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Priority tasks of the present thesis were to generate various enantiopure C-3-substituted pyroglutamates as well as C-3-substituted glutamates, and furthermore to ameliorate the serious drawback of the bad atom-economy in the reaction sequence of previously published silylether-mediated procedures. To meet these requirements, the ortho ester functionality (OBO ester) developed by Corey was introduced. According to the plan of synthesis, the starting material, non-racemic (S)-pyroglutamic acid, was converted to the corresponding oxetane ester via a DCC-mediated esterification. The latter was N-protected to provide N-acceptor substituted pyroglutamic acid oxetane esters (Acceptor=Boc,Cbz,CO2Me). After rearrangement with boron trifluoride, the ortho ester derivatives (Acceptor=Cbz,CO2Me) were at hand and exclusively the N-Cbz derivative was converted to the corresponding alpha,beta-unsaturated lactam via a syn-elimination reaction. The formation of the C-3-substituted ortho ester compounds (R=methyl,ethyl,butyl,allyl,phenyl,4-chlorophenyl,biphenyl,naphthyl) was performed via a copper-mediated conjugate addition to the alpha,beta-enone system of the N-Cbz-alpha,beta-unsaturated lactam. The OBO functionality hence was envisaged to support perfect trans selectivity in this cuprate addition to the Michael system of the N-Cbz-alpha,beta-unsaturated lactam. Spectroscopic NMR-data, on the basis of 1H-, 13C- and DEPT spectra, proved the assumption that the C-3-substituted ortho ester derivatives exclusively are trans-configurated, i.e. the alkyl derivatives (R=methyl,ethyl,butyl,allyl) are (2S,3S)-configurated and the aryl derivatives (R=phenyl,4-chlorophenyl,biphenyl,naphthyl) are (2S,3R)-configurated). The C-3-substituted ortho ester derivatives were completely deprotected to yield the C-3-substituted pyroglutamates (R=ethyl,phenyl,4-chlorophenyl,naphthyl). Finally, ring opening reaction via route A-2 lead to the desired enantiopure C-3-substituted glutamates. Alternatively, latter preferably were reacted via route A-1 to yield the C-3-substituted glutamates (R=methyl,ethyl,butyl,phenyl,4-chlorophenyl,naphthyl). Their (2S,3R)-configuration (R=aryl) and (2S,3S)-configuration (R=alky), respectively, unambiguously was proved on the basis of available spectroscopic NMR-data. To ensure this assumption, diastereomeric (2S,3R)-3-methyl glutamic acid (i.e. cis-configurated) examplarily was synthesized via route A-3 and spectroscopic NMR-data was compared to that of (2S,3S)-3-methyl glutamic acid (i.e. trans-configurated). Conclusively, there can be recorded the fact that the serious drawback of the bad atom-economy in the reaction sequence previously used can be circumvented by the introduction of the OBO functionality, so the concept of an improved atom-economy is achieved. Additionally, in comparison to the silyl-ether-mediated synthesis, the OBO functionality provided crystalline ortho ester derivatives, which facilitated their purification as well as characterization.
In der vorliegenden Arbeit wird die Synthese von verschiedenen bicyclischen Substanzklassen gemäß des folgenden Syntheseschemas beschrieben. Es wurden verschiedene 2,4-di-(2-pyridyl)- oder 2,4-di-(3-fluorphenyl)-substituierte 9-Oxo-3,7-diazabicyclo[3.3.1]nonan-1,5-dicarbonsäurediester (9-Oxo-BNDS: 21-25, 27-55) synthetisiert, welche 1. teilweise als Vorstufen zur Synthese von 1,5-Di-(hydroxymethyl)-3,7-diazabicyclo[3.3.1]nonan-9-olen (Triole: 56-65) eingesetzt wurden, 2. teilweise als Vorstufen zur Synthese von 9-Hydroxy-3,7-diazabicyclo[3.3.1]nonan-1,5-dicarbonsäuredimethylestern (9-OH-BNDS: 66-69) verwendet wurden, die ihrerseits zu 9-O-Acyl-3,7-diazabicyclo[3.3.1]nonan-1,5-dicarbonsäuredimethylestern (9-OAc-BNDS: 70-76) umgesetzt wurden oder 3. als Vorstufe zur Synthese der 9-Oxo-3,7-diazabicyclo[3.3.1]nonan-1,5-dicarbonsäure 26 dienten. Die 9-Oxo-BNDS wurden aus den kommerziell erhältlichen Aceton-1,3-dicarbonsäuredimethyl- (ADS-Me), -ethylester (ADS-Et) oder den ADS 1-3 synthetisiert, die ihrerseits ausgehend von ADS-Me und den entsprechenden Alkoholen durch Umesterung hervorgehen. Die ADS wurden durch eine Mannich-Kondensation mit zwei Äquivalenten eines aromatischen Aldehyds und einem Äquivalent eines primären Amins in MeOH zu den entsprechenden 4-Piperidon-3,5-dicarbonsäureestern (PDS: 4-20) umgesetzt, die wiederum ebenfalls durch eine Mannich-Kondensation mit zwei Äquivalenten Formaldehyd und einem Äquivalent eines primären Amins in THF oder Aceton zu den entsprechenden 9-Oxo-BNDS reagieren. Dieser Syntheseschritt wurde hinsichtlich Ausbeute, Vereinfachung und Beschleunigung der Aufarbeitung optimiert. Die Stereochemie der so erhaltenen 9-Oxo-BNDS, die in Abhängigkeit vom Substitutionsmuster als cis- oder trans-Isomere entstehen, konnte mittels NMR-Spektroskopie aufgeklärt werden. Der 1,5-Dibenzylester 25 konnte durch katalytische Hydrierung mit Pd/C als Katalysator in EtOAc zur freien 1,5-Dicarbonsäure 26 umgesetzt werden. Die Triole 56-62 wurden ausgehend von den 9-Oxo-BNDS HZ2, 3FLB, 21-24, 28, 33 in einer Eintopfsynthese mittels NaBH4 in THF/MeOH durch Reduktion hergestellt. Die N3- und/oder N7-benzyl-substituierten Triole 57-59 wurden mittels katalytischer Hydrierung mit Pd/C als Katalysator in MeOH zu den entsprechenden NH-substituierten Triolen 63-65 umgesetzt. Mit Hilfe von selektiven 1D-NOESY-Messungen konnte die Stereochemie der Triole bezüglich der Stellung der Hydroxygruppe an C9 zugeordnet werden. Die 9-OH-BNDS 66-69 wurden durch Reduktion der entsprechenden 9-Oxo-BNDS HZ2, 3FLB, 32, 33 mit Na(CN)BH3 in MeOH synthetisiert. Die Reduktion verläuft nicht stereoselektiv, sodass die dabei entstehenden 9-OH-BNDS als Diastereomerengemische durch syn/anti-Isomerie der C9-OH-Gruppe anfallen. Das Diastereomerengemisch 66 konnte durch präparative Säulenchromatographie in die beiden reinen Isomere 66a (anti) und 66b (syn) getrennt werden. Das Gemisch 67 konnte durch Entwicklung einer HPLC-Methode und anschließender Übertragung auf ein Flashchromatographiesystem präparativ in die diastereomerenreinen Isomere 67a (anti) und 67b (syn) getrennt werden. Die stereochemische Zuordnung der Konfiguration an C9 wurde durch selektive 1D-NOESY-Messungen erreicht. Die Synthese der 9-OAc-BNDS 70-76 erfolgte durch Umsetzen des entsprechenden 9-OH-BNDS 66a, 67a, 67-69 mit einer äquimolaren Menge eines entsprechenden Carbonsäurechlorids und DBU als Hilfsbase in CHCl3. Im Fall der Synthese von Verbindung 76 musste das eingesetzte Decanoylchlorid mit Zinkstaub aktiviert werden. Die Zuordnung der Stereochemie der so erhaltenen Verbindungen basiert auf selektiven 1D-NOESY-Messungen. Die Verbindungen 25-27, 31, 56, 60, 63-66, 66a/b, 67, 67a/b, 70a, 71, 71a wurden auf pharmakologische Affinität zum kappa-Opioidrezeptor (OR) untersucht. Dadurch konnten die Verbindungen 71, 71a und 67a/b als hochaffine Liganden des kappa-OR identifizert werden. Durch die qualitative Analyse der Struktur-Wirkungs-Beziehungen, die auf dem Vergleich der pharmakologischen Daten dieser Arbeit und vorangegangener Arbeiten basiert, konnten folgende Anforderungen an selektive Liganden des kappa-OR mit 3,7-Diazabicyclo[3.3.1]nonan-Grundgerüst ermittelt werden: 1. Das Grundgerüst sollte an Position 2/4 mit 2-Pyridylresten substituiert sein. 2. An Position N3 und N7 dürfen keine Substituenten angebracht sein, die größer als ein Methylrest sind. 3. Das Molekül sollte an Position 1/5 mit Methylestergruppen versehen sein. 4. Der 3,7-Diazabicyclus kann an Position 9 eine -OH, -OAc oder möglicher-weise auch entsprechende, sterisch anspruchsvollere Funktionen besitzen. 5. Die Stellung des Substituenten an Position 9 sollte vorzugsweise anti-konfiguriert sein, bezogen auf den höher substituierten Piperidinring.
Die vorliegende Arbeit befasst sich mit der Synthese von Liganden der Melatonin-Rezeptoren (MR). Die zwei humanen MR-Subtypen, MT1 und MT2, gehören zur Familie der G-Protein-gekoppelten Rezeptoren. Als „Schlafhormon“ wirkt es schlafinduzierend und vermittelt den circadianen Rhythmus. Zum genauen Verständnis der physiologischen Funktionen der MT1- und MT2-Rezeptoren ist die Verfügbarkeit von subtypselektiven MR-Liganden unentbehrlich. Zum Design von MT2-selektiven MR-Liganden modifizierte man die Melatonin-Grundstruktur durch formale Substitution in 2-Stellung, z.B. mit dem 2-Methylen-N-methyl-anilin- oder 2-Methylen-1´-indol-Rest. Weiterhin wurden trizyklische Derivate mit 1,2,3,4-Tetrahydro-pyrazino[1,2-a]indol- oder 2,3,4,5-Tetrahydro-1H-[1,4]diazepino[1,2-a]indol-Grundgerüst hergestellt. Das Synthesekonzept für dieses Teilprojekt basierte auf dem Synthesebaustein 3-Cyanomethyl-5-methoxy-1H-indol-2-carbonsäure. Da bislang nur wenige MT1-selektive MR-Liganden bekannt sind, wurde zur Untersuchung der Voraussetzung für MT1-Selektivität, die 5-Methoxygruppe von Melatonin formal durch Phenylalkyloxy-Reste verschiedener Kettenlängen substituiert. Die Synthese der Derivate erfolgte ausgehend von N-Acetylserotonin. Als Referenzverbindung wurde der bis heute MT1-selektivste MR-Antagonist (Descamps-Francois et al. 2003) hergestellt. Zu dessen Synthese benötigte man Agomelatin als Ausgangsverbindung. Eine neuartige vierstufige Route zu Agomelatin wurde daher entwickelt. Die Testung der Referenzverbindung ergab eine drastische Abweichung vom Literaturwert, da diese als nahezu unselektiv getestet wurde. Unter den O-Phenylalkyl-N-Acetylserotonin-Derivaten wurden zwei Verbindungen mit einer 11-fachen MT1-Selektivität getestet. Zur Absicherung der Reinheit wurden die Verbindungen mit RP-HPLC untersucht. Schließlich wurden noch melatoninerge Dimere mit einem 1-1´, 1-2´ und 5-5´ Verknüpfungsmuster hergestellt.
Um Wirkstoffe gegen das SARS-Coronavirus zu erhalten, wurden in dieser Arbeit Proteaseinhibitoren gegen die SARS-CoV-PLpro entwickelt. Ein Ansatz um neue Wirkstoffe gegen HIV zu finden, wurde über eine versuchte Blockade von Elongin-C beschritten. Bei der computergestützten Suche nach neuen SARS-CoV-PLpro-Inihibitoren wurde zunächst die strukturell bekannte Ligand-Bindetasche analysiert, und nach Evaluation des Dockingprozesses wurden mehrere Screeningprojekte an den Röntgenkristallstrukturen 3E9S und 3MJ5 durchgeführt. Von 24 kommerziell erworbenen Screening-Verbindungen riefen 7 eine Störung des beim Enzymassay gemessenen Fluoreszenzsignals hervor (Quenching bzw. Eigenfluoreszenz). Letztlich konnte den beiden inhibitorisch aktiven Imidazolderivaten B6 und B9 je ein IC50-Wert von etwa 50 µM zugewiesen werden. Das Imidazolscaffold eröffnet damit eine neue Substanzklasse zur Inhibition der SARS-CoV-PLpro. Im präparativ-chemischen Teil des SARS-Projekts wurden weitere Substanzklassen dargestellt, von denen die Inhibitoren vom Benzamid-Typ und Isoindolin-Typ eine Hemmung im einstelligen Mikromolaren Bereich (IC50) zeigten. Die Isoindolin-Derivate sind damit eine weitere, in dieser Arbeit entwickelte Leitstruktur zur Hemmung der SARS-CoV-PLpro. Bei der Suche nach einem Wirkstoff gegen HIV-1 wurde die neue Zielstruktur Elongin-C zur Inhibition durch niedermolekulare Liganden ausgewählt. Vier virtuelle Screeningprojekte führten zur Bestellung von 27 Verbindungen. Die durchgeführten Untersuchungen lassen noch keine abschließende Beurteilung der Ergebnisse zu, und der bisherige Zellassay wird noch durch spezifischere Methoden zur Bestimmung einer Ligandbindung an Elongin-C ergänzt werden. Falls es gelingt, einer der Verbindungen Elongin-C-blockierende Aktivität nachzuweisen, sind aufgrund des Eingriffs in einen zellulären Mechanismus neben der anti-HIV-Wirkung noch weitere pharmakologische Effekte denkbar, und das therapeutische Potenzial eines solchen Stoffs könnte in zukünftigen Experimenten erforscht werden.
With 9.6 million new cases and 1.5 million deaths in 2014, tuberculosis (TB) is alongside with AIDS the most deadly infection. Foremost, the increased prevalence of resistant strains of M. tuberculosis among the TB-infected population represents a serious thread. Hence, in the last decades, novel drug targets have been investigated worldwide. So far a relatively unexplored target is the cell wall enzyme β-ketoacyl-ACP-synthase “KasA”, which plays a crucial role in maintaining the membrane impermeability and hence the cell ability to resist to the immune response and drug therapy. KasA is a key enzyme in the fatty acid synthase “FAS-II” elongation cycle, responsible for the extension of the growing acyl chain within the biosynthesis of precursors for the most hydrophobic constituents of the cell wall – mycolic acids. Design of the novel KasA inhibitors, performed in the research group of Prof. Sotriffer by C. Topf and B. Schaefer, was based on the recently published crystal structure of KasA in complex with its known inhibitor thiolactomycin (TLM). Considering the essential ligand-enzyme interactions, a pharmacophore model was built and applied in the virtual screening of a modified ZINC database. Selected hits with the best in silico affinity data have been reported by Topf and Schaefer.
In this work, two of the obtained hits were synthesized and their structure was systematically varied. First, a virtual screening hit, chromone-2-carboxamide derivative GS-71, was modified in the amide part. Since the most of the products possessed a very low solubility in the aqueous buffer medium used in biological assays, polar groups (nitro, succinamidyl and trimethyl-amino substituent in position 6 of the chromone ring or hydroxyl group on the benzene ring in the amide part have been inserted to the molecule. Further variations yielded diaryl ketones, diaryl ketone bearing a succinamidyl substituent, carboxamide bearing a methylpiperazinyl-4-oxobutanamido group and methyl-malonyl ester amides. Basically, the essential structural features necessary for the ligand-enzyme interactions have been maintained. The latter virtual screening hit, a pyrimidinone derivative VS-8 was synthesized and the structure was modified by substitution in positions 2, 4, 5 and 6 of the pyrimidine ring. Due to autofluorescence, detected in most of the products, this model structure was not further varied.
Simultaneously, experiments on solubilization of the first chromone-2-carboxamides with cyclodextrins, cyclic oligosacharides known to form water-soluble inclusion complexes, were performed. Although the assessed solubility of the chromone 3b/DIMEB (1:3) mixture exceeded 14-fold the intrinsic one, the achieved 100 µM solubility was still not sufficient to be used as a stock solution in the binding assay. The experiments with cyclodextrin in combination with DMSO were ineffective. Owing to high material costs necessary for the appropriate cyclodextrin amounts, the aim focused on structural modification of the hydrophobic products.
Precise structural data have been obtained from the solved crystal structures of three chromone derivatives: the screening hit GS-71 (3b), its trimethylammonium salt (18) and 6-nitro-substituted N-benzyl-N-methyl-chromone-2-carboxamide (9i). The first two compounds are nearly planar with an anti-/trans-rotamer configuration. In the latter structure, the carboxamide bridge is bent out of the chromone plane, showing an anti-rotamer, too. Considering the relatively low partition coefficient of compound 3b (cLogP = 2.32), the compound planarity and correlating tight molecular packing might be the factors significantly affecting its poor solubility.
Regarding the biological results of the chromone-based compounds, similar structure-activity correlations could be drawn from the binding assay and the whole cell activity testing on M. tuberculosis. In both cases, the introduction of a nitro group to position 6 of the chromone ring and the presence of a flexible substituent in the amide part showed a positive effect. In the binding study, the nitro group at position 4 on the N-benzyl residue was of advantage, too. The highest enzyme affinity was observed for N-(4-nitrobenzyl)-chromone-2-carboxamide 4c (KD = 34 µM), 6-nitro substituted N-benzyl-chromone-2-carboxamide 9g (KD = 40 µM) and 6‑nitro-substituted N-(4-nitrobenzyl)-chromone-2-carboxamide 9j (KD = 31 µM), which could not be attributed to the fluorescence quenching potential of the nitro group. The assay interference potential of chromones, due to a covalent binding on the enzyme sulfhydryl groups, was found to be negligible at the assay conditions. Moderate in vivo activity was detected for 6‑nitro-substituted N-benzyl-chromone-2-carboxamide 9g and its N-benzyl-N-methyl-, N‑furylmethyl-, N-cyclohexyl- and N-cyclohexylmethyl derivatives 9i, 9d, 9e, 9f, for which MIC values 20 – 40 µM were assessed. Cytotoxicity was increased in the N‑cyclohexylmethyl derivative only. None of the pyrimidine-based compounds showed activity in vivo. The affinity of the model structure, VS-8, surpassed with KD = 97 µM the assessed affinity of TLM (KD = 142 µM).
Since for the model chromone compound GS-71 no reliable KasA binding data could be obtained, a newly synthesized chromone derivative 9i was docked into the KasA binding site, in order to derive correlation between the in silico and in vitro assessed affinity. For the 6‑nitro-derivative 9i a moderate in vivo activity on M. tuberculosis was obtained. The in silico predicted pKi values for TLM and 9i were higher than the corresponding in vitro results, maintaining though a similar tendency, i.e., the both affinity values for compound 9i (pKi predicted = 6.64, pKD experimental = 4.02) surpassed those obtained for TLM (pKi predicted = 5.27, pKD experimental = 3.84). Nevertheless, the experimental pKD values are considered preliminary results.
The binding assay method has been improved in order to acquire more accurate data. Owing to the method development, limited enzyme batches and solubility issues, only selected compounds could be evaluated. The best hits, together with the compounds active on the whole cells of M. tuberculosis, will be submitted to the kinetic enzyme assay, in order to confirm the TLM-like binding mechanism. Regarding the in vivo testing results, no correlations could be drawn between the predicted membrane permeability values and the experimental data, as for the most active compounds 9e and 9f, a very low permeability was anticipated (0.4 and 0.7 %, respectively). Further biological tests would be required to investigate the action- or transport mode.
The human African trypanosomiasis is a neglected tropical disease, which is caused by the protozoan Trypanosoma brucei and transmitted by the bite of the tsetse fly. An untreated infection leads to death. However, only a few drugs with significant drawbacks are currently available for treatment. In this thesis, quinolone amides with an antitrypanosomal activity were synthesized and their biological and physicochemical properties were measured. New structure-activity relationships and a promising lead structure were discovered.
This thesis aimed at searching for new effective agents against Multidrug-Resistant Enterobacteriaceae. This is necessitated by the urgent need for new and innovative antibacterial agents addressing the critical priority pathogens prescribed by the World Health Organization (WHO). Among the available means for antibiotics discovery and development, nature has long remained a proven, innovative, and highly reliable gateway to successful antibacterial agents. Nevertheless, numerous challenges surrounding this valuable source of antibiotics among other drugs are limiting the complete realization of its potential. These include the availability of good quality data on the highly potential natural sources, limitations in methods to prepare and screen crude extracts, bottlenecks in reproducing biological potentials observed in natural sources, as well as hurdles in isolation, purification, and characterization of natural compounds with diverse structural complexities.
Through an extensive review of the literature, it was possible to prepare libraries of plant species and phytochemicals with reported high potentials against Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumnoniae. The libraries were profiled to highlight the existing patterns and relationships between the reported antibacterial activities and studied plants’ families and parts, the type of the extracting solvent, as well as phytochemicals’ classes, drug-likeness and selected parameters for enhanced accumulation within the Gram-negative bacteria. In addition, motivations, objectives, the role of traditional practices and other crucial experimental aspects in the screening of plant extracts for antibacterial activities were identified and discussed.
Based on the implemented strict inclusion criteria, the created libraries grant speedy access to well-evaluated plant species and phytochemicals with potential antibacterial activities. This way, further studies in yet unexplored directions can be pursued from the indicated or related species and compounds. Moreover, the availability of compound libraries focusing on related bacterial species serves a great role in the ongoing efforts to develop the rules of antibiotics penetrability and accumulation, particularly among Gram-negative bacteria. Here, in addition to hunting for potential scaffolds from such libraries, detailed evaluations of large pool compounds with related antibacterial potential can grant a better understanding of structural features crucial for their penetration and accumulation. Based on the scarcity of compounds with broad structural diversity and activity against Gram-negative bacteria, the creation and updating of such libraries remain a laborious but important undertaking.
A Pressurized Microwave Assisted Extraction (PMAE) method over a short duration and low-temperature conditions was developed and compared to the conventional cold maceration over a prolonged duration. This method aimed at addressing the key challenges associated with conventional extraction methods which require long extraction durations, and use more energy and solvents, in addition to larger quantities of plant materials. Furthermore, the method was intended to replace the common use of high temperatures in most of the current MAE applications. Interestingly, the yields of 16 of 18 plant samples under PMAE over 30 minutes were found to be within 91–139% of those obtained from the 24h extraction by maceration. Additionally, different levels of selectivity were observed upon an analytical comparison of the extracts obtained from the two methods. Although each method indicated selective extraction of higher quantities or additional types of certain phytochemicals, a slightly larger number of additional compounds were observed under maceration. The use of this method allows efficient extraction of a large number of samples while sparing heat-sensitive compounds and minimizing chances for cross-reactions between phytochemicals.
Moreover, findings from another investigation highlighted the low likelihood of reproducing antibacterial activities previously reported among various plant species, identified the key drivers of poor reproducibility, and proposed possible measures to mitigate the challenge. The majority of extracts showed no activities up to the highest tested concentration of 1024 µg/mL. In the case of identical plant species, some activities were observed only in 15% of the extracts, in which the Minimum Inhibitory Concentrations (MICs) were 4 – 16-fold higher than those in previous reports. Evaluation of related plant species indicated better outcomes, whereby about 18% of the extracts showed activities in a range of 128–512 μg/mL, some of the activities being superior to those previously reported in related species.
Furthermore, solubilizing plant crude extracts during the preparation of test solutions for Antibacterial Susceptibility Testing (AST) assays was outlined as a key challenge. In trying to address this challenge, some studies have used bacteria-toxic solvents or generally unacceptable concentrations of common solubilizing agents. Both approaches are liable to give false positive results. In line with this challenge, this study has underscored the suitability of acetone in the solubilization of crude plant extracts. Using acetone, better solubility profiles of crude plant extracts were observed compared to dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) at up to 10 %v/v. Based on lacking toxicity against many bacteria species at up to 25 %v/v, its use in the solubilization of poorly water-soluble extracts, particularly those from less polar solvents is advocated.
In a subsequent study, four galloylglucoses were isolated from the leaves of Paeonia officinalis L., whereby the isolation of three of them from this source was reported for the first time. The isolation and characterization of these compounds were driven by the crucial need to continually fill the pre-clinical antibiotics pipeline using all available means. Application of the bioautography-guided isolation and a matrix of extractive, chromatographic, spectroscopic, and spectrometric techniques enabled the isolation of the compounds at high purity levels and the ascertainment of their chemical structures.
Further, the compounds exhibited the Minimum Inhibitory Concentrations (MIC) in a range of 2–256 µg/mL against Multidrug-Resistant (MDR) strains of E. coli and K. pneumonia exhibiting diverse MDR phenotypes. In that, the antibacterial activities of three of the isolated compounds were reported for the first time. The observed in vitro activities of the compounds resonated with their in vivo potentials as determined using the Galleria mellonella larvae model. Additionally, the susceptibility of the MDR bacteria to the galloylglucoses was noted to vary depending on the nature of the resistance enzymes expressed by the MDR bacteria. In that, the bacteria expressing enzymes with higher content of aromatic amino acids and zero or positive net charges were generally more susceptible. Following these findings, a plausible hypothesis for the observed patterns was put forward.
The generally challenging pharmacokinetic properties of galloylglucoses limit their further development into therapeutic agents. However, the compounds can replace or reduce the use of antibiotics in livestock keeping as well as in the treatment of septic wounds and topical or oral cavity infections, among other potential uses.
Using nature-inspired approaches, a series of glucovanillin derivatives were prepared following feasible synthetic pathways which in most cases ensured good yields and high purity levels. Some of the prepared compounds showed MIC values in a range of 128 – 512 μg/mL against susceptible and MDR strains of Klebsiella pneumoniae, Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and Vancomycin-Resistant Enterococcus faecium (VRE). These findings emphasize the previously reported essence of small molecular size, the presence of protonatable amino groups and halogen atoms, as well as an amphiphilic character, as crucial features for potential antibacterial agents.
Due to the experienced limited success in the search for new antibacterial agents using purely synthetic means, pursuing semi-synthetic approaches as employed in this study are highly encouraged. This way, it is possible to explore broader chemical spaces around natural scaffolds while addressing their inherent limitations such as solubility, toxicity, and poor pharmacokinetic profiles.