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Wireless communication is nothing new. The first data transmissions based on electromagnetic waves have been successfully performed at the end of the 19th century. However, it took almost another century until the technology was ripe for mass market. The first mobile communication systems based on the transmission of digital data were introduced in the late 1980s. Within just a couple of years they have caused a revolution in the way people communicate. The number of cellular phones started to outnumber the fixed telephone lines in many countries and is still rising. New technologies in 3G systems, such as UMTS, allow higher data rates and support various kinds of multimedia services. Nevertheless, the end of the road in wireless communication is far from being reached. In the near future, the Internet and cellular phone systems are expected to be integrated to a new form of wireless system. Bandwidth requirements for a rich set of wireless services, e.g.\ video telephony, video streaming, online gaming, will be easily met. The transmission of voice data will just be another IP based service. On the other hand, building such a system is by far not an easy task. The problems in the development of the UMTS system showed the high complexity of wireless systems with support for bandwidth-hungry, IP-based services. But the technological challenges are just one difficulty. Telecommunication systems are planned on a world-wide basis, such that standard bodies, governments, institutions, hardware vendors, and service providers have to find agreements and compromises on a number of different topics. In this work, we provide the reader with a discussion of many of the topics involved in the planning of a Wireless LAN system that is capable of being integrated into the 4th generation mobile networks (4G) that is being discussed nowadays. Therefore, it has to be able to cope with interactive voice and video traffic while still offering high data rates for best effort traffic. Let us assume a scenario where a huge office complex is completely covered with Wireless LAN access points. Different antenna systems are applied in order to reduce the number of access points that are needed on the one hand, while optimizing the coverage on the other. No additional infrastructure is implemented. Our goal is to evaluate whether the Wireless LAN technology is capable of dealing with the various demands of such a scenario. First, each single access point has to be capable of supporting best-effort and Quality of Service (QoS) demanding applications simultaneously. The IT infrastructure in our scenario consists solely of Wireless LAN, such that it has to allow users surfing the Web, while others are involved in voice calls or video conferences. Then, there is the problem of overlapping cells. Users attached to one access point produce interference for others. However, the QoS support has to be maintained, which is not an easy task. Finally, there are nomadic users, which roam from one Wireless LAN cell to another even during a voice call. There are mechanisms in the standard that allow for mobility, but their capabilities for QoS support are yet to be studied. This shows the large number of unresolved issues when it comes to Wireless LAN in the context of 4G networks. In this work we want to tackle some of the problems.
The present research is concerned with the topic of socially induced affect. In previous research the focus was mainly on affective convergence. A prominent topic in that context was “emotional contagion” (Hatfield, Cacioppo, & Rapson, 1994). Affective divergence has been also been found. However, its influence on the theoretical debate remained weak. Besides research on emotions also social comparison research attended to the topic. In order to explain affective divergence and convergence an integrative model based on social comparison processes is proposed here. Based on the selective accessibility model (Mussweiler, 2003) it is assumed that affective convergence can be seen as assimilation to a comparison standard (the observed model). Therefore, the basic assumption is that a comparison between an observer and the model takes place. Affective divergence corresponds to an affective contrast from that standard. Which of these two phenomena occurs depends on the type of comparison processes that took place. Six experiments were conducted. In Experiment 1 it was shown that comparisons intensify the social induction of affect. The influence of the comparison focus was studied in Experiments 2 and 3. If the perceiver searches for similarities between the self and the model, affective convergence occurs. If differences are searched for, affective divergence is found. The latter is mainly found under special circumstances, e.g. if the model belongs to another social group (Experiment 3). In Experiment 1-3 it was shown comparisons influence the social induction of affect. In Experiment 4-6 the underlying processes were explored. The selective accessibility model (Mussweiler, 2003) attributes a central role to the selective activation of self-knowledge in order to explain judgmental assimilation and contrast. In Experiments 4 and 5 the role of the self was explored more thoroughly. Evidence for socially induced affect (affective convergence) has only been found when the self has been previously activated. When the self was not activated no such effect was found. The assumption that the activation of specific self-knowledge is the basis for socially induced affect was tested in Experiment 5. Results supported the assumption. The present experiments give rise to the assumption that social comparisons are a key element in the social induction of affect. Affective convergence and divergence are explained and processes for the affect induction are defined. The findings also have implications for research on automatic behaviour and especially to explain automatic contrast. In addition implications for social comparison research can be derived.
In the experiments presented in this work, linear and non-linear femtosecond time-resolved spectrsocopy were applied to investigate the structure-function and functiondynamics relationship in biological and artificially designed systems. The experiments presented in this work utilize femtosecond time-resolved transient absorption and transient grating as well as picosecond time-resolved fluorescence spectroscopy to investigate the photophysics and photochemistry of biological photoreceptors and address the light-induced excited-state processes in a particular molecular device that serves as a - structurally - very simple light-harvesting antenna and potentially as a catalysis-switch for the production of hydrogen in solution. The combination of white-light probe transient absorption and coherent transient grating spectroscopies yields spectral information about the excited state absorption in concert with high quality, high signal-to-noise kinetic transients, which allow for precise fitting and therefore very accurate time-constants to be extracted from the data. The use of femtosecond time-resolved transient grating spectroscopy is relatively uncommon in addressing questions concerning the excited-state reaction pathways of complex (biological) systems, and therefore the experiments presented in this work constitute according to the literature the first studies applying this technique to a a metalloporphyrin and an artificial light-harvesting antenna.
In the present thesis, two projects on the use of microarray technology for molecular epidemiology of Neisseria meningitidis have been followed. The first one evaluated microarrays based on polymorphism-directed oligonucleotide design for typing of N. meningitidis adopting the multilocus sequence typing (MLST) concept. The number of oligonucleotides needed to cover all known polymorphisms was much lower compared to the number needed if a tiling strategy would have been chosen. Initial experiments using oligonucleotides 28-32 nucleotides in length, revealed that the applied hybridisation protocols were highly specific. However, despite of several optimisation steps, the rate of misidentification of oligonucleotides remained >1.8% in consecutive validation experiments using arrays representing the genetic diversity at three MLST loci. This finding led to the assumption that the high density of polymorphic sites and extensive GC-content variations at N. meningitidis MLST loci hindered the successful implementation of MLST microarrays based on polymorphism-directed oligonucleotide design. In the 1980s, the ET-15 clone emerged within the ST-11 complex of N. meningitidis. This new clone was associated with severe meningococcal disease and outbreaks world-wide. Therefore, the goal of the second project was to identify genetic differences between ET-15 strains and other ST-11 strains using whole genome microarray technology. Three genes encoding hypothetical proteins were identified to be present in all ET-15 strains but absent in other ST-11 strains. This finding together with unpublished observation from our group suggested that several genome alterations occurred before the clonal expansion of the ET-15 clone started. The role that these three genes play in the pathogenicity of the ET-15 clone is unclear. The genome comparisons revealed furthermore that studies of the ET-15 clone displayed approximately two-fold less gene content variation than ST-11 strains not belonging to the ET-15 clone. This finding is in accordance with the recent emergence and clonal expansion of the ET-15 variant.
Azoles are important chemicals used as antifungal agents in agriculture and human medicine, but also as cytostatic drugs in tumour chemotherapy. Antifungal activities are based on inhibition of lanosterol-14α-demethylase (CYP51). CYP51 catalyses the oxidative removal of the methyl group # 32 of lanosterol to produce follicular fluid meiosis activating steroid (FF-MAS). For fungi the later resulting ergosterol is an essential compound of the cell membrane. Exposed fungi lack ergosterol, which leads to a collapse of the cell membrane. In mammals cholesterol, the downstream product of lanosterol-14α-demethylation necessary for the synthesis of bile acids, mineral corticoids, glucocorticoids and sex steroids, can be supplemented with food intake. However FF-MAS and the resulting T-MAS (testis meiosis activating steroids), the direct products of the CYP51 reaction, act as meiosis-activating steroids on ovaries and testes and are not supplemented with food intake. Inhibition of CYP51 in humans may therefore affect the endocrine system and is an unwanted side effect of azoles. Aromatase (CYP19) catalyses the demethylation of testosterone to estradiol and is inhibited by azoles. Reduction of estrogen levels by CYP19 inhibition is the working principle of cytostatic drugs used in breast cancer therapy but is considered an unwanted side effect for azoles used to treat fungal infections. A favourable fungicide or antifungal drug should be a strong inhibitor of fungal CYP51. In contrast human CYP51 and human CYP19 should not be inhibited by an azole fungicide or antifungal agent. The favourable cytostatic drug should show a high potency towards human CYP19. Neither human CYP51 nor fungal CYP51 should be inhibited by a cytostatic drug. The aim of this work was to assess: are fungicides and antifungal drugs strong inhibitors of fungal CYP51? In return do they not inhibit human CYP51 and human CYP19? Do cytostatic drugs strongly inhibit human CYP19? And in return do they not inhibit human CYP51 or fungal CYP51? Inhibitory potencies of 22 azole compounds used for the three purposes were tested in four inhibition assays: i) on commercially available human CYP19 utilising a fluorescent pseudo substrate dibenzylfluorescein (DBF) ii) on CYP19 utilising testosterone as substrate iii) on human CYP51 and iv) Candida albicans CYP51 utilising lanosterol as substrate. Product formation was measured by liquid chromatography – tandem mass spectrometry utilising photospray ionisation (APPI). A functional human CYP51 was available from BD Gentest Cooperation. A functional enzyme complex comprising of the Candida albicans lanosterol-14α-demethylase and the Candida tropicalis oxidoreductase was expressed in the baculovirus system. When comparing inhibitory potencies on CYP19, human CYP51 and Candida albicans CYP51 a number of agents show desirable patterns of inhibition e.g. the two cytostatic drugs, or two antifungal agents used in human medicine, fluconazole and itraconazole, and a wide variety of the fungicides, e.g. cyproconazole and hexaconazole. Undesirable patterns of inhibition were exhibited by a number of compounds, e.g. prochloraz, bifonazole, ketoconazole and miconazole. Seven compounds show a more complex picture of inhibitory potencies though. To get a picture of residue levels of azoles in food in a model case an LC-ESI-MS/MS method was developed for the determination of azole compounds in wine. All residues were below the maximum residue levels set by authorities. To classify the inhibitory potencies on the different enzyme systems IC50 values obtained were compared to exposure levels measured in farmers, maximum plasma concentrations in humans reported after exposure to antifungal drugs and to acceptable daily intake levels set by authorities. Based on the findings presented, the following conclusions can be drawn. The risk for agricultural workers set by exposure to azole fungicides with respect to human CYP51 and CYP19 can be regarded as negligible when safety measures are adhered to. As a matter of principle however, the usage of bifonazole, miconazole and ketoconazole has to be viewed with caution in respect to the high level of inhibition of human CYP51 and/or CYP19. Under the assumption that the acceptable daily intake amounts set by authorities for azole compounds are not exceeded the residues do not pose a threat to consumer safety judged by our findings. Inhibition of CYP19 with the consequence of a reduction of estradiol levels has to be regarded as a possible disrupting effect of the hormone balance. The relevance of FF-MAS and T-MAS in the endocrine system however still has to be evaluated completely bringing with it the question of how much importance has to be attached to the inhibition of human CYP51.
The biotransformation of 1,1,1,3,3-pentafluoropropane was investigated in rats and in in vitro systems. First, the metabolites were identified in vivo using GC/MS and 19F NMR analysis. The main metabolite was identified as trifluoroacetic acid, the minor metabolite as 3,3,3-trifluoropropionic acid and as a cleavage product, inorganic fluoride was found. As the in vitro system, liver microsomes from rat and human samples and rat liver homogenates were used. Trifluoroacetic acid and 3,3,3 trifluoropropionic acid were confirmed in vitro as metabolic intermediates, following biotransformation of 1,1,1,3,3-pentafluoropropane by the cytochrome P-450-system. Studies, designed for clarifying the cardiotoxicity of 1,1,1,3,3-pentafluoropropane were driven by the hypothesis that 3,3,3-trifluoropropionic acid is the toxic agent. This was based on the lethal toxicity, which was observed in previous in vivo experiments. In addition, the point of its structural similarity to toxic agents as for example monofluoroacetic acid or of possible metabolic intermediates like difluoroacrylic acid with known toxicity were considered to support this assumption. However, trifluoroacetic acid was neglected as the sought-after toxic agent because of its different toxic effects, known from literature. Investigations on the biotransformation of 3,3,3-trifluoropropionic acid were performed and resulted in no metabolic activity and in poor elimination of 3,3,3-trifluoropropionic acid in vivo. The histopathological effects on the heart, which were observed in the 90-day oral toxicity study of 1,1,1,3,3-pentafluoropropane in rats, namely mononuclear inflammatory cell infiltrations and degenerated myocardial fibers, were not observed after a 28 day repeated exposure of up to 10 mg/kg b.w. of 3,3,3-trifluoropropionic acid. However, a single high dose of 3,3,3-trifluoropropionic acid lead to severe toxicological effects. The difference in the observed toxic effects after a single and repeated administration may be due to adaptive mechanisms in rats. The toxicological effects included clinical signs like ataxia, coma and cramps. The conditions of the rats suggested possible inhibition of the energy supply to the organism. Furthermore, the interference of 3,3,3-trifluoropropionic acid in the functionality of the organism was investigated. Experiments were performed in vitro in rat liver and heart mitochondria to investigate effects on the mitochondrial ß-oxidation. However, the transformation of the substrate [U14C] palmitic acid in the ß oxidation pathway was not inhibited by 3,3,3-trifluoropropionic acid. In addition, no cytotoxicity of 3,3,3 trifluoropropionic acid was observed in the cell culture systems. The main effect after a single dose of 3,3,3-trifluoropropionic acid was seen in clinical pathology and metabonomic analysis. The decrease in blood glucose is considered to have the most far-reaching consequences for the toxicity of 3,3,3-trifluoropropionic acid. If considering this change as the primary effect after a single dose, secondary effects, for example, the above-mentioned clinical signs could be explained. In addition, the observed high level of ketone bodies might have been responsible for life-threatening possible ketoacidosis. In general, ketoacidosis occurs after an imbalance between glycolysis, lipolysis, TCA cycle activity and respiratory function. Based on the results, ß-oxidation of fatty acids was not affected, and due to the decrease in glucose levels and the high levels of acetyl CoA, glycolysis was considered not to be impaired. Increased amounts of acetyl CoA might be a result of insufficient activity of the TCA cycle. However, the inhibition of the TCA cycle can be based on the impairment of specific enzymes and/or on the involvement of messenger substrates like insulin. Supporting the first mentioned aspect are decreased levels of TCA cycle intermediates, like α-ketoglutarate or citrate, as seen in 1H-NMR spectra of urine. However, the second aspect would explain the drop in blood glucose with the impairment of glucose transporters or the impairment of the insulin balance. If a single dose of 3,3,3-trifluoropropionic acid had stimulated the insulin release, glycolysis would be activated, and high amounts of acetyl CoA would be produced. In case of impaired use by the TCA cycle, levels of ketone bodies would be increased. Experiments were designed to characterize the direct effect of 3,3,3-trifluoropropionic acid on rat insulinoma-derived INS-1 cells as possible increase in insulin release. Further investigations are necessary to answer in which step of the metabolic pathway 3,3,3-trifluoropropionic acid interferes or finally which specific enzyme is inhibited or activated by 3,3,3-trifluoropropionic acid, leading to the drop in blood glucose and finally in lethal toxicity.
In this thesis, I introduce the Virtual Brain Protocol, which facilitates applications of the Standard Brain of Drosophila melanogaster. By providing reliable and extensible tools for the handling of neuroanatomical data, this protocol simplifies and organizes the recurring tasks involved in these applications. It is demonstrated that this protocol can also be used to generate average brains, i.e. to combine recordings of several brains with the same features such that the common features are emphasized. One of the most important steps of the Virtual Insect Protocol is the aligning of newly recorded data sets with the Standard Brain. After presenting methods commonly applied in a biological or medical context to align two different recordings, it is evaluated to what extent this alignment can be automated. To that end, existing Image Processing techniques are assessed. I demonstrate that these techniques do not satisfy the requirements needed to guarantee sensible alignments between two brains. Then, I analyze what needs to be taken into account in order to formulate an algorithm which satisfies the needs of the protocol. In the last chapter, I derive such an algorithm using methods from Information Theory, which bases the technique on a solid mathematical foundation. I show how Bayesian Inference can be applied to enhance the results further. It is demonstrated that this approach yields good results on very noisy images, detecting apparent boundaries between structures. The same approach can be extended to take additional knowledge into account, e.g. the relative position of the anatomical structures and their shape. It is shown how this extension can be utilized to segment a newly recorded brain automatically.
The maximum of the brain electrical field after NoGo stimuli is located more anteriorly than that after stimuli that tells participants to respond. The difference in topography was called NoGo-Anteriorization (NGA). Recently, there was a debate, whether the NGA is related to a central inhibitory process or not. However, experiments showed that the NGA is not the result of motor potentials during Go trials, the NGA does not represent higher response conflict and or higher mental effort in NoGo trials, and the NGA is not based on less cognitive response selection in NoGo trials. Therefore, the experiments support the assumption that the NGA is connected to an inhibitory mechanism in NoGo conditions.
This study investigates the abundance and geographic distribution of the hawkmoth species (Lepidoptera: Sphingidae) of Southeast-Asia and analyses the resulting patterns of biodiversity, biogeography and macroecology. Data on the distribution of species were retrieved from published and unpublished faunal lists and museum collections (in close cooperation with the Natural History Museum, London). Over 34,500 records of the global distribution of the 380 species that occur in Southeast-Asia (including New Guinea and the Solomon Islands) were used for a GIS-supported estimate of distributional ranges, which can be accessed at http://www.sphingidae-sea.biozentrum.uni-wuerzburg.de, an Internet site that also provides pictures of the species and checklists for 114 islands of the Malesian region. The abundance of species in local assemblages was assessed from nightly collections at artificial light sources. Using a compilation of own samples as well as published and unpublished data from other sources, local abundance data on 93 sites were used for analysis, covering 159 species or 17,676 specimens.
The present thesis reports about vibrational and quantum chemical investigations on model systems undergoing photochemical processes and pharmaceutically active compounds, respectively. Infrared (IR) and Raman spectroscopy were applied for the characterization of the ground state molecular structure. Moreover, resonance Raman (RR) spectra contain additional information about the resonantly enhanced excited state molecular structure. A quantitative resonance Raman intensity analysis in conjunction with the simultaneous simulation of the absorption spectra by means of time-dependent propagation methods was accomplished in order to extract valuable information about the excited state molecular structures of the investigated systems. Surface enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) allows one to determine the interaction and adsorption site of active agents on a metal substrate. Furthermore, density functional theory (DFT) and potential energy distribution (PED) calculations were carried out for an exact assignment of the vibrational spectra. Complete active space self consistent field (CASSCF) and configuration interaction (CI) calculations for some model systems were also performed to assess the experimental results on the excited state potential surfaces. The fundamentals of resonance Raman spectroscopy are treated in detail, describing the physical processes and emphasizing the theoretical methodologies which allow one to obtain the information about the resonantly excited state via an RR intensity analysis. The Brownian oscillator model to determine the solvent reorganization energy is briefly presented. Furthermore, the SERS enhancement mechanisms and selection rules to determine the orientation of the molecules adsorbed on the metal substrate are discussed. The Hartree-Fock approach to calculate the ground state geometry is expatiated, and the basic characteristics of the CI and CASSCF calculations are specified. The chapter ends with a short description of the DFT calculations. Chapter 4 deals with the investigation of the excited state intramolecular proton transfer of the model system, 1-hydroxy-2-acetonaphthone (HAN). The vibrations showing the highest displacement parameters correspond to stretching and in-plane deformation modes of the naphthalene ring and the conjugated carbonyl group, while the OH stretching mode exhibits no observable enhancement. The cooperative effect of the skeletal vibrations reduces the distance between the carbonyl and hydroxyl oxygen atoms in accordance with a general electron density redistribution. Hence, the leading force in the proton transfer process is the increase in electron density on the carbonyl group and the decrease of the negative charge on the hydroxyl oxygen. In chapter 5 the structural and vibrational characteristics of the organic mixed valence system N,N,N’,N’-tetraphenylphenylenediamine radical cation (1+) are discussed. The resonance Raman measurements showed that at least eight vibrational modes are strongly coupled to the optical charge transfer process in (1+). These Franck-Condon active modes were assigned to symmetric vibrations. The most enhanced band corresponds to the symmetric stretching mode along the N-phenylene-N unit and exhibits the largest vibrational reorganization energy. Nevertheless, symmetric stretching modes of the phenylene and phenyl units as well as deformation modes are also coupled to the electronic process. The total vibrational reorganization energy of these symmetrical modes is dominant, while the solvent induced broadening and reorganization energy are found to be small. Hence, (1+) adopts a symmetrical delocalized Robin-Day Class III structure in the ground state. Chapter 6 reports about a vibrational spectroscopic investigation of a model organic photorefractive thiophene derivative, 2-(N,N-diethylamino)-5-(2’,2’-dicyanovinyl)-thiophene. The geometry of the first excited state were optimized and the FC parameters were calculated using the configuration interaction with single excitations method. These calculations show that the contribution of the zwitterionic structure to the excited state is significantly higher than in the ground state. The resonance Raman spectra indicate that several stretching modes along the bonds connecting the donor and acceptor moieties as well as the S-C stretching vibrations are enhanced. Chapter 7 presents the vibrational analysis of an aziridinyl tripeptide, a cysteine protease inhibitor active drug. The vibrational analysis reveals stronger H-bonding of the aziridine NH unit in the solid state of the aziridinyl tripeptide than in the liquid electrophilic building block, indicating medium strong intermolecular H-bond interactions in the crystal unit. The amide hydrogen atoms of the aziridinyl tripeptide are involved in weaker H-bonds than in an epoxide analogon. Furthermore, the characteristic vibrational modes of the peptide backbone were discussed. Chapter 8 reports on the adsorption mechanism of two related anti-leukemia active agents, 6-mercaptopurine (6MP) and 6-mercaptopurine-ribose (6MPR) on a silver colloid. Both molecules adsorb through the N1 and possibly S atom on the metal surface under basic conditions. The SERS spectra recorded for acidic pH values showed that the ribose derivative exhibits a different adsorption behavior compared to the free base. 6MP probably adsorbs on the silver sol through the N9 and N3 atoms, while 6MPR interacts with the surface via the N7 and probably S atoms. Around critical biological concentrations and pH values i.e. at low concentrations and almost neutral condition (pH 7-9), 6MPR interacts with the substrate through both N7 and N1 atoms, possibly forming two differently adsorbed species, while for 6MP only the species adsorbed via N1 was evidenced.
The genetics of species differences is an outstanding question in evolutionary biology. How do species evolve to become phenotypically distinct and how is the genetic architecture organized that underlie species differences? Phenotypic diverged traits are supposed to be frequently involved in prezygotic isolation, i.e. they prevent the formation of hybrids, whereas postzygotic isolation occurs when hybrids experience a fitness reduction. The parasitic wasp genus Nasonia represents an appropriate model system to investigate the genetics of species differences as well as the genetics of postzygotic isolation. The genus consists of three species N. vitripennis, N. longicornis and N. giraulti that differ particularly in male traits that are assumed to posses an adaptive significance: courtship behaviour and wing size differences. The courtship behaviour consists of cyclically repeated series of head nods that are separated by pauses. The stereotypic performance allowed to split up the display into distinct courtship components. Males of N. vitripennis bear vestigial forewings and are incapable of flight, whereas N. longicornis wear intermediate sized wings and N. giraulti is fully capable of flying. Nasonia species can produce interspecific hybrids after removing Wolbachia bacteria induced hybrid incompatibilities with antibiotics. Postzygotic isolation occurs to different extent and is asymmetric among reciprocal crosses, e.g. inviability is stronger in the N. vitripennis (♀) x N. longicornis (♂) cross than in the N. longicornis (♀) x N. vitripennis (♂) cross. The formation of hybrids allow to study the genetic of species differences in QTL (quantitative trait locus) analyses as well as the genetics of postzygotic isolation causing hybrid inviability. The aim of the study was to investigate the genetic architecture of differences in courtship behaviour and wing size between N. vitripennis and N. longicornis and to assess the genetics of postzygotic isolation to gain clues about the evolutionary processes underlying trait divergence and establishment of reproductive isolation between taxa. In a QTL analysis based on 94 F2-hybrid individuals of an LV cross only few QTL for wing size differences have been found with relatively large effects, although a large proportion of the phenotypic variance remained unexplained. The QTL on courtship behaviour analysis based on 94-F2 hybrid males revealed a complex genetic architecture of courtship behaviour with QTL of large phenotypic effects that explained more than 40 % of the phenotypic variance in one case. Additionally, an epistatic analysis (non-additive interlocus interaction) of courtship QTL revealed frequent genetic interchromsomal relations leading in some instances to hybrid specific effects, e.g. reversion of phenotypic effects or the transgression of phenotypes. A QTL analysis based on a threefold sample size revealed, however, an overestimation of QTL effects in the analysis based on smaller sample size pointing towards a genetic architecture of many loci with small effects governing the phenotypic differences in courtship behaviour. Furthermore, the the study comprised the analysis of postzygotic isolation in the reciprocal crosses N. vitripennis (♀) x N. longicornis (♂) versus N. longicornis (♀) x N. vitripennis (♂) located several loci distributed over different chromosomes that are involved in hybrid incompatibility. The mapping of hybrid incompatibility regions reproduced for the first time the observed asymmetries in the strength of postzygotic isolation in reciprocal crosses of between the more distant related taxa within the genus Nasonia. Stronger postzygotic incompatibilities in the VL cross are supposed to result from the superposition of nuclear-nuclear incompatibilities with nuclear-cytoplasmic incompatibilities, whereas the coincidences of these to types of incompatibilities were found to be much weaker in the reciprocal LV cross.
This study explores and examines the geomorphology of a large endorheic basin, approximately twice the size of Luxemburg, situated in the Etosha National Park, Namibia. The main focus is directed on how and when this depression, known as Etosha Pan, came into being. Geomorphological investigation was complemented and guided primarily by the application and interpretation of satellite-derived information. Etosha Pan has attracted scientific investigations for nearly a century. Unfortunately, their efforts resulted into two diverging and mutually exclusive views with respect to its development. The first and oldest view dates back to the 1920s. It hypothesized Etosha Pan as a desiccated palaeolake which was abandoned following the river capture of its major fluvial system, the Kunene River. The river capture was assumed to have taken place in the Pliocene/Early Pleistocene. In spite of the absence of fluvial input that the Kunene contributed, the original lake was thought to have persisted until some 35 ka ago, long after the Kunene severed its ties with the basin. The current size of the basin and its playa status was interpreted to have resulted from deteriorating climatic conditions. The opposing view emerged in the 1980s and gained prominence in the 1990s. This view assumed that there were an innumerable number of small pans on the then surface of what later to become Etosha Pan. Since the turn of the Pliocene to Early Pleistocene, these individual pans started to experience a combined effect of fluvial erosion during the rainy season and wind deflation during the dry period. The climatic regime during that entire period was postulated to be semi-arid as today. This climatic status was used to rule out any existence of a perennial lake within the boundary of Etosha since the Quaternary. Ultimately, these denudational processes, taking place in a seasonal rhythm, caused the individual pans to deepen and widen laterally into each other and formed a super-pan that we call Etosha today. Thus the Kunene River had no role to play in the development of the Etosha Pan according to this model. However, proponents of this model acknowledged that the Kunene once fed into the Owambo Basin and assigned the end of the Tertiary to the terminal phase of that inflow. Findings of this study included field evidence endorsing the postulation that the Kunene River had once flowed into the Owambo Basin. Its infilled valley, bounding with the contemporary valley of the Kunene near Calueque, was identified and points towards the Etosha Pan. It is deliberated that a large lake, called Lake Kunene, existed in the basin during the time. Following the deflection of the Kunene River to the coast under the influence of river incision and neo-tectonic during the Late Pliocene, new dynamics were introduced over the Owambo Basin surface. After the basin was deprived of its major water and sediment budget that the Kunene River contributed, it was left with only smaller rivers, most notably the Cuvelai System, as the only remaining supplier. This resulted in the Cuvelai System concentrating and limiting its collective load deposition to a lobe of Lake Kunene basin floor. The accident of that lobe is unclear, but it is likely that it constituted the deepest part of the basin at the time or it was influenced by neo-tectonic that helped divert the Kunene River or both. Against the backdrop of fluvial action that was initiating the new lake, most parts of the rest of the basin, then denied of lacustrine activity, were intermittently riddled with a veneer of sediment, especially during phases of intensified aeolian activity. In the mean time, the area that was regularly receiving fluvial input started to shape up as a distinct lake with the depositions of sediments around the water-body, primarily via littoral action, serving as embankment. Gradually, a shoreline is formed and assisted in fixing and delineating the spatial extent of the new and much smaller lake, called Lake Etosha. That Lake Etosha is the predecessor of the modern day Etosha Pan. Indicators for a perennial lake found in this study at Etosha include fossil fragments of Clariidae species comparable to modern species measuring some 90 cm, and those of sitatunga dated to approximately 5 ka. None of these creatures exist today at Etosha because of their ecological requirements, which among others, include permanent water. The sitatunga, in addition, is known as the only truly amphibious antelope in the world. Since its inception, the new lake underwent a number of geomorphological modifications. A prominent character amongst these modifications is the orientation of the lake, which has its long-axis oriented in the ENE-WSW direction. It resulted from wave action affected by the prevailing dominant northeasterly wind, which is believed to have been in force since the Middle Pleistocene. Lake Etosha has also witnessed phases of waning and waxing under the influence of the prevailing climatic regime. Over the last 150 ka, the available data intercepted about seven phases of high lake levels. These data are generally in agreement with regional palaeoclimatic data, particularly when compared with those obtained from neighbouring Makgadikgadi Pans in Botswana. The last recorded episode of the wet phase at Etosha was some 2,400 years before the present.
Nonlinear frequency conversion of low-energy fs laser pulses was investigated in solid-state media. Raman conversion in the white-light-free regime of impulsive stimulated Raman scattering was achieved by pumping KGW crystal with Bessel beam. Efficient supercontinuum generation was demonstrated for sub-microjule pulses focused into microstructure fiber. Application of four-wave mixing techniques to monitoring of the excited-state dynamics in polyatomic molecules was demonstrated. Time constants of the processes related to vibrational energy redistribution upon the initial photoexcitation of stilbene-3 were determined by means of pump-CARS technique, where CARS process served as an effective mode-selective filter. Spectral as well as temporal properties of electronic relaxation pathway in azulene derivatives were explored by using transient population gratings and pump-probe transient absorption techniques.
In this study, the role of histone-like proteins in gene regulation in uropathogenic Escherichia coli isolate 536 was monitored. The histone-like nucleoid structuring protein H-NS is a global regulator in Escherichia coli that has been intensively studied in non-pathogenic strains. No comprehensive study on the role of H-NS and it’s homolog StpA on gene expression in a pathogenic E. coli strain has been carried out so far. Moreover, we identified a third, so far uncharacterized member of the H-NS-like protein family in uropathogenic E. coli isolate 536, which was designated Hlp (H-NS-like protein). Hlp is a 134-amino acid protein, which shares 58 % sequence identity with H-NS. The gene coding for the Hlp protein, hlp, is found in several uropathogenic E. coli variants, but not in non-pathogenic E. coli K-12. In UPEC strains 536 and CFT073, Hlp is encoded on a possibly horizontally acquired 23-kb genomic region inserted into the serU locus. Studies on hlp transcription revealed, that the gene is transcribed monocistronically from a single promoter and that expression is repressed by H-NS. Purified Hlp protein was binding to its own and to the hns promoter, thereby mediating negative auto- and crossregulation. Furthermore, Hlp and H-NS were directly interacting, resulting in the formation of stable heteromers. Complementation studies with hns mutant strains in a K-12 background revealed that the Hlp protein had in vivo activity, being able to complement the lack of H-NS in terms of motility, growth, and repression of the proU, bgl, and clyA genes. When analyzing the role of the histone-like proteins in expression of virulence-associated genes by using DNA arrays and classical phenotypic assays, most of the observed effects were mediated by the H-NS protein alone. Expression profiling revealed that transcript level of more than 500 genes was affected by an hns mutation, resulting in increased expression of alpha-hemolysin, fimbriae and iron-uptake systems, as well as genes involved in stress adaptation. Furthermore, several other putative virulence factors were found to be part of the H-NS regulon. On the other hand, no effect of StpA alone was observed. An hns stpA double mutant, however, exhibited a distinct gene expression pattern that differed in great parts from that of the hns single mutant. This suggests a direct interaction between the two homologs and the existence of distinct regulons of H-NS and an H-NS/StpA heteromeric complex. Although the H-NS protein has – either as homomer or in complex with StpA – a marked impact on gene expression in pathogenic E. coli strains, its effect on urovirulence is ambiguous. At a high infection dose, hns mutants accelerate lethality in murine UTI and sepsis models relative to the wild type, probably due to increased production of alpha-hemolysin. At lower infectious dose, however, mutants lacking H-NS are attenuated through their impaired growth rate, which can only partially be compensated by the higher expression of numerous virulence factors. As seen with StpA, an hlp single mutant did not exhibit a notable phenotype under standard growth conditions. A severe growth defect of hns hlp double mutants at low temperatures, however, suggests a biological relevance of H-NS/Hlp heteromers under certain circumstances. Furthermore, these mutants expressed more capsular polysaccharide and curli fimbriae, thereby indicating a distinct role of H-NS and Hlp in regulation of these surface structures. The H-NS paralogs Hlp and StpA also modulated H-NS-mediated regulation of fimbrial adhesins, and are oppositely required for normal growth at low or high temperatures, respectively. Finally, expression levels of the three histone-like proteins H-NS, StpA and Hlp itself varied with different temperatures, thereby suggesting a flexible composition of the nucleoid-associated protein pool. Hence, we propose that the biological role of Hlp and StpA does not rely on a distinct function of the single protein, but rather on their interaction with the global regulator H-NS.
The establishment of genomic approaches including the sequence determination of complete bacterial genomes started a new era in microbiological research. Since then more than two hundred prokaryotic and eukaryotic genomes have been completely sequenced, and there are additional complete genome projects including different bacterial species and strains in progress (http://www.tigr.org, http://www.sanger.ac.uk). The continously growing amount of bacterial DNA sequence information gives us also the possibility to gain deeper insight into bacterial pathogenesis. With the help of comparative genomics, microbiological research can focus on those DNA sequences that are present in pathogenic bacteria but are absent in non-pathogenic strains. With this knowledge and with the help of molecular biological methods such as PCR,DNA-chip technology, subtractive hybridisation, transcriptomics and proteomics we can analyse in detail what makes a particular bacterial strain pathogenic. This knowledge also gives us the possibility to develop new vaccines, therapeutic approaches or diagnostic tools. The aim of this work was the structural and functional analysis of DNA regions of uropathogenic Escherichia coli strain 536 that belong to the flexible E. coli gene pool. The first part of this thesis focused on the identification and structural characterisation of pathogenicity island V of strain 536 (PAI V536). PAI V536 is integrated at the pheV tRNA gene at 64 minutes of the E. coli K-12 chromosome. In addition to the intact pheV tRNA gene, a truncated copy ('pheV) that represents the last 22 bp of this gene’s 3'-end was identified 49 kb downstream of pheV on PAI V536. The analysis of the DNA sequence flanked by pheV and 'pheV revealed characteristics that are typical of PAIs. This DNA region exhibits homology to IS-elements and prophages and also comprises determinants coding for the Pix fimbriae, a phosphoglycerate transport system, an autotransporter, as well as for hypothetical proteins. Downstream of 'pheV, the K15 capsule determinant (kpsK15) of this strain is located. Structural analysis of the 20-kb kpsK15 locus revealed a so far unknown genetic organisation indicative of recombination events between a group 2 and group 3 capsule gene cluster. Downstream of the capsule determinant, the genes encoding a type II secretion system (general secretion pathway -GSP) are located on PAI V536. The K15 capsule locus was functionally characterized. Specific inactivation of each of the regions 1 to 3 of the kpsK15 gene cluster, and the use of a K15 capsule-specific antiserum demonstrated that this determinant is the functional K15 capsule locus of strain 536. It has been shown in an experimental murine model of ascending urinary tract infection with suckling mice that the K15 capsule contributes to urovirulence. Interestingly, the K15 capsule is not involved in serum resistance of strain 536. Inactivation of the PAI V536-encoded type II secretion system excluded a role of this general secretion pathway for capsule biosynthesis and virulence of strain 536 in the murine ascending urinary tract infection model. In the second part of the thesis, the transferability of PAIs was further investigated. Using PAI II536 as a model, mobilisation of this island from strain 536 into suitable recipient strains was investigated. For this purpose, an antibiotic resistance cassette, the R6K origin of replication as well as plasmid pGP704 carrying the mobilisation region of plasmid RP4 have been inserted into PAI II536. Transformation with the helper plasmid RP4, resulted a derivative of strain 536 that was used as a donor for conjugation experiments, while for recipient the pir + laboratory strain SY327 was used. After deletion the circularised PAI II536 was mobilised with the help of the conjugative helper plasmid (RP4) into the recipient laboratory strain SY327. The frequency of this event was about 10-8. It was also demonstrated that in the transconjugant strains the mobilized PAI II536 could be permanently present as a circular form and also can be integrated into the chromosome at the same chromosomal insertion site (leuX) as in the donor strain 536. Furthermore, after mobilisation and chromosomal integration of PAI II536 it was possible to remobilise this PAI back to a PAI II536-negative derivative of strain 536. The results obtained in this thesis increase our knowledge of the structure and function of a pathogenicity island of uropathogenic E. coli strain 536 and shed some light on the mechanisms contributing to genome plasticity and evolution of pathogenic E. coli variants.
Platelet activation and adhesion resulting in thrombus growth is essential for normal hemostasis, but can lead to irreversible, life-threatening vessel occlusion. In the current study, the contribution of platelet integrins, activation receptors and the contact system of blood coagulation in such pathological conditions was investigated in mice.
BMPs influence a variety of cellular processes. They have been shown to regulate proliferation, differentiation, migration and apoptosis and thus play central roles during developmental processes and tissue homeostasis. Ligand mediated signal transduction is transmitted via BMP type I and BMP type II receptors, both members of the serine/threonine kinase superfamily. The BMP receptor mediated signal transduction is not explored in detail. Therefore our aim was to address different aspects of BMP mediated signal transduction with main focus on BRII and its regulation. Due to the existence of two alternative splice variants, a long and a short form, the function of the two variants and the impact of the C-terminal extension are of general interest. Moreover, mutations in the BMPR2 gene were identified to be responsible for PPH, a autosomal dominant lung disease. In this thesis, BRII phosphorylation and signalling mediated by different receptor oligomers were investigated and multiple BRII associated proteins were identified. We could show that the oligomerization pattern of BMP receptors exhibits a higher degree of flexibility compared to other receptors of that superfamily. In the present work the BMP2 mediated signal transduction should be examined, depending on the receptor oligomerization pattern. Using kinase-deficient mutants, it could be demonstrated, that signalling via preformed BMP receptor complexes is mediated by the well characterized Smad1/5/8 pathway, whereas signalling initiated by BMP2 induced recruitment of the receptors activates the p38 pathway and leads to Alkaline Phosphatase production. To further study signalling events triggered directly from the BRII a proteomics-based screen for BRII associated proteins was performed. 53 associated proteins were found, the majority being signal transducing molecules, but in addition metabolic proteins, transcriptional regulators and others were identified. These proteins enable to gain a deeper insight in BMP mediated signalling. One of the interactors, the receptor tyrosine kinase c-kit, was characterized in more detail. It could be demonstrated, that BRII and c-kit form a complex in vitro and in vivo, and the interaction is enhanced upon BMP2 stimulation. 2D phosphopeptid mapping showed that BRII is phosphorylated at S757 upon activation of c-kit by SCF. Moreover, c-kit and its ligand SCF are modulating BMP2 pathways, by enhancing Smad1/5 phosphorylation, Smad-transcriptional activity, Alkaline Phosphatase production and expression of Cbfa1. All these pathways hint towards modulation of the osteoblast development via c-kit. Thus, we were able to develop a novel paradigm for the BMP2 meditated signalling. One of the initial triggers for BRII is the auto-phosphorylation of BRII. Here we analyze ligand-independent as well as ligand-dependent phosphorylation of BRII. Some phosphorylation sites in BRII were identified. The general phosphorylation occurs mostly on serines. S815, S818 and Y825 are identified targets of phosphorylation whose function is still unclear. However phosphorylation of S336 is demonstrated to be essential for BRII activation. The elucidation of BMP receptor phosphorylation and oligomerization as well as the impact of a number of BRII associated proteins (such as c-kit), demonstrated in this thesis that BMP signalling has to be regulated precisely on multiple levels. This can be useful for the development of selective signalling inhibitors for basic research and therapeutic approaches of PPH and other diseases.
1. Oviposition site selection is crucial for the reproductive success of herbivorous insects. According to the preference–performance hypothesis, females should oviposit on host plants that enhance the performance of their offspring. More specifically, the plant vigour hypothesis predicts that females should prefer large and vigorously growing host plants for oviposition and that larvae should perform best on these plants. 2. The present study examined whether females of the monophagous leaf beetle Cassida canaliculata Laich. (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) prefer to oviposit on large host plant individuals of the meadow clary and whether large host plants are of higher nutritional quality than small host plants. Subsequently, it was tested whether the female preference correlates with offspring performance and survival. 3. In the field, females preferred large host plant individuals for oviposition and host plant quality, i.e. leaf nitrogen content, was significantly higher in leaves of large than of small host plants. 4. In the laboratory, larval development time was shorter on leaves of large host plant individuals than on small host plant individuals, but this could not be shown in the field. 5. However, a predator-exclusion experiment in the field resulted in a higher survival of larvae on large host plants than on small host plants when all predators had free access to the plants. On caged host plants there was no difference in survival of larvae between plant size categories. 6. It is concluded that females of C. canaliculata select oviposition sites that enhance both performance and survival of their offspring, which meets the predictions of the plant vigour hypothesis.
Diagnostic Case Based Training Systems (D-CBT) provide learners with a means to learn and exercise knowledge in a realistic context. In medical education, D-CBT Systems present virtual patients to the learners who are asked to examine, diagnose and state therapies for these patients. Due a number of conflicting and changing requirements, e.g. time for learning, authoring effort, several systems were developed so far. These systems range from simple, easy-to-use presentation systems to highly complex knowledge based systems supporting explorative learning. This thesis presents an approach and tools to create D-CBT systems from existing sources (documents, e.g. dismissal records) using existing tools (word processors): Authors annotate and extend the documents to model the knowledge. A scalable knowledge representation is able to capture the content on multiple levels, from simple to highly structured knowledge. Thus, authoring of D-CBT systems requires less prerequisites and pre-knowledge and is faster than approaches using specialized authoring environments. Also, authors can iteratively add and structure more knowledge to adapt training cases to their learners needs. The theses also discusses the application of the same approach to other domains, especially to knowledge acquisition for the Semantic Web.
The invertebrate trace fossils from the Keuper (Upper Triassic) of the southern part of the Germanic Basin are revised. The Keuper sediments of the Germanic Basin are predominantly composed of rocks representing various nonmarine environments dominated by red-bed facies. The Würzburg Formation, the Stuttgart Formation, and the Hassberge Formation, all representing deposits of extended river systems, contain the richest ichnofauna. Trace fossil abundance is generally low and their occurrence is scattered. The studied material can be assigned to 28 ichnogenera, 38 ichnospecies, and 6 vernacular forms. Among the described trace fossils are one new ichnogenus and three new ichnospecies. Apart from the revision of the invertebrate trace fossils from the Keuper numerous related ichnotaxa from various localities and ages have been studied and revised. In the course of these studies several ichnotaxa are synonymised, lowered in rank, and new ichnogenera, subichnogenera, and ichnospecies are suggested. In addition, general guidelines for naming, and methodologies for studying invertebrate trace fossils are presented. The palaeoecology of three ichnocoenoses, one from the Würzburg Formation and two from the Hassberge Formation in Lower Franconia are briefly discussed.
Regulation of B lymphocyte terminal differentiation and death by the transcription factor Blimp-1
(2005)
B lymphocyte induced maturation protein-1 (Blimp-1) and X-box-binding protein-1 (XBP-1) are indispensible transcription factors required for B lymphocyte terminal differentiation into Ig secreting plasma cells. Occurrence of an unfolded protein response (UPR) and XBP-1 splicing, due to elevated Ig levels, are critical events during plasma cell generation. However, the upstream molecule sufficient to trigger these events remain elusive. Because ectopic expression of Blimp-1 in B cells is sufficient to generate plasma cells, it is plausible that Blimp-1 might be the upstream molecule, sufficient for the induction of UPR and XBP-1 splicing. The results from the current study indicate that ectopic expression of Blimp-1 or its N-terminal domain, in B cells, is sufficient to induce XBP-1 splicing, UPR and Ig (immunoglobulin) secretion. Further more Blimp-1 is able to directly repress the antiapoptotic gene A1, by binding to specific DNA elements in A1 promoter. This repression of A1 by Blimp-1 seems to be an important prerequisite for Plasma cell differentiation because ectopic expression of A1 in primary B cells resulted in reduced immunoglobulin secretion.
The one electron oxidation potential of ten TAAs with all permutations of Cl , OMe- and Me-substituents in the three p-positions were determined by CV. The half wave potential of the first oxidation wave correlates linearly with the number of Cl- and OMe-substituents. AM1-CISD derived values of the absorption energies are in good agreement with the experiments but differ strongly for the oscillator strengths as well as for neutral compounds and their corresponding mono radical cations. The small solvent dependence of the experimental UV/Vis spectra in CH2Cl2 and MeCN reflects a minor charge transfer character of the electronic transitions. The UV/Vis/NIR spectra of the series of TAAs and their corresponding radical cations and the AM1 computations reveal that even small substituents may lead to strong symmetry breaking and to a modified electronic structure. The spectroscopic properties of a series of four bis-TAA donor-bridge-donor X-B-X dimers, composed of two asymmetric TAA chromophores (monomers) were investigated. UV/vis-, fluorescence and transient absorption spectra were recorded and compared with those of the corresponding X-B monomers. The excited states of the dimers are described as MV states which show, depending on the chemical nature of the bridge, a varying amount of interactions. It was found that superradiant emission only proceeds in the case of weak and medium coupling. Whether the first excited state potential energy surface of the dimers is a single minimum or a double minimum potential depends on the solvent polarity and the electronic coupling. In the latter case, the dimer relaxes in a symmetry broken CT state. The [2.2]paracyclophane bridged dimer is an example for a weakly coupled system, because the spectroscopic behavior is very similar to the corresponding p xylene monomer. In contrast, anthracene as well as p-xylene bridges mediate a stronger coupling and reveal a significant cooperative influence on the optical properties. A series of [2.2]paracylophane bridged bis-TAA MV radical cations X-B-X+ were analyzed by a GMH three-level model which takes two transitions into account: the IV-CT band and the bridge band. From the GMH analysis, one can conclude that the [2.2]paracyclophane moiety is not the limiting factor which governs the intramolecular charge transfer. The electronic interactions are of course smaller than direct conjugation but from the order of magnitude of the couplings of the [2.2]paracyclophane MV species it can be assumed that this bridge is able to mediate significant through-space and through-bond interactions. From the exponential dependence of the electronic coupling V between the two TAA localized states on the distance r between the two redox centers, it was inferred that the HT proceeds via superexchange mechanism. The analysis reveals that even significantly longer conjugated bridges should still mediate significant electronic interactions, because the decay constant of a series of conjugated MV species is small. The absorption properties of a series of bis-TAA-[2.2]paracyclophane dications X+-B-X+ were presented. The localized and the CT transitions of these dications are explained and analyzed by an exciton coupling model which also considers the photophysical properties of the monomeric TAA radical cations. Together with AM1-CISD calculated transition moments, experimental transition moments and transition energies of the bis-TAA dications were used to calculate electronic couplings by a GMH approach. These couplings are a measure for interactions of the excited MV CT states. The modification of the diabatic states reveals similarities of the GMH three-level model and the exciton coupling model. Comparison of the two models shows that the transition moment between the excited mixed-valence states of the dimer equals the dipole moment difference of the ground and the excited bridge state of the corresponding monomer. Thianthrenophane (1) has a cavity which offers enough room to potentially enable endohedral coordination to small ions or molecules. For the complexation of silver(I) perchlorate, the complex stability constants of thianthrenophane logK1=5.45 and of thianthrene logK2=9.16 were determined by UV/Vis titration. Single competition transport experiments with ten metal salts demonstrate a very high selectivity of thianthrenophane as a carrier for silver(I) and a distinctly higher transport rate compared to carriers such as thianthrene and 14-ane-S4. Although the X-ray crystal structure analysis of the polymeric [Ag(1)]ClO4 shows an exohedral coordination to silver(I), the formation of an endohedral [Ag(1)]+ complex is suggested to be the explanation for the unusual carrier selectivity of silver(I) by 1 in bulk liquid membrane.
Very small, thioglycerol (TG)-capped CdS nanoparticles were synthesized by a wet chemical technique and investigated in the framework of this thesis. Also glutathione-capped particles were investigated for a comparison of the capping agents. High-resolution photoelectron spectroscopy using high-brilliance synchrotron radiation was applied as the major tool for the characterization of these particles. Additionally, the particles were investigated with UV-VIS absorption spectroscopy, XPS using a laboratory source, valence band photoemission spectroscopy (VBPES), near-edge x-ray absorption spectroscopy (NEXAFS), and micro-Raman spectroscopy to address various aspects of the particles. In the beginning, an overview on size quantization effects is given to create a theoretical background behind the work presented in this thesis. Furthermore, an overview of various conventional techniques for size determination is presented. Exact information about size, shape and size distribution of nanoparticles is not yet achievable because of experimental limitations of the various size determination methods. Nanoparticles, with a range of sizes from 1.1 to 4. 2 nm, were synthesized using non-aqueous preparation and a TG capping. It is demonstrated that the use of the non-aqueous wet chemical synthesis method enables the production of very small particles and prohibits the aging of the particles. Furthermore, TG capping leads to a significant improvement for a narrow size distribution. Moreover, the results are very reproducible with TG capping and non-aqueous synthesis. Monodispersed particles can be produced by a size selective precipitation method, however, the reproducibility is questionable due to the aqueous medium of the synthesis in this case. High-resolution photoemission measurements on the small particles, i.e., 1.1 nm (CdS-A), 1.4 nm (CdS-B), 1.7 nm (CdS-C), and 1.8 nm (CdS-D, glutathione-capped), revealed five components as constituents of the S 2p signal after a careful data evaluation. Furthermore, it was observed that the particles with different sizes and capping show differences in the photoemission spectra and also in the beam damage behaviour. The different components of CdS-B were assigned as S atoms with different Cd neighbors, S atoms from thiol and S atoms in a partially oxidized state, based on the observed intensity changes of these components as a function of photon energy and beam damage, and on previous photoemission work on CdS nanoparticles [23, 45]. Furthermore, it was found that this assignment cannot be directly transferred to other particles. A new approach of structural model-based photoemission intensity calculations in comparison with the experimental data is presented. This enables us to understand subtle features in the photoemission spectra, in particular the intensity changes of the different components as a function of photon energy and beam exposure. This approach is especially applied to CdS-B (as some structural information for this particle is avialable from XRD), using three different structural models. It is found that a structural model with 33 S atoms can explain the experimental intensity changes of CdS-B. Furthermore, it is found that the photoemission spectra can be used to determine the particle size indirectly, as other plausible models show significant deviation from the experimental data. To study the various aspects by calculations, such as the influence of the particle shape and of the value of the mean free path, a program developed with L. Weinhardt and O. Fuchs is used for the intensity calculations. In order to determine a reasonable value of the mean free path for the used photon energies, two different equations from previous reports (Seah et al. and Powell et al.) are applied. As average mean free path values for the two photon energies we chose 5.5 ± 2 Å (254 eV) and 14 ± 2 Å (720 eV). The program calculation confirms the result of simple “manual” calculations of the different models. Moreover, it is tested that the value of , used in the calculations does not produce any significant influence on the calculation results. Another interesting feature is derived from the calculations that a model with a rather round shape produces similar intensity ratios for the different components to those of the data. Thus this new approach of analysis of photoemission spectra offers a way to determine particle sizes and to some extent to give an impression of the approximate particle shape. Furthermore, it is observed that the electronic band gap is larger compared to the optical band gap, which was attributed to an enhanced electron-hole correlation for optical absorption in small particles. The XPS experiments performed in the laboratory using an x-ray tube, show that the thin films produced from a freshly synthesized nanoparticle solution are fairly homogeneous and non-charging. Moreover, annealing experiments indicated that TG-capped particles posses less thermal stability as compared to MPA-capped particles. It was demonstrated that beam-induced effects play a major role. However, the knowledge of the time scale for such effects gives the possibility to record photoemission spectra with fairly good signal quality and to extrapolate to zero radiation damage. Further, particles with different sizes and capping show different beam damage behaviour. The thin film preparation by electrophoresis results in significant changes in the spectrum indicating agglomeration, while the drop-deposition technique points towards spectral changes on the rim of the sample, which can be avoided by focusing the radiation to the centre of the deposited dried drop. Micro-Raman experiments carried out in collaboration with C. Dem, Dr. M. Schmitt and Prof. W. Kiefer exhibited major differences in the spectra of nanoparticles as compared to those of the capping molecule thioglycerol. For instance, the absence of the S-H vibrational modes indicates the consumption or removal of all unreacted capping molecules. There is definitely a need for further detailed investigations concerning various interesting aspects of this work. For instance, it would be of significance to extend the program calculations to more models. Also more information about the band gap opening has to be gathered in order to find out the reason for the larger electronic band gap as compared to the optical band gap. The photoemission analysis approach using a model calculation has to be extended to differently prepared nanoparticles, in particular, to address the differences in the location of the various species in the particle as a function of preparation. The efforts of XRD simulations by C. Kumpf et al. [50] may reveal significant new information about the particle size and the size distribution. It can be expected that the program calculations, if extended to more models, can prove the potential of photoelectron spectroscopy to serve as a tool for size and shape determination of nanoparticles, which is a new contribution to the investigation of nanoparticles.
The mechanism of spontaneous symmetry breaking is essential to provide masses to the W and Z gauge bosons and fermions of the SM. We hope to elucidate this mechanism at the next generation of colliders. While the SM has been tested with astonishing precision it is believed to be an effective theory of a more fundamental Great Unified Theory. SUSY is one of the most attractive extensions of the SM of particle physics. Therefore, the search for SUSY is a top priority at the next generation of colliders. Once Higgs bosons are discovered, a precise determination of their properties is necessary to differentiate between different models, in particular the MSSM. A muon collider, running at center of mass energies around the neutral Higgs boson resonances, would allow precise measurements of masses and widths, as well as the couplings to their decay products. In particular their couplings to supersymmetric particles are essential to probe SUSY. Therefore, we study the decays of the heavier CP-even and CP-odd Higgs bosons into lighter chargino or neutralino pairs. In this thesis we have analyzed the polarization effects of the beams and the charginos and neutralinos produced in mu+ mu- annihilation around the center of mass energies of the Higgs boson resonances H and A. For the production of equal charginos we have shown that the ratio of H-chargino and A-chargino couplings can be precisely determined independently of the chargino decay mechanism. This method avoids reference to other experiments and makes only a few model-dependent assumptions. Here we have analyzed the effect of the energy spread and of the error from the non-resonant channels, including an irreducible standard model background contribution. For small tan(beta) the process yields large cross sections of up to a pb. For the production of two different charginos we have shown that the H-A interference can be analyzed using asymmetries of the charge conjugated processes. The asymmetries depend on the muon longitudinal beam polarizations and vanish for unpolarized beams. For the chargino pair production with subsequent two-body decay of one of the charginos we have shown that charge and beam polarization asymmetries in the energy distributions of the decay particles are sensitive to the interference of scalar exchange channels with different CP quantum numbers. This process provides unique information on the interference of overlapping Higgs boson resonances. The effect is larger for regions of parameter space with intermediate values of tan(beta) and light sleptons or LSP neutralinos. For the chargino pair production with subsequent two-body decays of both charginos we have defined energy distribution and angular asymmetries in the final particles, in order to analyze the spin-spin correlations of the charginos. The transverse polarizations of the charginos are sensitive to the CP quantum number of the exchanged Higgs bosons and can thus be used to separate overlapping resonances, as well as to determine the CP quantum number of a single resonance. For equal charginos, these asymmetries are not sensitive to the interference of CP-even and CP-odd Higgs exchange channels. For the neutralino pair production in mu+ mu- annihilation we study similar processes as for chargino production. Line shape measurements of neutralino pair production allow to precisely determine the ratio of H-neutralino and A-neutralino couplings. Neutralino pair production with subsequent two-body decay of one of the neutralinos in the intermediate tan(beta) region is sensitive to the interference of H and A and may be measured with a large statistical significance. The Majorana nature of the neutralinos implies that the beam polarization asymmetries vanish for the remaining production channels. For neutralino pair production with subsequent two-body decays of both neutralinos we analyze similar observables as in chargino production. The main difference consists in the intrinsic relative CP quantum number of the neutralino pair, which depends on the chosen scenario. We have thus shown that the interaction of the Higgs bosons to the gaugino-higgsino sector can be probed at a muon collider in chargino and neutralino pair production, both analyzing the production line-shape around the resonances as well as studying the chargino and neutralino polarizations via their decays.
Protein kinase B (PKB), a serine threonine kinase, is highly involved in the regulation of cellular proliferation and survival. To characterize PKB’s function in lymphocyte development and activation, transgenic (tg) mice that express a membrane targeted constitutively active form of PKBa (myr PKB) in T and B cells were analysed. Thymocytes from myr PKB tg mice showed enhanced proliferation after T cell receptor (TCR) engagement compared to wild type (wt) mice. Astonishingly, myr PKB tg thymocytes were capable to proliferate in response to PMA only and were also less sensitive to inhibition by the calcineurin inhibitors CsA or FK506, which indicates the proliferative response of myr PKB tg T cells is relatively independent of calcium mobilisation and calcineurin activity. In addition, when TCR signalling was inhibited by the MEKinase inhibitor PD98059 or the Srckinase inhibitor PP1 myr PKB tg thymocytes again were more resistant to inhibition. Western blot analysis revealed myr PKB enhances activation of the kinases Lck, Raf and Erk after TCR/CD3 stimulation. Thus, myr PKB renders proliferative responses of thymocytes more sensitive to TCR signals by positive regulation of the Lck-Raf-MEK-Erk signalling pathway. Studies on the cellular location of the tg protein showed myr PKB is located in membrane socalled “lipid rafts”. Furthermore, we found that after TCR/CD3 ligation endogenous cytoplasmic PKB moves into “lipid rafts”, which highlights PKB as a crucial mediator of TCR proximal signalling events. Analysing three different TCR tg model systems for positive and negative selection of immature precursors in the thymus, we found myr PKB promotes positive selection of CD4+ but not CD8+ T cells. This most likely results from PKB’s positive cross-talk on Lck-Raf-Erk signalling, which is known to influence thymocyte selection and CD4/CD8-lineage choice. Furthermore, myr PKB enhances phosphorylation of glycogen synthase kinase 3 (GSK3), a negative regulator of the transcription factor NFAT (nuclear factor of activated T cells) and T cell activation, and of the adapter protein c-Cbl. Concerning negative selection, myr PKB enhanced (OT1 mice), reduced (HY mice) or had no influence (OT2 mice) on negative selection. Thus, myr PKB’s effect on negative selection strongly depends on the model system analysed and this most likely results from differences in TCR affinity/avidity and TCR specificity for MHC. 106 Peripheral CD4+ T cells from myr PKB tg mice showed enhanced production of both Th1 and Th2 cytokines. Furthermore, after TCR/CD3 stimulation in the presence of TGF-b1, wt CD4+ T cells showed a drastic inhibition of proliferation, whereas myr PKB tg CD4+ T cells proliferated even better, i.e. they were resistant to the inhibitory TGF-b1 signals. Expression of myr PKB in B cells leads to reduced Ca2+ flux and proliferation after BCR stimulation, but activation of Lyn, SLP-65, c-Cbl and GSK-3 were enhanced. When we analysed B cell subsets in myr PKB tg mice, a decrease in immature and mature B cells became obvious, whereas cell numbers for marginal zone (MZ) B cells were normal. In aged myr PKB tg mice we detected a very strong reduction of pro/pre and immature B cell populations in the bone marrow, indicating PKB is very important for maintenance of B cell development. Furthermore, myr PKB also lead to a strong reduction of peritoneal B-1 cells. However, expression of NFATc1, which is required for B-1 cell development, was comparable between wt and myr PKB tg B-1 cells. To analyse the effect of myr PKB on immunoglobulin production, mice were immunized with thymus dependent (TD) and independent (TI) antigens. In both cases, B cell responses were strongly elevated in myr PKB tg mice. Finally, RT-PCR analyses of in vitro expanded B cells revealed increased Blimp-1 and Notch3 expression in myr PKB tg B cells, which might be primary candidates involved in their enhanced effector function. In summary, this study clearly shows an important cross-talk between PKB and various critical signalling molecules downstream of the TCR and BCR. Thereby active PKB modulates and regulates the thresholds for thymocyte selection and T cell activation as well as for B cell development and function.
In a first aspect of this work, the development of photonic crystal based widely tunable laser diodes and their monolithic integration with photonic crystal based passive waveguide and coupler structures is explored theoretically and experimentally. In these devices, the photonic crystal is operated in the photonic bandgap which can be used for the realization of effective reflectors and waveguide structures. Such tunable light sources are of great interest for the development of optical network systems that are based on wavelength division multiplexing. In a second aspect of this work, the operation of a photonic crystal block near the photonic band edge is investigated with respect to the so-called superprism effect. After a few introductory remarks that serve to motivate this work, chapter 3 recapitulates some aspects of semiconductor lasers and photonic crystals that are essential for the understanding of this work so that the reader should be readily equipped with the tools to appreciate the results presented in this work.
The studies presented in this thesis deal with resonant and non-resonant excitation of free variable size clusters using synchrotron radiation in the soft X-ray regime. The post collision interaction (PCI) effect is investigated in free variable size krypton and argon clusters near the Kr 3d and Ar 2p ionization energies. The core ionization energies of surface and bulk sites in variable size clusters can be clearly distinguished. This is mostly due to the polarization screening. It is found that the asymmetry, which is a consequence of PCI, is characteristically smaller for clusters than for isolated atoms. Moreover, there is less asymmetry for bulk sites than for surface sites in variable size rare gas clusters. We assign the results in terms of mechanisms that are based on quantum mechanical models of post collision interaction. Complementary experiments on the photoionization of free van der Waals clusters are performed by using zero kinetic energy (ZEKE) photoelectron spectroscopy in the Ar 2p-, Kr 3d-, Ne 1s-, and N2-regimes. The experimental approach is also suitable to detect cluster size dependent changes in electronic structure. This also allows us to study post collision interaction in variable size clusters. The parameters of the PCI profiles deduced for ZEKE experiments indicate that there are no significant changes in core ionization dynamics compared to near-threshold experiments. Results from model calculations in Kr 3d ionization energy indicate that different geometric sites can be clearly distinguished from each other by their substantial shift in Kr 3d ionization energy, though the dimer shows almost the same Kr 3d ionization energy as the free atom. A comparison with the experimental results indicates that there is resemblance with the model calculations, even though close-lying ionization energies are blended and require deconvolutions of the experimental spectra. It is evident from the present work that one can observe distinct shifts in core ionization energies in van der Waals clusters that are formed in wide size distributions of a jet expansion. The emission of ultraviolet fluorescence radiation from variable size argon clusters is investigated with high spectral resolution in the Ar 2p-excitation regime. The fluorescence excitation spectra reveal strong fluorescence intensity in the Ar 2p-continuum, but no evidence for the occurrence of discrete low-lying core-exciton states in the near-edge regime. This finding is different from the absorption and photoionization cross sections of argon clusters and the solid. The dispersed fluorescence shows a broad molecular band centered near 280 nm. The present results are consistent with the formation of singly charged, excited moieties within the clusters, which are assigned as sources of the radiative relaxation in the 280 nm regime. A fast energy transfer process (interatomic Coulombic decay, ICD) is assigned to be primarily the origin of these singly charged, excited cations besides intra-cluster electron impact ionization by Auger electrons. Our findings give possibly the first experimental evidence for ICD in the core level regime. Free, variable size nitrogen clusters are investigated in the N 1s excitation regime in comparison with the free molecule and solid nitrogen. The conversion of Rydberg states into core excitons, surface and bulk, was studied. The experimental results are simulated by ab initio calculations using (N2)13 as a reasonable prototype cluster structure that allows us to simulate both surface and bulk properties in comparison with the isolated molecule. The present results clearly show that there are specific properties, such as molecular orientation, in molecular van der Waals clusters, which do not exist in atomic van der Waals clusters. It is shown that inner and outer surface sites give rise to distinct energy shifts of the low lying surface core excitons.
The development of ethanol tolerance is due to changes in synaptic plasticity. Since the mechanisms mediating synaptic plasticity are probably defective in the mutant hangAE10, it was a goal of the present study to find out how HANG contributes to synaptic plasticity. In particular, it was important to clarify in which neuronal process HANG plays a role. Antibody stainings against HANG revealed that the protein is localized in all neuronal nuclei of larval and adult brains; the staining is absent in hangAE10, thus confirming that this P-element insertion stock is a protein null for HANG. Detailed analysis of the subnuclear distribution of HANG showed that HANG immunoreactivity is enriched at distinct spots in the nucleus in a speckled pattern; these speckles are found at the inside of the nuclear membrane and do not colocalize with chromatin nor with the nucleolus; thus, HANG is probably involved in the stabilization, processing or export of RNAs. As synaptic plasticity can be studied in single neurons at the larval neuromuscular junction, the morphology of the synaptic terminals of hangAE10 mutants was analyzed at muscle 6/7, segment A4. These studies revealed that hangAE10 mutants display a 40 % increase in bouton number and axonal branch length; in addition, some boutons have an abnormal hourglass-like shape, suggesting that they are arrested in a semi-separated state following the initiation of bouton division. The increase in bouton number of hang mutants is mainly due to an increase in numbers of type Ib boutons. The analysis of the distribution of several synaptic markers in hang mutants did not show abnormalities. The presynaptic expression of HANG in hang mutants rescues the increase in bouton number and axonal branch length, thus proving that the phenotypes seen in the P-element insertion hangAE10 are attributable to the lack of HANG rather than to effects of the P-element marker rosy or to a secondary hit on the same chromsome during mutagensis. This finding is further supported by the fact that postsynaptic expression of HANG does not rescue the abnormal NMJ morphology of hangAE10. Alterations in cAMP levels regulate the number of boutons; since hang mutants display an increase in bouton number, the questions was whether this morphological abnormality was due to defects in cAMP signalling. To test this hypothesis, hangAE10 NMJs were compared to those of the hypomorphic allele dnc1 that has a defective cAMP cascade. Some aspects of the NMJ phenotype (e.g. the increase in bouton number and the unaltered ratio of active zones per bouton area) are similar in hangAE10 and dnc1, other differ. Expression of a UAS-dnc transgene in hangAE10 mutants does not modify the phenotype. In summary, the results of this study indicate that nuclear protein HANG might be involved in isoform-specific splicing of genes required for synaptic plasticity at the NMJ.
Although spintronics has aroused increasing interest, much fundamental research has to be done. One important issue is the control over the electronic spin. Therefore, spin and phase coherent transport are very important phenomena. This thesis describes experiments with mercury based quantum well structures. This narrow gap material provides a very good template to study spin related effects. It exhibits large Zeeman spin splitting and Rashba spin-orbit splitting. The latter is at least four to five times larger than in III-V semiconductors. Initially a short review on the transport theory was presented. The main focus as on quantisation effects that are important to understand the related experiments. Thus, Shubnikov-de Haas and the quantum Hall effect have been analysed. Due to the first fabrication of nanostructures on Hg-based quantum well samples, the observation of ballistic transport effects could be expected. Hence, the Landauer-B¨uttiker theory has been introduced which gives the theoretical background to understand such effects. With respect to the main topic of this thesis, phase coherence has been introduced in detail. Experiments, where coherence effects could be observed, have been explained theoretically. Here, possible measurement setups have been discussed, e.g., a ring shaped structure to investigate the Aharonov-Bohm and related effects. Due to the fact, that all experiments, described in this thesis, were performed on Hg-based samples, the exceptional position of such samples among the “classical” semiconductors has been clarified. Hg1-xMnx Te quantum wells are type-III QWs in contrast to the type-I QWs formed by e.g., GaAs/AlGaAs heterostructures. With a well width of more than 6 nm and a manganese content of less than 7% they exhibit an inverted band alignment. Band structure calculations based on self consistent Hartree calculations have been presented. The common description of a diluted magnetic semiconductor with the Brillouin function has been introduced and the experiments to obtain the empiric parameters T0 and S0 have been presented. Rashba spin-orbit splitting and giant Zeeman splitting have been explained theoretically and the magnetic ordering of a spin glass as well as the relevant interactions therein have been discussed. The next chapter describes the first realisation of nanostructures on Hg-based heterostructures. Several material specific problems have been solved, but the unique features of this material system mentioned above justify the effort. Interesting new insight could be found and will be found with these structures. Onto a series of QW samples, cross-shaped structures with several lead widths have been patterned. With the non-local resistance measurement setup, evidence for quasiballistic transport was demonstrated in cross-shaped structures with lead widths down to 0.45 mm. The non-local bend resistance and a regime of rebound trajectories as well as the anomalous Hall effect could be identified. Monte-Carlo simulations of the classical electron trajectories have been performed. A good agreement with the experimental data has been achieved by taking a random scattering process into account. Encouraged by this success the technology has been improved and ring-shaped structures with radii down to 1 mm have been fabricated. Low temperature (below 100 mK), four terminal resistance measurements exhibit clear Aharonov-Bohm oscillations. The period of the oscillations agrees very well with a calculation that takes only the sample geometry into account. One goal using such a structure is the experimental prove of the spin-orbit Berry phase. Therefore an additional Shottky gate on top of the ring was needed. With this structure evidence for the Aharonov-Casher effect was observed. Here, a perpendicular applied electric field causes analogous oscillations as does the magnetic field in the AB effect. A subsequent change in the Rashba SO splitting due to several applied gate voltages while measuring the AB effect should reveal the SO Berry phase. Although initially evidence of a phase change was detected, a clear proof for the direct measurement of the SO Berry phase could not be found. In the future, with an advanced sample structure, e.g., with an additional Hall bar next to the ring, which permits a synchronous measurement of the Rashba splitting, it might be possible to measure the SO Berry phase directly. In manganese doped HgTe QWs two different effects simultaneously cause spin splitting: the giant Zeeman and the Rashba effect. By analysing the Shubnikovde Haas oscillations and the node positions of their beating pattern, it has been possible to separate these two effects. Whereas the Rashba effect can be identified by its dependence on the structure inversion asymmetry, varied by the applied gate voltage, the giant Zeeman splitting is extracted from its strong temperature dependence, because Rashba splitting is temperature independent. The analysis revealed, that the Rashba splitting is larger than or comparable to the giant Zeeman splitting even at moderately high magnetic fields. In an extraordinary HgMnTe QW sample, that exhibits the n= 1 quantum Hall plateau from less than 1 T up to 28 T, the anomalous Hall effect could be excluded. Intense studies on the temperature dependence of the QHE as well as band structure calculations have revealed this extraordinary behaviour to be an ordinary band structure effect of this system. In a series of mesoscopic structures on nonmagnetic and magnetic QWs, an investigation of the universal conductance uctuations have been carried out. In the
This thesis contains two major parts: The first part introduces the reader into three independent concepts of treating strongly correlated many body physics. These are, on the analytical side the SO(5)-theory (Chap.3), which poses the general frame. On the numerical side these are the Stochastic Series Expansion (SSE) (Chap.1) and the Contractor Renormalization Group (CORE) approach (Chap. 2}). The central idea of this thesis was to combine these above concepts, in order to achieve a better understanding of the high-T_c superconductors (HTSC). The results obtained by this combination can be found in the second major part of this thesis (chapters 4 and 5). The main idea of this thesis, i.e., to combine the SO(5)-theory with the capabilities of bosonic Quantum-Monte Carlo simulations and those of the CORE approach, has been proven to be a very successful Ansatz. Two different approaches, one based on symmetry and one on renormalization-group arguments, motivate an effective bosonic Hamiltonian. In a subsequent step the effective Hamiltonian has been simulated efficiently using the SSE. The results reproduce salient experiments on high-T_c superconductors. In addition, it has been shown that the model can be extended to capture also charge ordering. These results also form a profound basis for further studies, for example one could address the open question of SO(5)-symmetry restoration at a multicritical point in the extended pSO(5) model, where longer ranged interactions are included.
It has been known for a long time that Drosophila can learn to discriminate not only between different odorants but also between different concentrations of the same odor. Olfactory associative learning has been described as a pairing between odorant and electric shock and since then, most of the experiments conducted in this respect have largely neglected the dual properties of odors: quality and intensity. For odorant-coupled short-term memory, a biochemical model has been proposed that mainly relies on the known cAMP signaling pathway. Mushroom bodies (MB) have been shown to be necessary and sufficient for this type of memory, and the MB-model of odor learning and short-term memory was established. Yet, theoretically, based on the MB-model, flies should not be able to learn concentrations if trained to the lower of the two concentrations in the test. In this thesis, I investigate the role of concentration-dependent learning, establishment of a concentration-dependent memory and their correlation to the standard two-odor learning as described by the MB-model. In order to highlight the difference between learning of quality and learning of intensity of the same odor I have tried to characterize the nature of the stimulus that is actually learned by the flies, leading to the conclusion that during the training flies learn all possible cues that are presented at the time. The type of the following test seems to govern the usage of the information available. This revealed a distinction between what flies learned and what is actually measured. Furthermore, I have shown that learning of concentration is associative and that it is symmetrical between high and low concentrations. I have also shown how the subjective quality perception of an odor changes with changing intensity, suggesting that one odor can have more than one scent. There is no proof that flies perceive a range of concentrations of one odorant as one (odor) quality. Flies display a certain level of concentration invariance that is limited and related to the particular concentration. Learning of concentration is relevant only to a limited range of concentrations within the boundaries of concentration invariance. Moreover, under certain conditions, two chemically distinct odorants could smell sufficiently similarly such, that they can be generalized between each other like if they would be of the same quality. Therefore, the abilities of the fly to identify the difference in quality or in intensity of the stimuli need to be distinguished. The way how the stimulus is analyzed and processed speaks in favor of a concept postulating the existence of two separated memories. To follow this concept, I have proposed a new form of memory called odor intensity memory (OIM), characterized it and compared it to other olfactory memories. OIM is independent of some members of the known cAMP signaling pathway and very likely forms the rutabaga-independent component of the standard two-odor memory. The rutabaga-dependent odor memory requires qualitatively different olfactory stimuli. OIM is revealed within the limits of concentration invariance where the memory test gives only sub-optimal performance for the concentration differences but discrimination of odor quality is not possible at all. Based on the available experimental tools, OIM seems to require the mushroom bodies the same as odor-quality memory but its properties are different. Flies can memorize the quality of several odorants at a given time but a newly formed memory of one odor interferes with the OIM stored before. In addition, the OIM lasts only 1 to 3 hours - much shorter than the odor-quality memory.
The vertebrate spinal cord is composed of billions of neurons and glia cells, which are formed in a highly coordinated manner during early neurogenesis. Specification of these cells at distinct positions along the dorsoventral (DV) axis of the developing spinal cord is controlled by a ventrally located signaling center, the medial floor plate (MFP). Currently, the origin and time frame of specification of this important organizer are not clear. During my PhD thesis, I have analyzed the function of the novel secreted growth factor Midkine-a (Mdka) in zebrafish. In higher vertebrates, mdk and the related factor pleiotrophin (ptn) are widely expressed during embryogenesis and are implicated in a variety of processes. The in-vivo function of both factors, however, is unclear, as knock-out mice show no embryonic phenotype. We have isolated two mdk co-orthologs, mdka and mdkb, and one single ptn gene in zebrafish. Molecular phylogenetic analyses have shown that these genes evolved after two large gene block duplications. In contrast to higher vertebrates, zebrafish mdk and ptn genes have undergone functional divergence, resulting in mostly non-redundant expression patterns and functions. I have shown by overexpression and knock-down analyses that Mdka is required for MFP formation during zebrafish neurulation. Unlike the previously known MFP inducing factors, mdka is not expressed within the embryonic shield or tailbud but is dynamically expressed in the paraxial mesoderm. I used epistatic and mutant analyses to show that Mdka acts independently from these factors. This indicates a novel mechanism of Mdka dependent MFP formation during zebrafish neurulation. To get insight into the signaling properties of zebrafish Mdka, the function of both Mdk proteins and the candidate receptor Anaplastic lymphoma kinase (Alk) have been compared. Knock-down of mdka and mdkb resulted in the same reduction of iridophores as in mutants deficient for Alk. This indicates that Alk could be a putative receptor of Mdks during zebrafish embryogenesis. In most vertebrate species a lateral floor plate (LFP) domain adjacent to the MFP has been defined. In higher vertebrates it has been shown that the LFP is located within the p3 domain, which forms V3 interneurons. It is unclear, how different cell types in this domain are organized during early embryogenesis. I have analyzed a novel homeobox gene in zebrafish, nkx2.2b, which is exclusively expressed in the LFP. Overexpression, mutant and inhibitor analyses showed that nkx2.2b is activated by Sonic hedgehog (Shh), but repressed by retinoids and the motoneuron-inducing factor Islet-1 (Isl1). I could show that in zebrafish LFP and p3 neuronal cells are located at the same level along the DV axis, but alternate along the anteroposterior (AP) axis. Moreover, these two different cell populations require different levels of HH signaling and nkx2.2 activities. This provides new insights into the structure of the vertebrate spinal cord and suggests a novel mechanism of neural patterning.
A large variety of sex determination systems have been described in fish. However, almost no information is available about sex determination in the classical fish models, the zebrafish Danio rerio and the pufferfish Takifugu rubripes. A DNA-binding protein gene called dmrt1bY (or DMY) has been recently described as an outstanding candidate for the primary sex-determining gene in the medaka fish Oryzias latipes. But this gene is not the universal master sex-determining gene in teleost fish, since dmrt1bY is not found in most other fishes. Hence, other fish models need to be examined including the platyfish Xiphophorus maculatus. Xiphophorus maculatus has three types of sex chromosomes (X, Y and W; females are XX, WX or WY; males are XY or YY). Its gonosomes are at an early stage of differentiation. The sex-determining locus on the sex chromosomes is flanked by two receptor tyrosine kinase genes, the Xmrk oncogene and its protooncogenic progenitor gene egfrb, which both delimit a region of about 0.6 centiMorgans. This situation should allow the positional cloning of the sex-determining gene (SD) of the platyfish. For this purpose, Bacterial Artificial Chromosome (BAC) contigs were assembled from a BAC library of XY males constructed in our laboratory, using the oncogene Xmrk, egfrb, as well as a Y-specific pseudogene called ps-criptY as starting points. The ps-criptY sequence was found to be closely linked to the SD gene, since no recombination was observed between SD and ps-criptY in more than 400 individuals tested. Two major BAC contigs for the X chromosome (about 2.5 Mb) and three major BAC contigs for the Y chromosome (about 3.5 Mb) were built up and analyzed by strategic sequencing. These are some of the largest contigs ever assembled for the sex chromosomes of a non-mammalian vertebrate species. The molecular analysis of the ps-criptY contig was the major objective of this work. The Y-specific ps-criptY contig has been extended over 1 Mb in this work with 58 identified molecular markers. Approximatively 700 kb of non-redundant sequences has been obtained from this contig by strategic sequencing. Numerous Y-linked markers from the contig including ps-criptY were also detected on the X chromosome. Nevertheless, major structural differences were observed between the X and Y chromosomes. Particularly, a large region, which is present at one copy on the X chromosome and contains several candidate genes, was found to be duplicated on the Y chromosome. Evidence for an inversion in the sex-determining region and for the Y-specific accumulation of a repeated sequence called XIR was also obtained. Such events might correspond to an initiation of differentiation between both types of gonosomes. Accumulation of transposable elements was also observed in the ps-criptY contig. A DNA transposable element, helitron, was isolated from the sex-determining region of X. maculatus. Three copies of helitron are located on the ps-criptY contig and one copy on the X-linked contig (helitron has roughly 15 copies per haploid genome). No in-frame stop codon, truncation or intron was found in these four copies, which present high nucleotide identities to each other. This suggests that helitron elements might be active or have been recently active in X. maculatus. A consensus open reading frame of helitron was also assembled from medaka (Oryzias latipes) genomic sequences. Two candidate genes from the ps-criptY contig are also located on the W chromosome in the X. maculatus Usumacinta strain (heterogamety). These markers show the relationship between the different types of gonosomes and allow to compare the male and female heterogameties in the platyfish. Several gene candidates were identified in the ps-criptY contig. However, some of them such as msh2, cript, igd and acr probably correspond to pseudogenes. Interestingly, a novel gene, called swimy, is exclusively expressed in spermatogonia of the adult testis. Swimy is a gene encoding a DNA-binding protein with several putative DNA-binding domains. The data suggest that swimy is a very promising candidate for the master SD gene. Another novel gene, which is called fredi and encodes a novel helix-turn-helix protein, is predominately expressed in the adult testis and currently under scrutiny. There is no doubt that the master SD gene of X. maculatus will be identified by positional cloning. Further molecular analysis of the contigs built in this work will shed new light on the molecular mechanism of sex determination and the evolution of sex chromosomes in fish.
To analyze the role of protein kinase B(PKB)on developmental and functional aspects of T cells, we have generated transgenic mouse lines expressing a constitutively active form of PKB (myrPKB) in early stages of T cell development.Peripheral CD4+ T cells from PKB tg mice are hyperreactive, more efficient in producing th1 and th2 cytokines and show faster and CD28 co-stimulation independent cell cycle progression.Interestingly PKB tg T cells are resistant to CsA treatment in proliferation and cytokine production.Further analysis show PKB tg CD4+ T cells have a drastically reduced nuclear translocation of NFAT proteins and this is due to a direct interaction between PKB and NFAT. To study whether the negative regulatiopn of NFATs by PKB affects T cell development, we analyzed double tg mice expressing both, a constitutively active version of calcineurin (dCam) and myrPKB. dCam tg mice have a severe block in thymocyte development at the DN3 stage.But in the dCam/PKB double tg mice this developmental block is significantly rescued.This rescue of thymocyte development by PKB is due to the expression of RAG1 and subsequent TCRb chain expression. CsA treatment of neonatal thymic lobes from dCam mice restores normal thymocyte development, indicating involvement of NFATs in the severe block in dCam thymocyte development.Confocal studies clearly established that compared to dCam DN cells there is a significant reduction in the nuclear levels of NFATc1 and NFATc3 in dCam/PKB cells.Downregulation of nuclear NFAT levels by myrPKB thus seems to be an essential parameter in dCam cells to proceed with normal differentiation. In summary, the data from PKB tg peripheral CD4+ T cells and dCam/PKB double tg thymocytes clearly establish PKB as an important modulator of T cell development and function and PKB as a novel negative regulator of NFAT activation.
Diese Arbeit wurde durch Experimente zur Potential- und Stromverteilung in Quanten-Hall- Systemen motiviert, die in den letzten Jahren in der Abteilung von Klitzing am MPI für Festkörperforschung durchgeführt wurden und ergaben, dass elektrostatische Abschirmungseffekte in zweidimensionalen Elektronensystemen (2DES), die den ganzzahligen Quanten-Hall-Effekt (QHE) zeigen, sehr wichtig für das Verständnis der Stromverteilung innerhalb der Probe und der extremen Genauigkeit der gemessenen quantisierten Werte des Hall-Widerstands sind. Daraus ergab sich für die hier vorgelegte Arbeit das folgende Programm. Zunächst wird, nach einem einleitenden Kapitel, in Kapitel 2 der Formalismus vorgestellt, mit dem in den späteren Kapiteln Elektronendichten und elektrostatische Potentiale, die z.B. das 2DES auf eine Probe mit Streifengeometrie eingrenzen, selbstkonsistent berechnet werden. Diese Selbstkonsistenz besteht aus zwei Teilen. Erstens wird, bei vorgegebenem Potential, die Elektronendichte berechnet. Zweitens wird aus vorgegebener Ladungsverteilung, bestehend aus (positiven) Hintergrundladungen und der (im ersten Schritt berechneten) Elektronenladungsdichte, und geeigneten Randbedingungen (konstantes Potential auf metallischen Gates) durch Lösen der Poisson-Gleichung das elektrostatische Potential berechnet. Wenn wir im ersten Schritt, unter Berücksichtigung der Fermi-Dirac-Statistik, die Elektronendichte quantenmechanisch aus den Energieeigenfunktionen und -werten berechnen, erhalten wir die Hartree-Näherung, die die Dichte als nichtlokales Funktional des Potentials liefert. Wenn man die Ausdehnung der Wellenfunktionen auf der Längenskala, auf der sich das Potential typischerweise ändert, vernachlässigen kann, so vereinfacht sich die Hartree-Näherung zur Thomas- Fermi-Näherung, die einen lokalen Zusammenhang zwischen Elektronendichte und Potential beschreibt. Die meisten der konkreten Rechnungen wurden im Rahmen dieser selbstkonsistenten Thomas-Fermi-Poisson-Näherung durchgeführt. Im Kapitel 3 wird allgemein das Abschirmverhalten eines 2DES im hohen Magnetfeld untersucht. Wir betrachten die Antwort auf eine harmonische Potentialmodulation im unbegrenzten 2DES und in streifenförmig begrenzten Systemen mit zwei unterschiedlichen Arten von Randbedingungen. Bei tiefen Temperaturen und hohen Magnetfeldern finden wir extrem nichtlineare Abschirmung. Im unbegrenzten 2DES charakterisieren wir die Abschirmung, indem wir die gesamte Variation des selbstkonsistent berechneten Potentials als Funktion der Amplitude des aufgeprägten cosinus-Potentials berechnen. Bei festem Magnetfeld ergeben sich so Stufenfunktionen, deren Gestalt stark vom Füllfaktor der Landau-Niveaus im homogenen Zustand ohne aufgeprägtes Potential abhängt (siehe Abbildungen 3.2- 3.6). Vielleicht noch unerwartetere Kurven ergeben sich, wenn man bei festem Modulationspotential die Varianz des selbstkonsistenten Potentials gegen das Magnetfeld B aufträgt (Abb. 3.9). Die Resultate lassen sich aber leicht verstehen und (bei Temperatur T = 0) in einem einfachen Schema (Abb. 3.7) zusammenfassen. Als ordnendes Prinzip stellt sich heraus, dass sich stets Zustände einstellen, in denen die Elektronendichte möglichst wenig von der bei verschwindendem Magnetfeld abweicht. Wenn die Zyklotronenergie groß gegen die thermische Energie kBT ist, erfordert das, dass in den großen Bereichen, in denen die Dichte variiert, ein Landau-Niveau unmittelbar an dem, im Gleichgewicht konstanten, elektrochemischen Potential liegen muss (En, “pinning”). Man nennt diese Bereiche kompressibel. In den kompressiblen Bereichen können Elektronen leicht umverteilt werden, d.h. die Dichte ist leicht veränderbar und in diesen Bereichen gibt es extrem effektive Abschirmung. Existieren kompressible Bereiche mit unterschiedlichen Landau-Niveaus (En) am elektrochemischen Potential, z.B. bei großer Modulation oder weil die Dichte zum Probenrand hin abnimmt, so gibt es zwischen benachbarten kompressiblen Bereichen mit unterschiedlichen Landau-Quantenzahlen n “inkompressible” Bereiche, in denen zwischen zwei Landau-Niveaus liegt. Dort sind alle Landau-Niveaus unterhalb von besetzt, die oberhalb leer. Folglich ist dort der Füllfaktor ganzzahlig und die Dichte konstant. Das Wechselspiel zwischen kompressiblen und inkompressiblen Bereichen bestimmt das Abschirmverhalten. Randeffekte erweisen sich nur in solchen Magnetfeldintervallen als wichtig für die Abschirmung im Inneren einer streifenförmigen Probe, in denen (schon ohne aufgeprägte Modulation) in der Probenmitte ein neuer inkompressibler Streifen entsteht. Im Kapitel 4 wird die Rolle der inkompressiblen Streifen in einer idealisierten, streifenförmigen Hall-Probe untersucht. Mithilfe einer lokalen Version des Ohmschen Gesetzes berechnen wir bei vorgegebenen Gesamtstrom die Stromdichte und das nun ortsabhängige elektrochemische Potential, dessen Gradient die Stromdichte treibt. Für den lokalen Leitfähigkeitstensor nehmen wir ein für homogenes 2DES berechnetes Resultat und ersetzen den Füllfaktor jeweils durch den lokalen Wert. Dadurch ergibt sich, dass bei Existenz inkompressibler Streifen der gesamte Strom auf diese Streifen eingeschränkt ist, in denen die Komponenten des spezifischen Widerstands die Werte des freien, idealen 2DES haben, also verschwindenden longitudinalen und quantisierten Hall-Widerstand. Aus Hartree-Rechnungen zeigen wir, dass es inkompressible Streifen nur in Magnetfeldintervallen endlicher Breite (um ganzzahlige Füllfaktoren) gibt und dass in der Nähe von Füllfaktor 4 es nur inkompressible Streifen mit dem lokalen Füll-faktor \nu(x) = 4 gibt, aber nicht solche mit \nu(x) = 2, in Gegensatz zu dem Ergebnis der Thomas-Fermi-Poisson-Näherung, die hier nicht gültig ist. Um diese Unzulänglichkeit der Thomas-Fermi-Poisson-Näherung und Artefakte des strikt lokalen Modells zu beheben, führen wir die Rechnungen mit einem (auf der Skala des mittleren Elektronenabstands) gemittelten Leitfähigkeitstensors aus. Damit erhalten wir, im Rahmen einer Linear-Response-Rechnung, sehr schöne Übereinstimmung mit den Potentialmessungen, die diese Dissertation motivierten, einen kausalen Zusammenhang zwischen der Existenz inkompressibler Streifen und der Existenz von Plateaus im QHE, und ein Verständnis der extremen Genauigkeit, mit der die quantisierten Widerstandswerte reproduziert werden können, unabhängig von Probenmaterial und -geometrie. Im Kapitel 5 untersuchen wir das Zufallspotential, in dem sich die Elektronen bewegen. Wir gehen davon aus, dass sich hinter einer undotierten Schicht eine Ebene mit zufällig verteilten ionisierten Donatoren befindet, deren Coulomb-Potentiale sich zu dem Zufallspotential überlagern. Wir weisen darauf hin, dass sich die langreichweitigen Fluktuationen dieses Potentials anders verhalten als die kurzreichweitigen. Die kurzreichweitigen klingen mit dem Abstand der Donatorebene von der Ebene des 2DES exponentiell ab, werden aber (bei B = 0) nur schwach durch das 2DES abgeschirmt. Diese Fluktuationen haben wir durch die endlichen Leitfähigkeiten und die Stoßverbreiterung der Landau-Niveaus berücksichtigt. Die langreichweitigen Fluktuationen, andererseits, sind nur schwach von der Entfernung der Donatorebene abhängig, werden aber stark vom 2DES abgeschirmt. Diese sollte man bei der selbstkonsistenten Abschirmungsrechnung explizit berücksichtigen. Erste Versuche in dieser Richtung zeigen, dass sie die Quanten-Hall-Plateaus verbreitern, verschieben und stabilisieren können. Sie sollten besonders bei breiten Proben wichtig werden, bei denen sie zusätzliche inkompressible Streifen im Probeninneren verursachen können. Schließlich diskutieren wir in Kapitel 6 Abschirmungseffekte in einem Doppelschichtsystem aus zwei parallelen 2DES. Interessante neue Effekte treten auf, wenn die Schichten verschiedene Dichten haben. Das Auftreten inkompressibler Streifen in der einen Schicht kann dann drastische Auswirkungen auf die andere Schicht haben. Widerstandsmessungen in Abhängigkeit vom Magnetfeld, die kürzlich an solchen Systemen durchgeführt wurden, zeigen, dass am Rande eines QH-Plateaus Hysterese auftritt, d.h. dass die für ansteigendes Magnetfeld gemessene Kurve nicht mit der für abfallendes Magnetfeld gemessenen Kurve übereinstimmt, wenn dieser Magnetfeldbereich in ein QH-Plateau der anderen Schicht fällt. Wir entwickeln ein Modell und beschreiben Modellrechnungen, die dieses Phänomen plausibel machen.
Diese Arbeit enthält Untersuchungen von Magnetowiderstandseffekten in (Ga,Mn)As basierten ferromagnetischen Halbleiterdioden. Die Resultate wurden in den folgenden Artikeln veröffentlicht: [1] C. Rüster, T. Borzenko, C. Gould, G. Schmidt, L.W. Molenkamp, X. Liu, T.J.Wojtowicz, J.K. Furdyna, Z.G. Yu and M. Flatt´e, Very Large Magnetoresistance in Lateral Ferromagnetic (Ga,Mn)As Wires with Nanoconstrictions, Physical Review Letters 91, 216602 (2003). [2] C. Gould, C. Rüster, T. Jungwirth, E. Girgis, G.M. Schott, R. Giraud, K. Brunner, G. Schmidt and L.W. Molenkamp, Tunneling Anisotropic Magnetoresistance: A Spin-Valve-Like Tunnel Magnetoresistance Using a Single Magnetic Layer, Physical Review Letters 93, 117203 (2004). [3] C. Rüster, C. Gould, T. Jungwirth, J. Sinova, G.M. Schott, R. Giraud, K. Brunner, G. Schmidt and L.W. Molenkamp, Very Large Tunneling Anisotropic Magnetoresistance of a (Ga,Mn)As/GaAs/(Ga,Mn)As Stack, Physical Review Letters 94, 027203 (2005). [4] C. Rüster and C. Gould, T. Jungwirth, E. Girgis, G.M. Schott, R. Giraud, K. Brunner, G. Schmidt and L.W. Molenkamp, Tunneling anisotropic magnetoresistance: Creating a spin-valve-like signal using a single ferromagnetic semiconductor layer, Journal of Applied Physics 97, 10C506 (2005).
In this work a new algorithm to determine quantum control fields from the instantaneous response of systems has been developed. The derived fields allow to establish a direct connection between the applied perturbation and the molecular dynamics. The principle is most easily illustrated in regarding a classical forced oscillator. A particle moving inside the respective potential is accelerated if an external field is applied acting in the same direction as its momentum (heating). In contrary, a deceleration is achieved by a field acting in the opposite direction as the momentum (cooling). Furthermore, when the particle reaches a classical turning point and then changes its direction, the sign of the field has to be changed to further drive the system in the desired way. The frequency of the field therefore is in resonance with the oscillator. This intuitively clear picture of a driven classical oscillator can be used for directing (or controlling) quantum mechanical wave packet motion. The efficiency of the instantaneous dynamics algorithm was demonstrated in treating various model problems, the population transfer in double well potentials, excitation and dissociation of selective modes, and the population transfer between electronic states. Although it was not tried to optimize the fields to gain higher yields, the control was found to be very efficient. Driving population transfer in a double well potential could be shown to take place with nearly 100% efficiency. It was shown that selective dissociation within the electronic ground state of HOD can be performed by either maximizing a selected coordinate's differential momentum change or the energy absorption. Concerning the population transfer into excited electronic states, a direct comparison with common control algorithms as optimal control theory and genetic algorithms was accomplished using a one-dimensional representation of methyl iodide. The fields derived from the various control theories were effective in transferring population into the chosen target state but the underlying physical background of the derived optimal fields was not obvious to explain. The instantaneous dynamics algorithm allowed to establish a direct relation between the derived fields and the underlying molecular dynamics. Bound-to-bound transitions could be handled more effectively. This was demonstrated on the sodium dimer in a representation of 3 electronic states being initially in its vibronic ground state. The objective was to transfer population into a predefined excited state. Choosing the first or the second state as a target, the control fields exhibited quite different features. The pulse-structure is related to the excited state wave packet, moving in, and out of the Franck-Condon region. Changing the control objective, the derived control field performed pure electronic transitions on a fast time-scale via a two-step transition. Futhermore, orientational effects have been investigated. The overall-efficiency of the population transfer for differently oriented molecules was about 70 % or more if applying a control field derived for a 45° orientation. Spectroscopic methods to gain information about the outcome of the control process have been investigated. It was shown that pump/probe femtosecond ionization spectroscopy is suited to monitor time-dependent molecular probability distributions. In particular, time-dependent photoelectron spectra are able to monitor the population in the various electronic states. In the last chapter a different possibility of controlling molecules was regarded by investigating molecular iodine with a setup similar to the STIRAP (“Stimulated Raman Adiabatic passage”) scenario. The possibility to extend this technique to a fs-time scale was examined in theory as well as in experiments, the latter being performed by Dr. Torsten Siebert in the Kiefer group, University of Würzburg. It was shown that off-resonant excitation with implementation of the pulses with a higher intensity of the Stokes pulse as compared to the pump pulse - describing a so-called f-STIRAP like configuration - was shown to effectively transfer population into excited ground-state vibrational levels. This was theoretically underlined by comparing the numerically exact coupling case with the adiabatic picture. The process was described to run in the vicinity of adibaticity. A new model explaining the process by the system's vector rotating around the dressed state vector will be adopted in future calculations. Altogether, a new promising algorithm to control dynamical processes based on the instantaneous response has been developed. Because the derived control fields have been shown to be very efficient in selectively influencing molecules, it is to be expected that farther reaching applications can be realized in future investigations.
Emery-Dreifuss muscular dystrophy (EDMD) is a rare genetic disorder characterised by early contractures of the elbows, Achilles tendons and spine, slowly progressive muscle wasting and cardiomyopathy associated with cardiac conduction defect. The autosomal dominant form is caused by mutations in the LMNA gene which gives rise to lamin A and lamin C proteins by alternative splicing. These A-type lamins, together with B-type lamins, form the nuclear lamina, a network of intermediate filament proteins underlining the nuclear envelope. In order to ascertain the role lamin A and C separately contribute to the molecular phenotype, we analysed ten LMNA mutations and one single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) in transfection studies in COS7 fibroblasts and, partially, in C2C12 myoblasts. The EGFP or DsRed2 tagged lamins were exogenously expressed either individually or both A-types together and examined by light and electron microscopy. The protein mobility of lamin A mutants was determined by FRAP analysis. Additionally, a co-immunoprecipitation binding assay of in vitro synthesised A-type lamins and emerin was performed.Eight of the LMNA mutations (R50S, R133P, E358K, E358K+C<T1698, E361K, R527P, L530P, R541S and G602S) and the SNP C<T1698, when expressed in lamin A, exhibited a range of nuclear mis-localisation patterns from a wild type phenotype to the formation of nuclear aggregates. Two mutations (T150P and delQ355) led to the severe mis-localisation of the exogenous protein and additionally affected nuclear envelope reassembly and mid-body protein composition after mitosis. Exogenously expressed DsRed2 tagged wild type and mutant lamin C was only inserted into the nuclear lamina if co-expressed with the equivalent EGFP tagged lamin A construct, except for the T150P mutation which prevented either lamin from reaching the nuclear lamina. The T150P, R527P and L530P mutations reduced the ability of lamin A, but not lamin C from binding to emerin. These data indicate that mutations in the rod domain of lamin A mainly impair its function as a structural protein, whereas mutations of the globular tail domain appear to disrupt protein-protein interactions important for gene regulation and signal transduction processes. In addition, our results suggest specific functional roles for the emerin-lamin A and emerin-lamin C containing protein complexes; this is the first report to propose that the A-type lamin mutations may be differentially dysfunctional for the same LMNA mutation.
A Lie algebraic generalization of the classical and the Sort-Jacobi algorithm for diagonalizing a symmetric matrix has been proposed. The coordinate free setting provides new insights in the nature of Jacobi-type methods and allows a unified treatment of several structured eigenvalue and singular value problems, including so far unstudied normal form problems. Local quadratic convergence has been shown for both types of Jacobi methods with a fully comprehension of the regular and irregular case. New sweep methods have been introduced that generalize the special cyclic sweep for symmetric matrices and ensure local quadratic convergence also for irregular elements. The new sweep methods yield faster convergence behavior than the previously known cyclic schemes.
Insights into the evolution of protein domains give rise to improvements of function prediction
(2005)
The growing number of uncharacterised sequences in public databases has turned the prediction of protein function into a challenging research field. Traditional annotation methods are often error-prone due to the small subset of proteins with experimentally verified function. Goal of this thesis was to analyse the function and evolution of protein domains in order to understand molecular processes in the cell. The focus was on signalling domains of little understood function, as well as on functional sites of protein domains in general. Glucosaminidases (GlcNAcases) represent key enzymes in signal transduction pathways. Together with glucosamine transferases, they serve as molecular switches, similar to kinases and phosphatases. Little was known about the molecular function and structure of the GlcNAcases. In this thesis, the GlcNAcases were identified as remote homologues of N-acetyltransferases. By comparing the homologous sequences, I was able to predict functional sites of the GlcNAcase family and to identify the GlcNAcases as the first family member of the acetyltransferase superfamily with a distinct catalytic mechanism, which is not involved in the transfer of acetyl groups. In a similar approach, the sensor domain of a plant hormone receptor was studied. I was able to predict putative ligand-binding sites by comparing evolutionary constraints in functionally diverged subfamilies. Most of the putative ligand-binding sites have been experimentally confirmed in the meantime. Due to the importance of enzymes involved in cellular signalling, it seems impossible to find substitutions of catalytic amino acids that turn them catalytically inactive. Nevertheless, by scanning catalytic positions of the protein tyrosine phosphatase families, I found many inactive domains among single domain and tandem domain phosphatases in metazoan proteomes. In addition, I found that inactive phosphatases are conserved throughout evolution, which led to the question about the function of these catalytically inactive phosphatase domains. An analysis of evolutionary site rates of amino acid substitutions revealed a cluster of conserved residues in the apparently redundant domain of tandem phosphatases. This putative regulatory center might be responsible for the experimentally verified dimerization of the active and inactive domain in order to control the catalytic activity of the active phosphatase domain. Moreover, I detected a subgroup of inactive phosphatases, which presumably functions in substrate recognition, based on different evolutionary site rates within the phosphatase family. The characterization of these new regulatory modules in the phosphatase family raised the question whether inactivation of enzymes is a more general evolutionary mechanism to enlarge signalling pathways and whether inactive domains are also found in other enzyme families. A large-scale analysis of substitutions at catalytic positions of enzymatic domains was performed in this work. I identified many domains with inactivating substitutions in various enzyme families. Signalling domains harbour a particular high occurrence of catalytically inactive domains indicating that these domains have evolved to modulate existing regulatory pathways. Furthermore, it was shown that inactivation of enzymes by single substitutions happened multiple times independently in evolution. The surprising variability of amino acids at catalytic positions was decisive for a subsequent analysis of the diversity of functional sites in general. Using functional residues extracted from structural complexes I could show that functional sites of protein domains do not only vary in their type of amino acid but also in their structural location within the domain. In the process of evolution, protein domains have arisen from duplication events and subsequently adapted to new binding partners and developed new functions, which is reflected in the high variability of functional sites. However, great differences exist between domain families. The analysis demonstrated that functional sites of nuclear domains are more conserved than functional sites of extracellular domains. Furthermore, the type of ligand influences the degree of conservation, for example ion binding sites are more conserved than peptide binding sites. The work presented in this thesis has led to the detection of functional sites in various protein domains involved in signalling pathways and it has resulted in insights into the molecular function of those domains. In addition, properties of functional sites of protein domains were revealed. This knowledge can be used in the future to improve the prediction of protein function and to identify functional sites of proteins.
RS1, a gene product of RSC1A1, is critically involved in cell density-dependent transcriptional down-regulation of SGLT1 in LLC-PK1 cells and in the post-transcriptional down-regulation of SGLT1 in small intestine. RS1 inhibits the release of SGLT1 containing vesicles from the trans-Golgi network and migrates into the nucleus where it inhibits transcription of SGLT1. In the present work we identified a novel 21 amino acids-long nonconventional nuclear localization sequence (RS1 NLS) in porcine RS1 (pRS1) that is necessary and sufficient for nuclear targeting of pRS1. RS1 NLS is framed by two consensus sequences for phosphorylation which are responsible for confluence-dependent regulation of RS1 NLS: a casein kinase 2 (CK2) site in position 348 and a protein kinase C (PKC) site in position 370. Confluence-dependent nuclear targeting was observed with amino acids 342-374 (R-NLS-Reg). Mutation analysis suggested that nuclear targeting is blocked by phosphorylation of serine 370 (PKC) and that phosphorylation of serine 348 (CK2) prevents phosphorylation of serine 370. Because CK2 is down-regulated and PKC is up-regulated during confluence of LLC-PK1 cells, our data suggest that nuclear localization coordinates cell density-dependent changes in transcriptional and post-transcriptional inhibition of SGLT1 expression.
Iconography of the Genus Hieracium in central Europe - Part 1: General Description and Morphotypes
(2005)
The genus Hieracium comprises more than one thousand sexual and apomictic species in Europe, with numerous intermediates and microspecies. Only a small fraction of the members of the genus Hieracium has been illustrated or photo-documented in the literature. Since many of these publications are difficult to obtain, only a few specialists are familiar with most of the species and subspecies described in the literature. In order to overcome this problem and encourage geobotanical research on the genus Hieracium, we decided to edit an iconography of central and southern European Hieracia in an electronical journal (Forum geobotanicum) with free international access through the internet. Part I of this endeavour contains descriptions and photographs of the morphological spectrum of the genus Hieracium. Here, we categorize the genus into 15 basic morphotypes. These types conform partly to the sections and subsections of the genus Hieracium, but are in some cases informal and may even include members of different sections. Classification of morphotypes is considered helpful to obtain a first rough picture of an unknown species that then can be traced to the species and subspecies level by using keys or, after completion of this iconography, simply by screening the relevant images. One particularly novel aspect of the present endeavour will be the regular inclusion of magnified images and scanning electron micrographs.
Within the studies concerning metallo-silanols, halfsandwich-tungsten complexes have been silanol-functionalized at the cyclopentadienyl ligand. The stability and the condensation behavior have been investigated. Thus, it was shown that these complexes are stable enough for isolation but they are reactiv enough for time-effective condensation reactions with diverse chlorosilanes, chlorostannanes or metalhalogenides. These processes are characterized by an increased reactivity in contrast to metallo-silanols with a direct metal-bonded silanol group and proves that the separation of the silanol group has to be regarded as a successful manipulation. In addition, this modification allows a wide variation of the ligand sphere of the metal which was shown by H/Cl exchange, methylation, silylation or phosphine substitution. These changes evoke a small but significant influence on the silanol group. For example leads an introduced phosphine to an enhanced stability of the silanol function. A further separation of the silanol group from the metal by an additional alkylidene spacer leads to the complete lost of the stabilizing effect of the metal fragment and generates silanols which show a condensation behavior very similar to those of ordinary organosilanols.
Spreds are a new Sprouty-related family of membrane-associated proteins inhibiting the MAPK signaling pathway by interacting with Ras and Raf-1. Different studies have already demonstrated the inhibitory function of Spreds in cell culture systems, but the in vivo function of Spreds in the whole organism was still unclear. Therefore, Spred-2 knockout mice were generated using a gene trap approach. The Spred-2 deficiency was verified on RNA and protein levels and the lack of functional Spred-2 protein in mice caused a dwarf phenotype similar to achondroplasia, the most common form of human dwarfism. Spred-2-/- mice showed reduced growth and body weight, they had a shorter tibia length and showed narrower growth plates as compared to wildtype mice. Spred-2 promoter activity and protein expression were detected in chondrocytes, suggesting an important function of Spred-2 in chondrocytes and bone development. Furthermore, stimulation of chondrocytes with different FGF concentrations showed earlier and augmented ERK phosphorylation in Spred-2-/- chondrocytes as compared to Spred-2+/+ chondrocytes. These observations suggest a model, in which loss of Spred-2 inhibits bone growth by inhibiting chondrocyte differentiation through upregulation of the MAPK signaling pathway. An additional observation of Spred-2-/- mice was an increased bleeding phenotype after injuries, whereas the bleeding volume was extremely enlarged and the bleeding time was significantly prolonged. So far, hypertension as cause could be excluded, but to discover the physiological reasons for this phenotype, the different steps of the clotting cascade have to be investigated further. As the Spred-2 promoter activity studies demonstrated a high and specific Spred-2 expression in vascular smooth muscle cells and previous studies showed an interaction of Spreds with RhoA, a key regulator of vascular smooth muscle contraction, the regulation of smooth muscle contractility seems to be a good candidate of this phenomenon. Moreover, Spred-1 and Spred-2 specific antibodies were generated as important tools to study the protein expression patterns in mice. Furthermore, nothing was known about the Spred-2 promoter region and its regulation. Here, a detailed in situ analysis of the physiological promoter activity profile in the gene trapped Spred-2-deficient mouse strain was shown. In these mice, the beta-galactosidase and neomycin fusion gene (β-geo) of the gene trap vector was brought under control of the endogenous Spred-2 promoter, giving the opportunity to monitor Spred-2 promoter activity in practically every organ and their corresponding sub-compartments. X-Gal staining of sections of newborn and adult mice revealed 1) a very high Spred-2 promoter activity in neural tissues and different glands; 2) a high activity in intestinal and uterine smooth muscle cells, and kidney; 3) a low activity in heart, testis, lung, and liver; 4) an almost lacking activity in skeletal muscle and spleen, and 5) very interestingly, a very distinct and strong activity in vascular smooth muscle cells. Moreover, comparison of newborn and adult mouse organs revealed a nearly congruent Spred-2 promoter activity. These detailed data provide valuable information for further studies of the physiological functions of Spred-2 in organs showing strong Spred-2 promoter activity, which are in most of these organs still unclear. Finally, gene targeting vectors for Spred-1 and Spred-2 were cloned, to generate ES cells with a floxed exon 2 of the Spred-1 and Spred-2 gene, respectively. Now, these ES cells are valuable tools to establish conditional knockout mice. This is of major interest to investigate the physiological tissue specific functions of Spred-1 and Spred-2, especially if the double knockout mice are not viable.
In this project two novel murine autoimmune models were to be established in an attempt to further investigate the nervous system disorders of Multiple Sclerosis and Guillain Barré Syndrome. Previous experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) and experimental autoimmune neuritis (EAN) models have demonstrated that T cells play a major role in these diseases. Which roles CD4 and CD8 T cells specifically have in the initiation, propagation and termination of an autoimmune nervous system disorder remains controversial. To this end two transgenic mice specifically expressing the neo-antigen (Ag) ovalbumin (OVA) in either the central nervous system (CNS) or peripheral nervous system (PNS) were to be generated. The myelin basic protein (MBP) is a major component of the myelin sheath both within the CNS and the PNS. Therefore the MBP promoter was employed for its distinct regulatory elements to facilitate exclusive CNS or PNS OVA expression. The adoptive transfer of OVA specific MHCI restricted (OT-I) and MHCII restricted (OT-II) TCR Tg T cells extended the OVA Tg mouse model by allowing potentially encephalitogenic T cells to be tracked in vivo. Specificity for the target Ag should enable the dynamic role of antigen specific T cells in neuroinflammatory diseases to be revealed in more detail.
The genus Pogonomyrmex is predisposed for analyzing the evolution of ant colony characteristics in general and the sociogenetic structure in particular, due to the renowned biology of several species and the diversity of mating frequency and queen number. This variation in the sociogenetic structure of colonies produces a high variance in intracolonial relatedness which can be a major component driving the evolution of various colony characteristics. To exactly determine the variability of the intracolonial relatedness in the genus Pogonomyrmex both were analyzed, the number of matrilines and patrilines, in selected members of Pogonomyrmex, namely P. (sensu stricto) rugosus, P. (sensu stricto) badius and P. (Ephebomyrmex) pima using DNA fingerprint techniques. The evolution of these colony characteristics were tried to be explained within a phylogenetic framework. For that purpose we constructed a gene-tree of 39 species of the genus Pogonomyrmex. The taxon sampling covered about 83 % of the North American species and 43 % of the South American species. Effective multiple mating of queens was confirmed for P. rugosus (me=4.1) and P. badius (me=6.7). Additionally, both species are monogynous. These results corroborate behavioral observations of multiple mating for these species. Multiple mating is now known from 9 Pogonomyrmex species (behavioral evidence for 3 species – genetic evidence for 6 species). However, in P. (E.) pima all queens that were analyzed were single mated (me=1.0). Therefore, multiple mating may have either evolved early during the evolution of the genus Pogonomyrmex and has subsequently been lost in the subgenus Ephebomyrmex (plesiomorphic hypothesis), or it has first been evolved in the subgenus Pogonomyrmex sensu stricto (apomorphic hypothesis). In P. huachucanus, a species basal to the North- American sensu stricto complex, smaller effective mating number of queens compared to its sensu stricto relatives (J. Gadau and C.-P. Strehl, unpublished) probably do mirror a change from monandry to polyandry during the evolution of more advanced sensu stricto species, which would support the apomorphic hypothesis. The intracolonial relatedness in P. (E.) pima is however rather low. This is probably the result of multiple reproducing queens (polygyny). Polygyny is also documented for at least four other species of the subgenus Ephebomyrex, but so far P. (E.) pima is the only species with genetic evidence. It might be that there was an evolutionary trade-off within the subgenus Ephebomyrmex between polyandry and polygyny. Therefore, both subgenera retained a high intracolonial genetic diversity. This high genetic diversity might be one cause for the success and radiation of the genus Pogonomyrmex in arid environments. Evolution might have favored high genetic diversity of Pogonomyrmex colonies, because it helps colonies to improve their colonial organization and efficiency in performing external tasks. At least in P. badius a link between patrilines and physical polyethism was found, indicative of an improvement of colonial organization via polyandry. Furthermore, the documented extreme levels of polyandry might help P. badius females to overcome the possibility of inbreeding due to restricted dispersal. Restricted dispersal is also found in P. (E.) pima due to wingless, intermorphic queens. However, in P. (E.) pima inbreeding is probably prevented by outcrossing via males because no significant inbreeding is found. In the presented gene trees the subgenus Pogonomyrmex Ephebomyrmex was separated from the subgenus Pogonomyrmex sensu stricto. Therefore, P. Ephebomyrmex might be elevated to generic status, also due to its distinct morphological and life history characters. Nevertheless, for a precise taxonomic revision a broader complement of species has to be applied. Regularly a low number of unrelated workers was found in P. rugosus colonies, which probably stem from brood raids between mature and founding colonies. It is well known that most founding colonies are destroyed by neighboring conspecific mature colonies, but so far it was assumed that the brood of these colonies was also destroyed. This often neglected aspect might be an important fitness token for mature colonies.
The bacteriophage Lambda is a virus which infects bacteria carrying LamB protein in their outer membrane. GpJ, a protein of the tail of the phage, is involved in the binding to LamB. The study of the interaction between GpJ expressed as fusion protein and LamB was performed in order to investigate the interaction between the bacteriophage Lambda and LamB. The fusion proteins are called MBP-gpJ and His-gpJ. MBP-gpJ is a chimeric protein representing Maltose Binding Protein connected to the Cterminal part of the GpJ protein (residue 684 until 1132), graciously given by Pr. Charbit (Paris, France). MBP-gpJ, expressed in E.coli and purified, bound to the exoplasmic side of LamB and LamB variants in planar lipid bilayer experiments and allowed a complete and reversible blockage of LamB channels. In order to obtain data about the binding of the GpJ fragment alone to LamB, an other fusion protein without MBP was created, called His-gpJ. His-gpJ is the C-terminal part of GpJ (684-1132) in fusion with a 6×Histidine-tag, produced as insoluble form in E.coli. After renaturation, a soluble protein can be obtained. Without MBP, the GpJ fragment still bound to LamB in planar lipid bilayer experiments, but did not block significantly its channels, as previously observed after addition of MBP-gpJ. The interaction between His-gpJ and LamB or LamB mutants was also demonstrated on SDSPAGE and immunodetection by the presence of high molecular mass bands. Furthermore, the use of variants of lamB allowed to demonstrate that the C-terminal fragment of GpJ does not bind to the same area on the surface of LamB than GpJ involved in the tail of the Lambda phage.
We examined the regulation of NFATc1 in different lymphomas and observed an inversed correlation between the methylation status and expression of NFATc1. Our data demonstrate that aberrant DNA methylation associated with chromatin remodeling within nfatc1 locus is a major mechanism for the repression of NFATc1 expression, suggesting that the DNA methylation-mediated transcriptional silencing of NFATc1 may be a critical event in the tumorogenesis of ALCLs and cHLs. Furthermore, the DNA methylation of human nfatc1 promoter region could be used as a novel biomarker of tumor progression. Our results indicate a close link between the loss of immunoreceptor signaling and NFATc1 expression in human lymphomas. For both ALCLs and cHLs, defects in immunoreceptor signaling have been described which result in a loss of receptor-mediated gene expression programs (Schwering et al., 2003; Bonzheim et al., 2004; Marafioti et al., 2004). In T cells, one indicator gene of these programs appears to be the nfatc1 gene whose expression is controlled by TCR signals (Chuvpilo et al., 2002a). In contrast, in T cells NFATc1 expression is unaffected by TCR signals, and NFATc2 was found to be expressed at normal levels in ALCLs and cHLs (L.K., unpubl. data). Moreover, the activity of NF-kappaB factors which can bind to certain NFAT binding sites and share a distantly-related DNA binding domain with NFATs is strongly elevated in cHL cells (Bargou et al., 1997; Hinz et al., 2001; Hinz et al., 2002) suggesting that NFATs and NF-kappaBs exert very different effects on generation and maintenance of Hodgkin’s lymhomas. However, it should be mentioned that in Burkitt’s and further B cell lymphomas in which NFATc1 proteins are strongly expressed and controlled by receptor signals (Kondo et al., 2003), they could exert a promoting function in tumor development. The genes of p53 family members p63 and p73 are prominent examples for mammalian genes whose products can act both as oncoproteins and tumor suppressor genes (Hibi et al., 2000; Stiewe and Putzer, 2002), and it is likely that more genes exist which encode both tumor suppressors and oncoproteins. It remains to be shown whether the nfatc1 gene is one of them.