene encoding a DNA-binding protein with several putative DNA-binding domains. The data suggest that swimy is a very promising candidate for the master SD gene. Another novel gene, which is called fredi and encodes a novel helix-turn-helix protein, is predominately expressed in the adult testis and currently under scrutiny. There is no doubt that the master SD gene of X. maculatus will be identified by positional cloning. Further molecular analysis of the contigs built in this work will shed new light on the molecular mechanism of sex determination and the evolution of sex chromosomes in fish.
Cloning and functional characterization of novel genes expressed preferentially in the human retina
(2005)
The human retina is a multi-layered neuronal tissue specialized for the reception and processing of visual information. The retina is composed of a great diversity of neuronal cell types including rod and cone photoreceptors, bipolar cells, ganglion cells, amacrine cells, horizontal cells and Müller glia. In response to light, a coordinated series of molecular events, the so-called phototransduction cascade, is triggered in photoreceptor cells and the signals from the photoreceptors are further processed by the bipolar and ganglion cells to the higher centers of the brain. The retina as highly complex system may be greatly susceptible to genetic defects which can lead to a wide range of disease phenotypes. Therefore, isolation and characterisation of the genes active in the human retina will facilitate our deeper understanding of retinal physiology and mechanisms underlying retinal degeneration and provide novel candidates for the retinal disease genes. To identify novel genes that are specifically or predominantly expressed in the human retina, a cDNA library enriched for retina specific transcripts was generated using suppression subtractive hybridization (SSH) technique. In total, 1113 clones were randomly isolated from the retina SSH cDNA library and partially sequenced. On the basis of BLASTN algorithm analysis these clones were classified into four categories including those with I) significant homology to known human genes (766/1113), II) significant homology to partial transcripts and hypothetical gene predictions (162/1113), III) no homology to known mRNAs (149/1113), and IV) vector sequences and clones derived from mitochondrial genes (36/1113). After correcting for redundancy, category I represented 234 known human genes and category II a total of 92unknown transcripts. Clones from category I, were selected for expression analysis by RT-PCR in a great number of human tissues. This resulted in the identification of 16 genes which were expressed exclusively in the retina, 13 which were highly expressed in the retina compared to other tissues, 12 genes which were specifically expressed in neuronal tissues and 48 ubiquitously expressed genes. Thus, our expression analysis resulted in the identification of 29 genes exclusively or abundantly transcribed in the human retina. Of those, retina specific genes L25,L33, L35, L37, L38 and L40 were selected for further analysis. To characterize the complete mRNA sequences of these transcripts a full-length human retina cDNA library was constructed. The analysis of the L25 gene revealed three splicing variants of the ABCC5 gene, consequently named ABCC5_SV1 (SV1), ABCC5_SV2 (SV2) and ABCC5_SV3 (SV3).These isoforms comprise the first five exons of ABCC5 and additional novel exons named 5a, 5b and 5c, generated by differential exon usage. The determined lengths of the three transcripts are 2039 bp, 1962 bp, and 1887 bp in size, respectively. RT-PCR, real-time PCR and Northern blot analysis of ABCC5 as well as the isoforms SV1, SV2 and SV3demonstrated high levels of expression for all transcripts in the retina compared to other tissues. Analysis of their nucleotide sequences revealed that inclusion of exon 5a in splicing variant SV1 produced a frame shift and premature termination codon (PTC). Our data show that this splice variant is the target of nonsense mediated mRNA decay (NMD). This was shown by inhibition of protein synthesis with antibiotics puromycin and anisomycin in human cell lines A-RPE 19 and Y79. Our analysis resulted in an increase of the PTC containing transcript and a decrease of the ABCC5 transcript. Conversely, the amount of both transcripts (SV1 and ABCC5) returned to pre-treatment levels after removal of the inhibitors. Together, our results suggest that alternative splicing of the ubiquitously expressed ABCC5 gene in addition to NMD is involved in retina-specific transcriptional regulation of the mRNA level of ABCC5. In contrast, additional experiments demonstrated that the levels of expression ofSV2 and SV3 isoforms do not appear to influence ABCC5 transcription. Several of the cloned genes were selected for additional genotyping of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in order to construct their SNP maps which are going to be used for future association studies of complex disease AMD. Thus, identification of novel retinal genes and their functional characterization will further our elucidation of retinal physiology in general and in the diseased state in particular, by providing candidate retinal disease genes.
BMPs influence a variety of cellular processes. They have been shown to regulate proliferation, differentiation, migration and apoptosis and thus play central roles during developmental processes and tissue homeostasis. Ligand mediated signal transduction is transmitted via BMP type I and BMP type II receptors, both members of the serine/threonine kinase superfamily. The BMP receptor mediated signal transduction is not explored in detail. Therefore our aim was to address different aspects of BMP mediated signal transduction with main focus on BRII and its regulation. Due to the existence of two alternative splice variants, a long and a short form, the function of the two variants and the impact of the C-terminal extension are of general interest. Moreover, mutations in the BMPR2 gene were identified to be responsible for PPH, a autosomal dominant lung disease. In this thesis, BRII phosphorylation and signalling mediated by different receptor oligomers were investigated and multiple BRII associated proteins were identified. We could show that the oligomerization pattern of BMP receptors exhibits a higher degree of flexibility compared to other receptors of that superfamily. In the present work the BMP2 mediated signal transduction should be examined, depending on the receptor oligomerization pattern. Using kinase-deficient mutants, it could be demonstrated, that signalling via preformed BMP receptor complexes is mediated by the well characterized Smad1/5/8 pathway, whereas signalling initiated by BMP2 induced recruitment of the receptors activates the p38 pathway and leads to Alkaline Phosphatase production. To further study signalling events triggered directly from the BRII a proteomics-based screen for BRII associated proteins was performed. 53 associated proteins were found, the majority being signal transducing molecules, but in addition metabolic proteins, transcriptional regulators and others were identified. These proteins enable to gain a deeper insight in BMP mediated signalling. One of the interactors, the receptor tyrosine kinase c-kit, was characterized in more detail. It could be demonstrated, that BRII and c-kit form a complex in vitro and in vivo, and the interaction is enhanced upon BMP2 stimulation. 2D phosphopeptid mapping showed that BRII is phosphorylated at S757 upon activation of c-kit by SCF. Moreover, c-kit and its ligand SCF are modulating BMP2 pathways, by enhancing Smad1/5 phosphorylation, Smad-transcriptional activity, Alkaline Phosphatase production and expression of Cbfa1. All these pathways hint towards modulation of the osteoblast development via c-kit. Thus, we were able to develop a novel paradigm for the BMP2 meditated signalling. One of the initial triggers for BRII is the auto-phosphorylation of BRII. Here we analyze ligand-independent as well as ligand-dependent phosphorylation of BRII. Some phosphorylation sites in BRII were identified. The general phosphorylation occurs mostly on serines. S815, S818 and Y825 are identified targets of phosphorylation whose function is still unclear. However phosphorylation of S336 is demonstrated to be essential for BRII activation. The elucidation of BMP receptor phosphorylation and oligomerization as well as the impact of a number of BRII associated proteins (such as c-kit), demonstrated in this thesis that BMP signalling has to be regulated precisely on multiple levels. This can be useful for the development of selective signalling inhibitors for basic research and therapeutic approaches of PPH and other diseases.
The hoatzin (Opisthocomus hoazin) is an enigmatic bird that lives in the riparian lowlands of northern South America. Among its peculiar attributes are 1) microbial foregut fermentation, unique in birds, to convert plant cellulose in the foliage which it consumes into simple sugars, 2) an ongoing debate about the puzzling taxonomic position, although a relationship to the Cuculiformes appears likely, 3) adaptive wing claws in the young which are used for climbing, and 4) co-operative breeding behaviour. Despite the information available on digestive mode and taxonomy little has been published on its breeding biology and behaviour and until now almost all knowledge was based on a study in the savannah of Venezuela. This is the first detailed study of the hoatzin’s nesting ecology in a rainforest habitat. From 1995-1998 and in 2000 I monitored a hoatzin population which consisted of approximately 700 individuals in an Amazonian rainforest in Ecuador situated in the Cuyabeno Wildlife Reserve (between 0°02’ N, 76°0’ W, 0°03’ S, and 76°14’ W). The area is composed of various black water lagoons and small rivers, flooded forests and terra firme forest. Primarily, I examined group composition and breeding pattern and success related to traits such as clutch and egg size, offspring sex ratio and the number of parents involved in a common breeding attempt. Apart from standardised observations and monitoring I took blood samples from chicks, which were later used for molecular sexing and for DNA fingerprints. Food plants were collected and determined and a rough habitat mapping was conducted. Since the impacts of boat tourism in the area became apparent I investigated the interactions of adult and young hoatzins with tourists and measured the plasma concentration of the hormone corticosterone in chicks as an indicator of stress. Each chapter has its own introduction to the specific topic and can be read independently. The main findings of this study are: The reproduction of the hoatzin was timed strictly following the bimodal rainy pattern in the area. There was only one breeding attempt per year. Only 18% of breeding attempts ended successfully with at least one fledgling. Incubation started with the first egg laid and led to hatching asynchrony. In most cases only the A-chick survived and there is evidence for a brood reduction strategy. I observed egg size variation patterns both within the clutches and between the clutches. Approximately 80% of breeding attempts were carried out with auxiliaries. Units with alloparentals had a higher breeding success than single pairs. The results indicate a trade-off between helping and group size. DNA band-sharing comparisons revealed the existence of joint-nests, where several females laid their eggs in one single nest. The clutches of these joint-nests suffered severe egg loss during all stages of incubation. Breeding success did not differ between single- and joint-nests. The primary offspring sex ratio was biased towards daughters. There was no differential mortality between the sexes until fledging. Individual breeding units employed an adaptive production of offspring of each sex according to their current group size. Rainforest tourism negatively influenced the survival and growth of young, not yet fledged hoatzins. In addition tourist-exposed young showed a stronger hormonal stress response than their conspecifics from undisturbed sites. In contrast, breeding adults appear to have habituated to tourist boats and exposure to observers.
The bacteriophage Lambda is a virus which infects bacteria carrying LamB protein in their outer membrane. GpJ, a protein of the tail of the phage, is involved in the binding to LamB. The study of the interaction between GpJ expressed as fusion protein and LamB was performed in order to investigate the interaction between the bacteriophage Lambda and LamB. The fusion proteins are called MBP-gpJ and His-gpJ. MBP-gpJ is a chimeric protein representing Maltose Binding Protein connected to the Cterminal part of the GpJ protein (residue 684 until 1132), graciously given by Pr. Charbit (Paris, France). MBP-gpJ, expressed in E.coli and purified, bound to the exoplasmic side of LamB and LamB variants in planar lipid bilayer experiments and allowed a complete and reversible blockage of LamB channels. In order to obtain data about the binding of the GpJ fragment alone to LamB, an other fusion protein without MBP was created, called His-gpJ. His-gpJ is the C-terminal part of GpJ (684-1132) in fusion with a 6×Histidine-tag, produced as insoluble form in E.coli. After renaturation, a soluble protein can be obtained. Without MBP, the GpJ fragment still bound to LamB in planar lipid bilayer experiments, but did not block significantly its channels, as previously observed after addition of MBP-gpJ. The interaction between His-gpJ and LamB or LamB mutants was also demonstrated on SDSPAGE and immunodetection by the presence of high molecular mass bands. Furthermore, the use of variants of lamB allowed to demonstrate that the C-terminal fragment of GpJ does not bind to the same area on the surface of LamB than GpJ involved in the tail of the Lambda phage.
This study investigates the abundance and geographic distribution of the hawkmoth species (Lepidoptera: Sphingidae) of Southeast-Asia and analyses the resulting patterns of biodiversity, biogeography and macroecology. Data on the distribution of species were retrieved from published and unpublished faunal lists and museum collections (in close cooperation with the Natural History Museum, London). Over 34,500 records of the global distribution of the 380 species that occur in Southeast-Asia (including New Guinea and the Solomon Islands) were used for a GIS-supported estimate of distributional ranges, which can be accessed at http://www.sphingidae-sea.biozentrum.uni-wuerzburg.de, an Internet site that also provides pictures of the species and checklists for 114 islands of the Malesian region. The abundance of species in local assemblages was assessed from nightly collections at artificial light sources. Using a compilation of own samples as well as published and unpublished data from other sources, local abundance data on 93 sites were used for analysis, covering 159 species or 17,676 specimens.
We examined the regulation of NFATc1 in different lymphomas and observed an inversed correlation between the methylation status and expression of NFATc1. Our data demonstrate that aberrant DNA methylation associated with chromatin remodeling within nfatc1 locus is a major mechanism for the repression of NFATc1 expression, suggesting that the DNA methylation-mediated transcriptional silencing of NFATc1 may be a critical event in the tumorogenesis of ALCLs and cHLs. Furthermore, the DNA methylation of human nfatc1 promoter region could be used as a novel biomarker of tumor progression. Our results indicate a close link between the loss of immunoreceptor signaling and NFATc1 expression in human lymphomas. For both ALCLs and cHLs, defects in immunoreceptor signaling have been described which result in a loss of receptor-mediated gene expression programs (Schwering et al., 2003; Bonzheim et al., 2004; Marafioti et al., 2004). In T cells, one indicator gene of these programs appears to be the nfatc1 gene whose expression is controlled by TCR signals (Chuvpilo et al., 2002a). In contrast, in T cells NFATc1 expression is unaffected by TCR signals, and NFATc2 was found to be expressed at normal levels in ALCLs and cHLs (L.K., unpubl. data). Moreover, the activity of NF-kappaB factors which can bind to certain NFAT binding sites and share a distantly-related DNA binding domain with NFATs is strongly elevated in cHL cells (Bargou et al., 1997; Hinz et al., 2001; Hinz et al., 2002) suggesting that NFATs and NF-kappaBs exert very different effects on generation and maintenance of Hodgkin’s lymhomas. However, it should be mentioned that in Burkitt’s and further B cell lymphomas in which NFATc1 proteins are strongly expressed and controlled by receptor signals (Kondo et al., 2003), they could exert a promoting function in tumor development. The genes of p53 family members p63 and p73 are prominent examples for mammalian genes whose products can act both as oncoproteins and tumor suppressor genes (Hibi et al., 2000; Stiewe and Putzer, 2002), and it is likely that more genes exist which encode both tumor suppressors and oncoproteins. It remains to be shown whether the nfatc1 gene is one of them.
Darwin’s theory of sexual selection explains the evolution of flamboyant male traits through female choice. It does not, however, address the question why males typically court and females choose. This asymmetry is now thought to be the result of the dichotomy in reproductive expenditures: Females invest primarily in parental care and males invest predominantly in mate attraction or competition. Based on this view, several hypotheses for the origin and maintenance of female preferences have been proposed. They include the classical sexual selection models, i.e. female choice for direct and indirect benefits as well as the more recent concepts of female choice for genetic compatibility and receiver bias models. The complementary choice scenario assumes that females choose mates with regard to genetic compatibility. The receiver bias concept views male traits and female preferences within the framework of communication theory and encompasses various more or less distinct models, two of which are sensory exploitation and sensory trap. Both models postulate that male signals evolved in response to pre-existing perceptual biases of females. The sensory trap hypothesis additionally emphasizes that pre-existing female preferences for certain cues evolved in non-sexual contexts, like e.g. foraging. Males that mimic these cues and elicit a favourable out-of-context response by females may increase their reproductive success. This thesis examines the evolution of the pheromone communication in the European Beewolf Philanthus triangulum. Beewolf females are specialized hunters of honeybees and provision their progeny with paralyzed prey. Male beewolves establish and scent mark territories with a pheromone from a head gland to court females. The concordant occurrence of the otherwise rare alcohol (Z)-11-eicosen-1-ol in the male pheromone and in the alarm pheromone of honeybees, the exclusive prey of the females, suggests a sensory trap process as an explanation for the evolution of the male pheromone in P. triangulum. According to this hypothesis, we tested three predictions: First, foraging honeybees should emit eicosenol. Via chemical analysis we could show that honeybee workers in fact smell of eicosenol during foraging. The occurrence of eicosenol on the cuticle and in the headspace of honeybees is a new finding. Second, beewolf females should use eicosenol as a cue for prey detection or identification. Using behavioural assays, we demonstrated that prey recognition in beewolf females is accomplished by olfactory cues and that eicosenol is an essential cue in this process. The sensory sensitivity of beewolf females to eicosenol must be extremely high, since they perceive the trace amounts present in the head space of honeybees. This sensitivity may be due to specialized olfactory receptors on the antennae of beewolf females. An inventory of the flagellar sensilla of both sexes showed that females carry one type of sensillum that is missing in males, the large sensillum basiconicum. This chemo-sensitive sensillum most likely plays a role in prey recognition. The third prediction is that beewolf males incorporate bee-like substances, including eicosenol, into their pheromone, and possibly catch females in a sensory trap. A reanalysis of the male pheromone revealed, among others, eicosenol and several alkanes and alkenes as pheromonal compounds. Our own analyses of the chemical profiles of honeybee workers and beewolf pheromone disclosed a surprisingly strong resemblance between the two. Eight of the eleven substances of the male pheromone are also present on the cuticle and in the headspace of honeybees. Notwithstanding this similarity, the male pheromone does not function as a sensory trap for females. Nevertheless, the extensive congruence between the odour bouquets of the females’ prey and the male pheromone strongly suggests that the male signal evolved to exploit a pre-existing female sensory bias towards bee odour, and, thus represents a case of sensory exploitation. In addition to the above described scenario concerning mostly the ‘design’ of the male pheromone, we addressed possible indirect benefits female beewolves may gain by basing their mating decisions on signal ‘content’. We show that the pheromone of male beewolves varies between families and may, thus, contain information about the degree of relatedness between the female and a potential mate. Females could use this information to choose genetically complementary males to avoid inbreeding and the production of infertile diploid sons. Collectively, our results provide strong evidence for a receiver bias process in the evolution of the male pheromone of P. triangulum. They further indicate that the pheromone composition may subsequently have been influenced by other natural or sexual selection pressures, like e.g. complementary female choice.
Insects exhibit complex systems of communication with chemical signalling being the most important mode. Although there are many studies on chemical communication in insects, the evolution of chemical signals is not well understood. Due to the conflict of interests between individuals, different selective pressures might act on sender and receiver. In this thesis I investigate different types of communication where either the sender, the receiver or both parties yield benefits. These studies were conducted with one digger wasp species, honeybees, one chrysidid wasp, and three ant species. Senders might benefit by exploiting existing preferences of receivers. Such sensory exploitation might influence the evolution of male signals that are designed to attract females. The sex pheromone of male European beewolves Philanthus triangulum (Hymenoptera, Crabronidae) might have evolved according to the sensory exploitation hypothesis. A three-step scenario is supported by our studies. First, a major component of the honeybee alarm pheromone, (Z)-11-eicosen-1-ol, is also found on the cuticles and in the air surrounding foraging honeybees. Second, it could be shown, that (Z)-11- eicosen-1-ol plays a crucial role as kairomone for prey identification of honeybees by beewolf females. Third, a reanalysis of the beewolf male sex pheromone shows a remarkable similarity of compounds between the pheromone and the honeybee cuticle, besides the co-occurrence of (Z)-11-eisosen-ol. The majority of the cuticular hydrocarbons of honeybees occur also in the headspace of foraging workers. These results strongly support the hypothesis that beewolf males evolved a pheromone that exploits the females’ pre-existing sensory sensitivity. In addition, the male sex pheromone shows a significantly higher similarity among brothers than among non-related individuals, which might enable beewolf females to discriminate against brothers and avoid detrimental effects of breeding. Together with the studies on the possible sensory exploitation this result shows that both, male and female beewolves probably gain more benefits than costs from the pheromone communication and, thus, the communication system as a whole can be regarded as cooperative. To maintain the reproductive division of labour in eusocial colonies, queens have to signal their presence and fecundity. In the ant Camponotus floridanus (Hymenoptera, Formicidae) queens mark their own eggs with a distinctive pattern of cuticular hydrocarbons. Two different hypotheses have been developed. One suggests a form of worker manipulation by the queen. The alternative hypothesis assumes a cooperative signal that provides information on the condition of the queen. The results of our investigation clearly favour the latter hypothesis. Chemical mimicry is a form of non-cooperative communication that benefits predominantly the sender. We provided conclusive evidence that the cockoo wasp, Hedychrum rutilans (Hymenoptera, Chrysididae), the primary brood parasitoid of Philanthus triangulum, evades recognition by beewolf females most probably by chemical mimicry of the odour of its host. Furthermore, the adaptation of the chemical signature in the social ant parasite Protomognathus americanus (Hymenoptera, Formicidae) to its Leptothorax (Hymenoptera, Formicidae) hosts was investigated. Although this parasite is principally adapted to its hosts’ cuticular hydrocarbon profile, there are still pronounced differences between the profiles of parasites and hosts. This might be explained by the trade-off, which the parasites faces when confronted locally with two host species with different cuticular hydrocarbon profiles. Non-cooperative communication in the sense that only receivers benefit was discovered in the exploitation of honeybees volatile cuticular hydrocarbons by beewolf females. By using emitted (Z)-11-eicosen-1-ol as a kairomone, the receiver, the beewolf female, yields the benefits and the sender, the honeybee prey, bears all the costs. The results of these studies contribute to the understanding of the evolution of cooperative and non-cooperative communication with chemical signals taking into account differential benefits for sender and/or receiver.
The gram-positive, facultative intracellular pathogen Listeria monocytogenes is the causal agent of listeriosis. Most of well-known virulence genes are controlled by PrfA that belongs to the Crp-Fnr family of transcriptional activators. A PrfA-mediated transcription initiating at a virulence gene promoter, inlC promoter (PinlC) that regulates the expression of the small, secreted internalin C, was in-depth characterized by an in vitro transcription system to unravel the essential features of a PrfA-dependent promoter in this study. The obtained results indicate a dual promoter for inlC that leads to PrfA-dependent and -independent transcription in vitro and in vivo. The PrfA-dependent transcription requires, as expected, the PrfA-box, a conserved 14 bp sequence of dyad symmetry located about 40 bp upstream of the transcriptional start site of each PrfA-regulated gene. Another important structural feature for this PrfA-dependent promoter is the distance between the 3´-end of the PrfA-box and the 5´-end of the SigA-recognized –10 box fixed to 22 or 23 bp, which is observed in the interspace regions of the other known PrfA-dependent promoters, e.g. PactA, PplcA, Phly and Pmpl. The –35 box of PinlC is not necessary for PrfA-dependent transcription. The –10 box of PinlC and also that of the other PrfA-dependent promoters of L. monocytogenes closely resemble SigA-recognized –10 promoter sequences of the well-characterized gram-positive bacterium B. subtilis. Even the extended –10 motif (5´-TRTG-3´) considered to be a basic element for many SigA-recognized promoters in B. subtilis is present in PinlC. Primer extension studies reveal that both the PrfA-dependent and the independent promoter share the same –10 box. The PrfA-independent transcription of inlC depends on a –35 box located directly downstream of the PrfA-box, and the close proximity of the two sites inhibits strongly the transcription activity of the PrfA-independent promoter when the PrfA-RNA polymerase complex binds to the PrfA-box. Deletion of the PrfA-box results in PrfA-independent transcription from PinlC, which is no longer inhibited by PrfA. High concentration of GTP appears to be necessary for PrfA-dependent transcription initiated at the inlC promoter and at other PrfA-dependent promoters. Based on transcriptome analysis, Milohanic and his co-workers identified three groups of genes that were regulated differently by PrfA. Some of these genes containing putative PrfA-boxes in their 5´-upstream regulatory regions were selected for analysis of their transcriptional dependency on PrfA using again the in vitro transcription system. The data show that among these “PrfA-regulated” promoters tested, only the promoter of the hpt gene belonging to group I is clearly activated by PrfA. This promoter is also the only one that exhibited all essential features of a typical PrfA-dependent promoter as described above. In vitro transcription starting at most of the other promoters was neither positively nor negatively affected by PrfA. Transcription initiated at some of the promoters of group III genes (lmo0596 and lmo2067) is rather inefficient with SigA-loaded RNA polymerase, but is highly activated with RNA polymerase loaded with purified SigB. Addition of purified PrfA protein has no effect on the SigB-dependent transcription. These in vitro transcription results indicate that the in vivo observed PrfA effect on the expression of most of the new genes is either indirect or PrfA-mediated transcription of these genes requires - in contrast to the PrfA-dependent transcription of the known virulence genes (including hpt) - additional factors not present in the in vitro transcription assay. In addition to these new genes described by Milohanic, the promoters of two genes (lmo2420 and lmo2840) that contain putative PrfA-boxes with only a single mismatch in their upstream regulatory regions were analyzed in this study. However, transcription of none of these genes is regulated by PrfA, suggesting that these genes are either not truly regulated by PrfA or regulated by other global transcription activators that interact with PrfA by yet unknown mechanisms. By exchanging corresponding sequences between a functionally inactive promoter ParoAP2 and a typical PrfA-dependent promoter PplcA, it is found that PrfA-dependent in vitro transcription can be initiated from the hybrid promoter containing the putative PrfA-box and the SigA-recognized –10 box (TTTAAT) from the putative PrfA-dependent aroAP2 promoter, but it is inhibited strongly by the interspace sequence between these two sites apparently due to an additional RNA polymerase binding site [the –10 box (TAATAT) for the PrfA-independent transcription of ParoAP1)] within this region. Furthermore, a symmetric sequence downstream of the –10 box (TTTAAT) is also shown to be a strongly inhibitory for PrfA-dependent transcription from the putative PrfA-dependent aroAP2 promoter.
The studies inventoried the species of the families Dytiscidae and Noteridae (Coleoptera) in Comoé National Park in northern Ivory Coast, West Africa and investigated the ecological role of temporary and permanent water bodies for the aestivation of these aquatic beetles. The ecological studies focused on the question how the beetles cope with the temporary loss of their aquatic habitats during dry season. The climate in the study area is characterised by a pronounced dry season from about November to March/April, in which the temporary ponds and creeks in the savannah entirely desiccate. The only available water bodies during dry season in Comoé National Park are the Comoé River, pools in some of its tributaries, and a few of the large savannah ponds. The taxonomic and faunistic analysis revealed a high species richness in the study area and yielded a total of twelve species of Noteridae in four genera and 95 species of Dytiscidae in 22 genera. Thirty of these species had not yet been reported from the Ivory Coast. A description of a new species in the genus Laccophilus is given, named L. comoensis in honour of the National Park. Strong incidences exist that the material includes more species yet unknown to science. Concerning the mode of aestivation, observations in pilot studies led to the working hypothesis that the beetles pass the dry season as adults in aquatic habitats. Consequently, presence of adults in aquatic habitats throughout the dry season and cyclic migration of adults between temporary and permanent water bodies was expected. Regular sampling of water bodies throughout the dry season and beginning rainy season yielded 33,705 individuals in 72 species and 26 genera. In all the sample periods Noteridae and / or Dytiscidae were recorded. The number of species per period was between 36 and 58. It is concluded that in Comoé National Park a) at least parts of the populations of the recorded species pass the dry season as adults and b) aquatic habitats serve as a refuge for aestivation of these adult beetles. In a rocky area in the riverbed of the permanent Comoé River four sets of studies were performed during dry and beginning rainy season. According to the working hypothesis beetles should be searching for adequate aquatic habitats as long as temporary savannah waters are becoming inhospitable and are falling dry. Seven rock pools in the riverbed of the Comoé River were artificially filled and thus offered for colonization at the peak of the dry season (end of January). After five days the rock pools were quantitatively sampled by completely emptying them. All the rock pools were colonized by Dytiscidae and / or Noteridae and with a total of 1,507 individuals in 26 species abundance and diversity were high. Habitats for aestivation are needed most, when the majority of the savannah waters are fallen dry. Little precipitation on February 18th 1999 had filled rock pools in the riverbed of the Comoé River but no pools in the savannah, where the rain was immediately absorbed by the very dry soil. An inventory of beetles was performed in 21 naturally filled rock pools five to 20 days after this precipitation. The sampling yielded 8,456 individuals in 41 species. Except the smallest, all rock pools contained beetles. The result showed that Dytiscidae and Noteridae utilise the rock pools as aquatic habitat during dry season. Beetles adapted to a highly seasonal environment like the aquatic system in the study area should be good colonizers. Sampling of four, respectively five rock pools at two occasions within 24 hours after the start of precipitation examined the potential of colonizers at that period (March). Prior to these precipitations the pools had been completely dry. Dytiscidae were already present in all rock pools and a total of 434 Dytiscidae in 14 species was found. The working hypothesis of cyclic migration suggests that the beetles should leave the rock pools at the onset of the rainy season when precipitation had filled temporary water bodies in the savannah. After several precipitation events an inventory of 13 rock pools of the Comoé River in May controlled for adult beetles. Only four species with 126 individuals were still found, of which Yolina chopardi contributed 81.7%. This species seems to differ from the other recorded species in the use of habitats, since it was never recorded in the savannah. In general, however, diversity and abundance of Dytiscidae and Noteridae in the rock pools, as expected, was low after the onset of the rainy season. During the entire study of the rock pools in the riverbed of the Comoé River 10,523 individuals in 44 species and 18 genera were collected. Thus, more than half of the species recorded in Comoé National Park were found in the rock pools. The results suggest that the Comoé River and the rock pools in the riverbed serve as aquatic retreat for adult Dytiscidae and Noteridae during dry season when temporary water bodies in the savannah are desiccated. The suggested cyclic migration between water bodies predicts that newly formed savannah waters are recolonized by the beetles at the onset of the rainy season. This colonization should be a) by adults and b) airborne. Two artificial ponds in the open savannah were offered only for aerial colonization at the beginning of the rainy season. The ponds were controlled for adult Noteridae and Dytiscidae daily during one continuous phase of eleven and a second one of 16 days (end of March to end of April). On every sampling date Noteridae or Dytiscidae were recorded. In the entire study 2,744 individuals in 44 species and 16 genera were collected. After precipitation, abundance and species richness increased. Thirty-five of the encountered species had been recorded in rock pools of the Comoé River before. The principal species in the artificial savannah ponds had been principal species in samplings of the rock pools as well. The results support the hypothesis of cyclic migration: most species of Dytiscidae and Noteridae of the Comoé National Park fly from desiccating savannah waters to permanent water bodies or water bodies holding water for extended times during dry season. They pass the dry season in these waters and fly back into the savannah after precipitation at the onset of the rainy season. Exceptions from this general rule are discussed.
The exploitation of landscapes increases fragmentation of valuable areas with high biodiversity. Consequently, many populations nowadays exist as metapopulations. In such cases, the balance between extinction and colonisation of patches determines the regional survival of species. To determine long term survival of species and to assess the impact of different management regimes proper knowledge of species habitat requirements as well as information on their dispersal behaviour is needed. The aim of this thesis was to develop methods and measures for the identification of suitable areas for grasshoppers and bush crickets, as well as to quantify the reachability of single patches by individuals. The first part of my work focuses on the quantification of habitat suitability for grasshoppers and bush crickets. Based on presence/absence data, I developed statistical habitat suitability models using logistic regression analyses. The resulting models are evaluated and validated in space and time. It turned out that habitat selection of the species mainly took place on an intermediate spatial scale. The relevant scale falls into the same range as the species’ mean dispersal distances. Besides the rather coarse grained factor ‘type of habitat’ structural factors as well as abiotic factors are correlated with the occurrence of the species. The model of S. lineatus, including the parameters ‘type of biotope’ and ‘vegetation height’ was most successful in predicting the occurrences of the bush cricket species. To further test whether the occurrence of species of different insect groups can be predicted with a common model, I tested the usefulness of the orthoptera models for the prediction of butterflies in the same region and vice versa. While transferability of the orthoptera models was poor, the model of the moth Z. carniolica performed quite successful. It included the proportion of suitable habitat as well as the occurrence of the two sucking plants C. jacea and S. columbaria as relevant factors. Z. carniolica is classified as stenoecious and thus represents other species typically found on fringes and mesoxerophytic grasslands. The high mobility of Z. carniolica simultaneously guarantees the reachability of regional suitable areas and thus ensures that the influence of the random effects of colonisation on the model are marginal. Unfortunately, the factors predicting habitat quality for a species are normally not available at the landscape level. Thus, they cannot be used for the prediction of occurrences without extensive censuses in the field. Nevertheless, my results show that the sole use of the variable ‘type of habitat’, which often is available landscape wide, will be sufficient for the classification of habitat suitability in a landscape. I conclude that for practical use in conservation biology the type of biotope can be used to predict occurrence of the studied species. Besides quality/quantity of suitable habitat, dispersal of individuals between patches is a key factor influencing the survival of populations. Thus, the second part of my work concentrates on theoretical as well as empirical studies on the dispersal behaviour of bush crickets. In field experiments I could show that the assumption of a dichotomous movement behaviour does not apply for bush crickets. Instead, movement pattern changes continuously with structural resistance, temperature, mortality risk and resource availability. This result is confirmed in my experiments on the behaviour of bush crickets at habitat borders. For different borders I could demonstrate different edge permeabilities. Additionally, I observed that grasshoppers could detect suitable habitat from a certain distance. Because the dispersal behaviour plays an important role in theoretical models, my empirical data can be used to parameterise such models. In addition to the influence of movement pattern on the reachability of suitable habitats, I could demonstrate, with simulation models, that the influence of the landscape context in which dispersal takes place has a critical impact on the exchange of individuals between patches. This effect is enhanced if mortality risk during dispersal is accounted for. The results from my studies on habitat suitability can be used to identify suitable habitat for grasshoppers and bush crickets in a landscape. Consequently, the potential suitability of an area as habitat, based on predictions on changes in the type of biotope by management regime, can be predicted. But this information alone is not sufficient to determine regional survival probability of a species. My investigations concerning the dispersal behaviour clearly show, that the reachability of suitable areas is dependent on the spatial configuration of patches and the structure of areas between habitats. Additionally, factors specific for individuals, like motivation and physiological factors play a crucial role for the reachability of suitable habitats.
In a variety of established tumour cell lines, but also in primary mammary epithelial cells metalloprotease-dependent transactivation of the EGFR, and EGFR characteristic downstream signalling events were observed in response to stimulation with physiological concentrations of GPCR agonists such as the mitogens LPA and S1P as well as therapeutically relevant concentrations of cannabinoids. Moreover, this study reveals ADAM17 and HB-EGF as the main effectors of this mechanism in most of the cancer cell lines investigated. However, depending on the cellular context and GPCR agonist, various different members of the ADAM family are selectively recruited for specific ectodomain shedding of proAR and/or proHB-EGF and subsequent EGFR activation. Furthermore, biological responses induced by LPA or S1P such as migration in breast cancer and HNSCC cells, depend on ADAM17 and proHB-EGF/proAR function, respectively, suggesting that highly abundant GPCR ligands may play a role in tumour development and progression. Moreover, EGFR signal transactivation could be identified as the mechanistic link between cannabinoid receptors and the activation of mitogen activated protein kinases (MAPK) ERK1/2 as well as pro-survival Akt/PKB signalling. Depending on the cellular context, cannabinoid-induced signal cross-communication was mediated by shedding of proAmphiregulin and/or proHB-EGF by ADAM17. Most importantly, our data show that concentrations of THC comparable to those detected in the serum of patients after THC administration accelerate proliferation of cancer cells instead of apoptosis and thereby may contribute to cancer progression in patients.
The aim of current work was contribution to the long-term ongoing project on developing human IL-5 agonists/antagonists that intervene with or inhibit IL-5 numerous functions in cell culture and/or in animal disease models. To facilitate design of an IL-5 antagonist variant or low-molecular weight mimetics only capable of binding to the specific receptor alpha chain, but would lack the ability to attract the receptor common β-chain and thus initiate receptor complex activation it is necessary to gain the information on minimal structural and functional epitopes. Such a strategy was successfully adopted in our group on example of Interleukin 4. To precisely localize minimal structural epitope it is essential to have structure of the ligand in its bound form and especially informative would be structure of complex of the ligand and its specific receptor alpha chain. For this purpose large quantities (tens of milligrams), retaining full biological activity IL-5 and extracellular domain of IL-5 specific receptor α-chain were expressed in a bacterial expression system (E.coli). After successful refolding proteins were purified to 95-99% Stable and soluble receptor:ligand complex was prepared. Each established purification and refolding procedures were subjected to optimization targeting maximal yields and purity. Produced receptor:ligand complex was applied to crystallization experiments. Microcrystals were initially obtained with a flexible sparse matrix screening methodology. Crystal quality was subsequently improved by fine-tuning of the crystallization conditions. At this stage crystals of about 800x150x30µm in size can be obtained. They possess desirable visible characteristics of crystals including optical clarity, smooth facecs and sharp edges. Crystals rotate plane polarized light reflecting their well internal organization. Unfortunately relative slimness and sometimes cluster nature of the produced crystals complicates acquisition of high-resolution dataset and resolution of the structure. With some of obtained crystals diffraction to a resolution up to 4Å was observed.
In the last years it became evident that many cytokines do not only bind to their specific cell surface receptors but also interact with components of the extracellular matrix. Mainly in Drosophila, several enzymes were identified, that are involved in glycosaminoglycan synthesis. Mutations in these enzymes mostly result in disturbances of several signaling pathways like hedgehog, wingless, FGF or dpp. In most cases it was, due to these pleiotropic effects, not possible to examine the relevance of matrix interactions for single pathways. The aim of this work was to examine the relevance of matrix interactions for the TGF-ß superfamily member DPP. Based on the fact that DPP is highly homologous to human BMP-2, the basic N-terminus of mature DPP was mutated, which has been shown to contain a heparin-binding site in BMP-2. Thus, a wildtype variant (D-MYC), a deletion variant (D-DEL), which lacked the whole basic part of the N-terminus and a duplication variant (D-DUP), which contained a second copy of the basic core moitiv, were generated. In order to characterise the variants biochemically, they were expressed in E.coli and refolded in a bioactive form. In chicken limbbud assay, the deletion variant was much more active than the wildtype variant, comparable to data of BMP-2. By means of biacore mesurements with the immobilised ectodomain of the high affinity type I receptor thick veins, it could be demonstrated, that the variants differ only in matrix binding and not in their receptor affinity. Different matrix binding was shown by Heparin FPLC. The biological relevance of the matrix interaction of DPP was examined in transgenic flies. To allow expression of the different variants under the control of various Gal4 driver lines, they were cloned behind an UAS-promoter site. In early tracheal development, a strong dependence of DPP signaling on matrix binding was observed. While ectopic expression of the deletion variant caused only minor defects, the branching pattern was strongly disturbed by overexpression of wildtype and duplication variant. Ubiquitous expression of the variants in the wing imaginal disc caused overproliferation of the disc and expansion of the omb target gene expression. The extent of phenotypes correlated with the matrix binding ability of the variants. Corresponding disturbances of the wing vein pattern was observed in adult flies. By the crossing of different dpp allels, transheterozygous animals were created, that lack dpp only in imaginal discs. Expression of the variants under the control of a suitable dpp-Gal4 driver line revealed insights into the biological relevance of matrix binding on DPP gradient formation and specific target gene activation in wing imaginal discs. It was shown, that all variants were able to generate a functional DPP gradient with correct expression of the target genes omb and spalt. Again a correlation between extent of target gene domains and matrix binding ability of the corresponding variants was found. Thus by mutating the N-terminus of DPP, it could be shown that this is responsible for DPP`s matrix interaction. Also the relevance of matrix binding of DPP in different tissues was examined. It turned out, that the reorganisation of tracheal branching by DPP strongly depends on matrix interactions wheras the establishing of a gradient in wing imaginal discs depends only gradually on matrix interactions. Based on these data a model for the action of DPP/TGFßs as morphogens was established. While a deletion of matrix binding leads to a decrease in specific bioactivity of the cytokine, the latter is increased by additional matrix binding sites.
Density arrested AKR-2B cells die rapidly in response to serum starvation or treatment by Anisomycin. Cell death is associated with typical hallmarks of apoptosis including membrane blebbing and chromatin condensation but lacks energy dissipation in mitochondria and intranucleosomal fragmentation. During apoptosis a considerable DEVDase activity has been detected which seemed to be represented by a single enzyme. This enzyme had typical effector caspase characteristics, like caspase-3, but exhibited an unusual high KM values of ~100 µM and its large subunit exhibited a molecular weight of 19 kDa, instead of expected 17 kDa. In the present study, this enzyme was identified to be caspase-3 with the help of the generation of recombinant mcaspase-3 protein. N-terminal sequencing of the recombinant mcaspase-3 protein revealed that its prodomain cleavage site differs from that in the human homologue (Asp-9 instead of Asp-28). Thus the large subunit of active caspase-3 was found to be 19 kDa. Furthermore the KM value of recombinant mcaspase-3 was ~100 µM in perfect agreement with that found in cell extracts. Affinity labeling in combination with 2D-GE confirmed that indeed caspase-3 is activated as the main executioner in AKR-2B cells during apoptosis. Since the receptor mediated pathway has already been excluded previously [129], a possible involvement of mitochondria mediated pathway in the activation of caspase-3 was examined. Gel filtration experiments revealed that caspase-3 is mainly eluted as free enzyme and in lower levels within the differently sized high molecular weight complexes of ~600 kDa and 250 kDa in response to serum starvation or Anisomycin treatment. Though the apparent molecular weight of the complexes containing caspase-3 are in accordance with recently published data, they were devoid of Apaf-1 and caspase-9. Apparently, mitochondria mediated pathway is also not involved since neither formation of high molecular weight complexes of Apaf-1 nor cleavage of caspase-9 was observed. Thus, the activation of caspase-3 is caused by a noncanonical pathway during apoptosis. In addition a new 450 kDa complex containing activated caspase-6 was found in response to serum starvation which is clearly separated from caspase-3 containing complexes. Generally caspase-3 has been found to be responsible for most of the morphological changes during apoptosis. One of those is intranucleosomal fragmentation. Although caspase-3 was found to be the main executioner caspase in AKR-2B cells the lack of the intranucleosomal fragmentation led to examine its localization. As detected by overexpression of the Caspase-3-GFP fusion construct in AKR-2B, procaspase-3 was localized in the cytoplasm, wheras the active caspase-3 was mainly found in the membrane blebs and partially in the cytoplasm. Clearly no nuclear localization of active caspase-3 was detected. These data gave first hints on the mechanism of degradation of AKR-2B cells demonstrating that cytoplasmic membrane is the primary site of activation of caspase-3. The possible role of caspase-12 and ER stress mediated pathway of apoptosis was also examined in AKR-2B cells. Kinetic studies showed that caspase-12 is activated at the same time together with caspase-3 in response to serum starvation or Anisomycin treatment resulting in two cleavage products of 47 kDa and 35 kDa, respectively. It was therefore examined whether these two caspases were eluted in the same complexes. Gel filtration experiments revealed that caspase-12 is released as free enzyme during apoptosis. To date all the studies have identified that caspase-12 is specifically activated in response to ER stress. After serum starvation or Anisomycin addition there was no increase of the protein expression level of the chaperone protein Grp 78 which is known to be higly elevated in response to ER stress indicating that both treatments did not lead to ER stress. In contrast treatment with ER stressor substances i.e. Thapsigargin, A23187 (ionophore) induced an ER stress in AKR-2B which lead to unspecifically degradation of caspase-12. Thus it is unlikely that caspase-12 is activated in response to ER stress in AKR-2B cells. However, after the in vitro addition of recombinant caspase-3 to cytosolic extracts caspase-12 is cleaved into 47 kDa and 35 kDa fragments similiar to those observed in vivo. In conclusion the present data demostrated that caspase-12 is activated in AKR-2B cells during apoptosis triggered through pathways that do not involve (the) ER stress and provided evidence that caspase-3 might be involved in activation of caspase-12. Thus the present study in AKR-2B cells gives hints for the existence of additional pathways for apoptosis other than the classical ones.
Age related macular degeneration (AMD) is the leading cause of visual impairment in the elderly and the major cause of blindness in the developed world. To date, the molecular mechanisms underlying the disease are not well understood although in recent years a primary involvement of the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) has become evident. The aim of the present study is to systematically analyse genes which are differentially expressed in the RPE, and to assess their possible association with mechanisms and pathways likely to be related to retinal disease, in particular AMD. Towards this goal, 2379 expressed sequence tags (ESTs) were established from an inhouse generated RPE cDNA library. This library was constructed by using the suppression subtraction hybridization (SSH) technique which normalises redundant sequences and ensures enrichment of rare transcripts. In a first phase, 1002 ESTs were sequenced and subjected to comprehensive alignment with public nucleotide and protein databases. A search of the 1002 ESTs against the human genome draft sequence yielded 168 known genes, 51 predicted genes, 15 unknown transcripts and 41 clones with no significant similarity. Reverse Northern blot hybridization was performed for 318 EST clusters to identify abundantly expressed genes in the RPE and to prioritize subsequent analyses. Representative clones were spotted onto a nylon membrane and hybridized with cDNA probes of driver (heart and liver) and tester (RPE) used in the cDNA library construction. Subsequently, 107 EST clusters were subjected to Northern blot hybridizations. These analyses identified 7 RPE-specific, 3 retina-specific, 7 RPE/retina-specific, and 7 tissue restricted transcripts, while 29 EST clusters were ubiquitously expressed, and evaluation was not possible for another 54 EST clusters. Of the 24 transcripts with specific or restricted expression, 16 clones were selected for further characterization. The predicted gene MGC2477 and 2 novel isoforms of the human transient receptor potential cation channel, subfamily M, member 3 (TRPM3) were cloned and further described in detail. In addition, polymorphic variations for these 2 genes as well as for the human MT-Protocadherin gene were determined. For MGC2477, 15 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were identified, with 13 having a frequency of the minor allele greater than 20%. 10 of the 15 SNPs have not been reported in so far in public SNP repertoires. Partial assessment of the TRPM3 gene yielded 35 SNPs. Of these, 30 (85.7%) were highly frequent (0.17-0.5%), and 14 (40%) were novel. The MT-Protocadherin gene revealed 35 SNPs, including 28 (80%) with high frequency of the minor allele. 23 (65.7%) were novel SNPs. These SNPs will be used to construct the most common haplotypes. These will be used in case/control association studies in 400 AMD patients and 200 ethnically and aged matched controls to assess a possible contribution of these genes in the etiology of AMD.
Soluble guanylyl cyclase (sGC) is the best established receptor for nitric oxide (NO) and regulates a great number of important physiological functions. Surprisingly, despite the wellappreciated roles of this enzyme in regulation of vascular tone, smooth muscle cell proliferation, platelet aggregation, renal sodium secretion, synaptic plasticity, and other functions, extremely little is known about the regulation of sGC activity and protein levels. To date, the only well-proven physiologically relevant sGC regulator is NO. In the present study, some additional possibilities for sGC regulation were shown. Firstly, we evaluated the ability of different NO donors to stimulate sGC. Significant differences in the sGC stimulation by SNP and DEA/NO were found. DEA/NO stimulated sGC much stronger than did SNP. Interestingly, no correlation between the sGC protein and maximal activity distribution was found in rat brain regions tested, suggesting the existence of some additional regulatory mechanisms for sGC. The failure of SNP to stimulate sGC maximally might be one of the reasons why the lack of correlation between the distribution of sGC activity and proteins in brain was not detected earlier. Prolonged exposure of endothelial cells to NO donors produced desensitization of the cGMP response. This desensitization cannot be explained by increased PDE activity, since PDE inhibitors were not able to prevent the NO donor-induced decrease of the maximal cGMP response in endothelial cells. The failure of SH-reducing agents to improve the cGMP response after its desensitization by NO suggests that a SH-independent mechanism mediates NO effects. Demonstration that the potency of the recently described activator of oxidized (heme-free) sGC, BAY58-2667, to stimulate sGC increases after prolonged exposure of the cells to an NO donor, DETA/NO, suggests that oxidation of heme may be a reason for NOinduced desensitization of sGC and decrease in sGC protein level. Indeed, the well-known heme-oxidizing agent ODQ produces a dramatic decrease in sGC protein levels in endothelial cells and BAY58-2667 prevents this effect. Although the mechanism of sGC activation and stabilization by BAY58-2667 is unknown, this substance is an interesting candidate to modulate sGC under conditions where sGC heme iron is oxidized. Very little is known about regulation of sGC by intracellular localization or translocation between different intracellular compartments. In the present study, an increase in sGC sensitivity to NO under membrane association was demonstrated. Treatment of isolated lung with VEGF markedly increased sGC in membrane fractions of endothelial cells. Failure of VEGF to stimulate sGC membrane association in cultured endothelial cells allows us to propose a complex mechanism of regulation of sGC membrane association and/or a transient character of sGC membrane attachment. A very likely mechanism for the attachment of sGC to membranes is via sGCinteracting proteins. These proteins may participate also in other aspects of sGC regulation. The role of the recently described sGC interaction partner, Hsp90, was investigated. Shortterm treatment of endothelial cells with an Hsp90 inhibitor does not affect NO donor or calcium ionophore-stimulated cGMP accumulation in the cells. However, inhibition of Hsp90 results in a rapid and dramatic decrease in sGC protein levels in endothelial cells. These effects were unrelated to changes in sGC transcription, since inhibition of transcription had much slower effect on sGC protein levels. In contrast, inhibitors of proteasomes abolished the reduction in sGC protein levels produced by an Hsp90 inhibitor, suggesting involvement of proteolytic degradation of sGC proteins during inhibition of Hsp90. All these data together suggest that Hsp90 is required to maintain mature sGC proteins. In conclusion, in the present study it was demonstrated that multiple mechanisms are involved in the regulation of sGC activity and its sensitivity to NO. Oxidation of sGC heme by NO seems to be one of the mechanisms for negative regulation of sGC in the presence of high or prolonged stimulation with NO. Another possible means of regulating sGC sensitivity to NO is via the intracellular translocation of the enzyme. It has been also demonstrated here that attachment of sGC to the membrane fraction results in an apparent increase in the enzyme sensitivity to NO. Additionally, Hsp90 was required to maintain sGC protein in endothelial and other cell types. However, we could not find any acute affect of Hsp90 on sGC activity, as reported recently. All these findings demonstrate that the regulation of sGC activity and protein level is a much more complex process than had been assumed earlier.