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Background:
Atypical chemokine receptor 3 (ACKR3, synonym CXCR7) is increasingly considered relevant in neuroinflammatory conditions, in which its upregulation contributes to compromised endothelial barrier function and may ultimately allow inflammatory brain injury. While an impact of ACKR3 has been recognized in several neurological autoimmune diseases, neuroinflammation may also result from infectious agents, including Ureaplasma species (spp.). Although commonly regarded as commensals of the adult urogenital tract, Ureaplasma spp. may cause invasive infections in immunocompromised adults as well as in neonates and appear to be relevant pathogens in neonatal meningitis. Nonetheless, clinical and in vitro data on Ureaplasma-induced inflammation are scarce.
Methods:
We established a cell culture model of Ureaplasma meningitis, aiming to analyze ACKR3 variances as a possible pathomechanism in Ureaplasma-associated neuroinflammation. Non-immortalized human brain microvascular endothelial cells (HBMEC) were exposed to bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) or tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and native as well as LPS-primed HBMEC were cultured with Ureaplasma urealyticum serovar 8 (Uu8) and U. parvum serovar 3 (Up3). ACKR3 responses were assessed via qRT-PCR, RNA sequencing, flow cytometry, and immunocytochemistry.
Results:
LPS, TNF-α, and Ureaplasma spp. influenced ACKR3 expression in HBMEC. LPS and TNF-α significantly induced ACKR3 mRNA expression (p < 0.001, vs. control), whereas Ureaplasma spp. enhanced ACKR3 protein expression in HBMEC (p < 0.01, vs. broth control). Co-stimulation with LPS and either Ureaplasma isolate intensified ACKR3 responses (p < 0.05, vs. LPS). Furthermore, stimulation wielded a differential influence on the receptor’s ligands.
Conclusions:
We introduce an in vitro model of Ureaplasma meningitis. We are able to demonstrate a pro-inflammatory capacity of Ureaplasma spp. in native and, even more so, in LPS-primed HBMEC, underlining their clinical relevance particularly in a setting of co-infection. Furthermore, our data may indicate a novel role for ACKR3, with an impact not limited to auto-inflammatory diseases, but extending to infection-related neuroinflammation as well. AKCR3-induced blood-brain barrier breakdown might constitute a potential common pathomechanism.
Background:
Ureaplasma species have been associated with chorioamnionitis and preterm birth and have been implicated in the pathogenesis of neonatal short and long-term morbidity. However, being mostly commensal bacteria, controversy remains on the pro-inflammatory capacity of Ureaplasma. Discussions are ongoing on the incidence and impact of prenatal, perinatal, and postnatal infection. The present study addressed the impact of Ureaplasma isolates on monocyte-driven inflammation.
Methods:
Cord blood monocytes of term neonates and adult monocytes, either native or LPS-primed, were cultured with Ureaplasma urealyticum (U. urealyticum) serovar 8 (Uu8) and Ureaplasma parvum serovar 3 (Up3). Using qRT-PCR, cytokine flow cytometry, and multi-analyte immunoassay, we assessed mRNA and protein expression of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-8, IL-12p40, IL-10, and IL-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1ra) as well as Toll-like receptor (TLR) 2 and TLR4.
Results:
Uu8 and Up3 induced mRNA expression and protein release of TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-8 in term neonatal and adult monocytes (p < 0.01 and p < 0.05). Intracellular protein expression of TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-8 in Ureaplasma-stimulated cells paralleled those results. Ureaplasma-induced cytokine levels did not significantly differ from LPS-mediated levels except for lower intracellular IL-1β in adult monocytes (Uu8: p < 0.05). Remarkably, ureaplasmas did not induce IL-12p40 response and promoted lower amounts of anti-inflammatory IL-10 and IL-1ra than LPS, provoking a cytokine imbalance more in favor of pro-inflammation (IL-1β/IL-10, IL-8/IL-10 and IL-8/IL-1ra: p < 0.01, vs. LPS). In contrast to LPS, both isolates induced TLR2 mRNA in neonatal and adult cells (p < 0.001 and p < 0.05) and suppressed TLR4 mRNA in adult monocytes (p < 0.05). Upon co-stimulation, Uu8 and Up3 inhibited LPS-induced intracellular IL-1β (p < 0.001 and p < 0.05) and IL-8 in adult monocytes (p < 0.01), while LPS-induced neonatal cytokines were maintained or aggravated (p < 0.05).
Conclusion:
Our data demonstrate a considerable pro-inflammatory capacity of Ureaplasma isolates in human monocytes. Stimulating pro-inflammatory cytokine responses while hardly inducing immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines, ureaplasmas might push monocyte immune responses toward pro-inflammation. Inhibition of LPS-induced cytokines in adult monocytes in contrast to sustained inflammation in term neonatal monocytes indicates a differential modulation of host immune responses to a second stimulus. Modification of TLR2 and TLR4 expression may shape host susceptibility to inflammation.
Die Blut-Hirn-Schranke reguliert den Transport von Molekülen aus dem Blut in das Gehirn und aus dem Hirngewebe in das Blut. Die Grundlage dieser für den Erhalt der Homöostase im Gehirn wichtigen Schranke bilden zwischen Endothelzellen der Gehirnkapillaren (BCECs) entwickelte, besonders dichte Zonulae Occludentes (Tight Junctions). Viele Krankheiten, zum Beispiel die Multiple Sklerose, gehen mit einer Dysfunktion der BBB einher, die molekularen Grundlagen verschiedener Störungen und damit die Therapiemöglichkeiten sind bisher jedoch oftmals noch unbekannt. Ein grundlegendes Problem der Forschung an der BBB war bislang das Fehlen eines geeigneten immortalisierten in vitro-Modelles zum Verständnis der Differenzierung und Regulierung der Schrankenfunktion. Es gelang nun erstmals, aus murinen BCECs ein solches in vitro-Modell der BBB zu entwickeln, welches wichtige Charakteristika der BBB in vivo aufweist. Zu den Eigenschaften der BBB in vivo zählen allgemein ein hoher transendothelialer elektrischer Widerstand (TER) von bis zu 2000  x cm², die Expression der TJ-Proteine Occludin, Claudin-1, Claudin-3 und Claudin-5 sowie eine geringe Rate transzellulärer Transportvorgänge. Die Entwicklung einer immortalisierten Zelllinie als in vitro-Modell der BBB beinhaltete das Bereitstellen einer möglichst natürlichen Umgebung für die Endothelzellen. Durch Zugabe von Wachstums- und Differenzierungsfaktoren sowie Serumreduktion im Differenzierungsmedium konnte eine dichte Schrankenfunktion induziert werden, welche sich anhand von TER-Messungen nachweisen ließ. Mittels immuncytochemischen und molekularbiologischen Methoden wurde außerdem die Expression verschiedener TJ-Proteine in den immortalisierten BCECs gezeigt. Die Permeabilität der BBB wird durch eine Reihe von Faktoren beeinflusst. So war zu erkennen, dass Glucocorticoide und Insulin die Barrierenfunktion der BBB induzieren und die Zugabe dieser Faktoren die in vitro-Kultivierung von BCECs ermöglicht, ohne dass diese dabei für die BBB in vivo wesentliche Charakteristika verlieren. Diese Ergebnisse stimmen überein mit anderen Studien, denenzufolge für die Induktion und Aufrechterhaltung komplexer Tight Junctions bei kultivierten Endothelzellen Glucocorticoide förderlich sind. Auch klinisch wird dieser Einfluss von Glucocorticoiden bereits genutzt: so konnten im Falle der Multiplen Sklerose Therapieerfolge durch die Gabe von Corticosteroiden erzielt werden.