Refine
Has Fulltext
- yes (350)
Is part of the Bibliography
- yes (350)
Year of publication
Document Type
- Journal article (297)
- Doctoral Thesis (46)
- Book article / Book chapter (2)
- Conference Proceeding (2)
- Review (2)
- Preprint (1)
Language
- English (350) (remove)
Keywords
- Infektionsbiologie (57)
- Escherichia coli (27)
- Candida albicans (18)
- escherichia coli (11)
- gene expression (11)
- RNA-seq (9)
- Staphylococcus aureus (9)
- Immunologie (8)
- expression (8)
- infection (8)
Institute
- Institut für Molekulare Infektionsbiologie (350) (remove)
Sonstige beteiligte Institutionen
- Genelux Corporation, San Diego Science Center, 3030 Bunker Hill Street, Suite 310, San Diego, California 92109, USA (1)
- Helmholtz Center for RNA-based Infection Research (1)
- Institut für Molekulare Infektionsbiologie (MIB) der Universität Würzburg (1)
- MRB Forschungszentrum für Magnet-Resonanz-Bayern e.V., Am Hubland, D-97074 Würzburg (1)
- Research Center for Infectious Diseases (ZINF), University of Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg, Germany, (1)
- Research Center of Infectious Diseases (ZINF) of the University of Wurzburg, Germany (1)
- Universitätsklinikum Münster (1)
- Zentrum für Infektionsforschung (ZINF): Nachwuchsgruppe 2 (1)
Recent progresses and developments in molecular biology provide a wealth of new but insufficiently characterised data. This fund comprises amongst others biological data of genomic DNA, protein sequences, 3-dimensional protein structures as well as profiles of gene expression. In the present work, this information is used to develop new methods for the characterisation and classification of organisms and whole groups of organisms as well as to enhance the automated gain and transfer of information. The first two presented approaches (chapters 4 und 5) focus on the medically and scientifically important enterobacteria. Its impact in medicine and molecular biology is founded in versatile mechanisms of infection, their fundamental function as a commensal inhabitant of the intestinal tract and their use as model organisms as they are easy to cultivate. Despite many studies on single pathogroups with clinical distinguishable pathologies, the genotypic factors that contribute to their diversity are still partially unknown. The comprehensive genome comparison described in Chapter 4 was conducted with numerous enterobacterial strains, which cover nearly the whole range of clinically relevant diversity. The genome comparison constitutes the basis of a characterisation of the enterobacterial gene pool, of a reconstruction of evolutionary processes and of comprehensive analysis of specific protein families in enterobacterial subgroups. Correspondence analysis, which is applied for the first time in this context, yields qualitative statements to bacterial subgroups and the respective, exclusively present protein families. Specific protein families were identified for the three major subgroups of enterobacteria namely the genera Yersinia and Salmonella as well as to the group of Shigella and E. coli by applying statistical tests. In conclusion, the genome comparison-based methods provide new starting points to infer specific genotypic traits of bacterial groups from the transfer of functional annotation. Due to the high medical importance of enterobacterial isolates their classification according to pathogenicity has been in focus of many studies. The microarray technology offers a fast, reproducible and standardisable means of bacterial typing and has been proved in bacterial diagnostics, risk assessment and surveillance. The design of the diagnostic microarray of enterobacteria described in chapter 5 is based on the availability of numerous enterobacterial genome sequences. A novel probe selection strategy based on the highly efficient algorithm of string search, which considers both coding and non-coding regions of genomic DNA, enhances pathogroup detection. This principle reduces the risk of incorrect typing due to restrictions to virulence-associated capture probes. Additional capture probes extend the spectrum of applications of the microarray to simultaneous diagnostic or surveillance of antimicrobial resistance. Comprehensive test hybridisations largely confirm the reliability of the selected capture probes and its ability to robustly classify enterobacterial strains according to pathogenicity. Moreover, the tests constitute the basis of the training of a regression model for the classification of pathogroups and hybridised amounts of DNA. The regression model features a continuous learning capacity leading to an enhancement of the prediction accuracy in the process of its application. A fraction of the capture probes represents intergenic DNA and hence confirms the relevance of the underlying strategy. Interestingly, a large part of the capture probes represents poorly annotated genes suggesting the existence of yet unconsidered factors with importance to the formation of respective virulence phenotypes. Another major field of microarray applications is gene expression analysis. The size of gene expression databases rapidly increased in recent years. Although they provide a wealth of expression data, it remains challenging to integrate results from different studies. In chapter 6 the methodology of an unsupervised meta-analysis of genome-wide A. thaliana gene expression data sets is presented, which yields novel insights in function and regulation of genes. The application of kernel-based principal component analysis in combination with hierarchical clustering identified three major groups of contrasts each sharing overlapping expression profiles. Genes associated with two groups are known to play important roles in Indol-3 acetic acid (IAA) mediated plant growth and development as well as in pathogen defence. Yet uncharacterised serine-threonine kinases could be assigned to novel functions in pathogen defence by meta-analysis. In general, hidden interrelation between genes regulated under different conditions could be unravelled by the described approach. HMMs are applied to the functional characterisation of proteins or the detection of genes in genome sequences. Although HMMs are technically mature and widely applied in computational biology, I demonstrate the methodical optimisation with respect to the modelling accuracy on biological data with various distributions of sequence lengths. The subunits of these models, the states, are associated with a certain holding time being the link to length distributions of represented sequences. An adaptation of simple HMM topologies to bell-shaped length distributions described in chapter 7 was achieved by serial chain-linking of single states, while residing in the class of conventional HMMs. The impact of an optimisation of HMM topologies was underlined by performance evaluations with differently adjusted HMM topologies. In summary, a general methodology was introduced to improve the modelling behaviour of HMMs by topological optimisation with maximum likelihood and a fast and easily implementable moment estimator. Chapter 8 describes the application of HMMs to the prediction of interaction sites in protein domains. As previously demonstrated, these sites are not trivial to predict because of varying degree in conservation of their location and type within the domain family. The prediction of interaction sites in protein domains is achieved by a newly defined HMM topology, which incorporates both sequence and structure information. Posterior decoding is applied to the prediction of interaction sites providing additional information of the probability of an interaction for all sequence positions. The implementation of interaction profile HMMs (ipHMMs) is based on the well established profile HMMs and inherits its known efficiency and sensitivity. The large-scale prediction of interaction sites by ipHMMs explained protein dysfunctions caused by mutations that are associated to inheritable diseases like different types of cancer or muscular dystrophy. As already demonstrated by profile HMMs, the ipHMMs are suitable for large-scale applications. Overall, the HMM-based method enhances the prediction quality of interaction sites and improves the understanding of the molecular background of inheritable diseases. With respect to current and future requirements I provide large-scale solutions for the characterisation of biological data in this work. All described methods feature a highly portable character, which allows for the transfer to related topics or organisms, respectively. Special emphasis was put on the knowledge transfer facilitated by a steadily increasing wealth of biological information. The applied and developed statistical methods largely provide learning capacities and hence benefit from the gain of knowledge resulting in increased prediction accuracies and reliability.
Asymptomatische Bakteriurie (ABU) stellt eine bakterielle Infektion der Harnblase über einen langen Zeitraum dar, die häufig von Escherichia coli hervorgerufen wird, ohne dass typische Symptome einer Harnwegsinfektion auftreten. Um die Charakteristika von ABU E. coli Isolaten genauer zu untersuchen, wurden die Geno- und Phänotypen von 11 ABU-Isolaten verglichen. Außerdem wurden in mehreren aufeinanderfolgenden in vivo-Reisolaten des Modell-ABU Stammes 83972 die Veränderungen im Transkriptom, Proteom und Genom während einer langfristigen Persistenz in der menschlichen Blase charakterisiert. Schließlich wurde der Effekt des menschlichen Wirtes auf die bakterielle Adaptation durch einen Vergleich von in vitro- mit in vivo-kultivierten Stämmen abgeschätzt. ABU-Isolate stellt eine heterogene Gruppe von Organismen dar. Diese können den vier phylogenetischen Hauptgruppen von E. coli sowie unterschiedlichen klonalen Gruppen zugeordnet werden. Dementsprechend unterscheiden sie sich erheblich bezüglich der Zusammensetzung des Genomes, der Genomgröße und auch der Ausstattung mit UPEC-typischen Virulenz-assoziierten Genen. Multi-Lokus-Sequenz-Typisierung legt nahe, dass bestimmte ABU Stämme sich durch Genomreduktion aus UPEC Stämmen entwickelt haben, die eine Harnwegsinfektion mit charakteristischen Symptomen auslösen konnten. Folglich erlaubt die hohe Genomplastizität von E. coli keine generalisierte Betrachtung einzelner Isolate eines Klons. Genomreduktion über Punktmutationen, Genom-Reorganisation und Deletionen resultierte in der Inaktivierung einiger Gene, die für einige UPEC Virulenz-Faktoren kodieren. Dies stützt die Vorstellung, dass eine verminderte bakterielle Aktivierung der Entzündung der Wirtsschleimhaut den Lebensstil von ABU (bei diesen E. coli-)Isolaten fördert. Genregulation und genetische Diversität sind Strategien, die es Bakterien ermöglichen unter sich fortlaufend ändernden Bedingungen zu leben bzw. zu überleben. Um die anpassungsbedingten Veränderungen bei einem langfristigen Wachstum in der Blase zu untersuchen, wurden aufeinanderfolgende Reisolate, denen eine langfristige in vivo-Kolonisierung im menschlichen Wirt beziehungsweise eine in vitro-Kultivierung vorausgegangen ist, im Hinblick auf Veränderungen Genexpression und Genomorganisation analysiert. In diesem Zusammenhang konnte gezeigt werden, dass E. coli in der Lage ist, seine metabolischen Netzwerke verschiedenen Wachstumsbedingungen anzupassen und individuelle bakterielle Kolonisierungsstrategien entwickeln kann. Transkriptom- und Proteom-Analysen zeigten verschiedene metabolische Strategien zur Nährstoffbeschaffung und Energieproduktion bei untersuchten in vivo-Reisolaten vom Stamm 83972, die es ihnen ermöglichen, den Wirt zu kolonisieren. Das Zurückgreifen auf D-Serin, Deoxy- und Ribonucleoside sowie die bidirektionale Umwandlung zwischen Pentose und Glucuronat waren hoch-regulierte Stoffwechselwege, die die in vivo-Reisolate mit zusätzlicher Energie für ein effizientes Wachstum in der Blase versorgen. Zudem wurden in dieser Studie die Netzwerke für eine Reaktion auf Abwehrmechanismen des Wirtes erforscht: Erstmals wurde hier die Rolle der Klasse-III-Alkoholdehydrogenase AdhC, bekannt durch ihre Bedeutung bei der Entgiftung von Stickstoffmonoxid, bei der Wirtsantwort während einer asymptomatischen Bakteriurie gezeigt. Aufeinanderfolgende in vivo- und in vitro-Reisolate vom Stamm 83972 wurden ebenfalls bezüglich ihrer Genomstruktur analysiert. Einige Veränderungen in der Genomstruktur der aufeinanderfolgenden Reisolate, die von einer humanen Kolonisierungsstudie stammen, implizieren die Bedeutung einer Interaktion der Bakterien mit dem Wirt bei der Mikroevolution der Bakterien. Dagegen war die Genomstruktur von Reisolaten eines langfristigen in vitro-Kultivierungsexperiments, bei dem sich der Stamm 83972 ohne Wirtskontakt vermehrt hat, nicht von Veränderungen betroffen. Das legt nahe, dass die Immunantwort eine Genomplastizität fördert und somit eine treibende Kraft für den ABU Lebensstil und die Evolution im Harnwegstrakt ist.
Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumococci) are Gram-positive bacteria and commensals of the nasopharyngeal cavity. Besides colonization, pneumococci are responsible for severe local infections such as otitis media, sinusitis and life-threatening invasive diseases, including pneumonia, sepsis and meningitis. The surface of pneumococci is decorated with proteins that are covalently or non-covalently anchored to the cell wall. The most unique group of cell wall associated proteins in pneumococci are the choline-binding proteins (CBPs). PspC, also known as SpsA or CbpA, is a multifunctional choline-binding protein that plays an essential role in pneumococcal pathogenesis by functioning as an adhesin. PspC promotes adherence of pneumococci to mucosal epithelial cells by interacting in a human specific manner with the free secretory component (SC) or to SC as part of the secretory IgA (SIgA) or polymeric immunoglobulin receptor (pIgR). PspC also interacts specifically with the soluble complement Factor H. Apparently, PspC uses two different epitopes for binding the soluble host protein Factor H and SC of pIgR. However, the mechanism by which these independent interactions facilitate pneumococcal infections under physiological and host specific conditions have not yet been completely elucidated. This study aims to explore the impact of the PspC interaction with human pIgR (hpIgR) or complement regulator Factor H on pneumococcal virulence. Here the cellular and molecular basis of PspC-mediated adherence to and invasion of host epithelial and endothelial cells was demonstrated. The genetic approach, specific pharmacological inhibitors and immunoblot analysis demonstrated the complexity of the induced signal transduction pathways during PspC-hpIgR mediated pneumococcal uptake by host cells. Inhibition studies with specific inhibitors of actin cytoskeleton and microtubules demonstrated that the dynamics of host cell cytoskeleton are essential for pneumococcal uptake by mucosal epithelial cells. Moreover, this study reports for the first time that the small GTPase Cdc42 is essential for pneumococcal internalization into epithelial cells via the PspC-hpIgR mechanism. In addition, in infection experiments performed in presence of specific inhibitors of PI3-kinase/Akt and protein tyrosine kinase (PTKs), hpIgR-mediated pneumococcal uptake by host cells was significantly blocked. Amongst PTKs the Src kinase pathway, ERK1/2 and JNK pathways were implicated during pneumococcal ingestion by hpIgR expressing cells. In addition, inhibition experiments performed in the presence of individual inhibitors or with a combination of inhibitors suggested the independent activation of PI3-kinase/Akt and Src kinase pathways during pneumococcal infections of hpIgR expressing cells. By employing specific inhibitors and siRNA in cell culture infection experiments it was further demonstrated that pneumococcal endocytosis by host epithelial cells via the PspC-hpIgR mechanism depends on clathrin and dynamin. PspC recruits also Factor H to the pneumococcal cell surface. Consequently, the impact of pneumococcal cell surface bound Factor H on adherence to host cells and the molecular mechanism facilitating the uptake of Factor H bound pneumococci by epithelial cells was investigated. Flow cytometry and immunoblots revealed that S. pneumoniae has evolved the ability to recruit both purified Factor H as well as Factor H from human plasma or serum. Moreover, it was demonstrated that the recruitment of Factor H is independent of the PspC-subtypes and that capsular polysaccharide (CPS) interferes with its recruitment. Factor H bound to pneumococci significantly increased bacterial attachment to and invasion of host epithelial cells including nasopharyngeal cells (Detroit562), lung epithelial cells (A549), and human brain-derived endothelial cells (HBMEC). Blocking experiments demonstrated that bacteria bound Factor H interacts via the heparin binding sites on Factor H with eukaryotic cell surface glycosaminoglycans and that this interaction promotes pneumococcal adherence to host cells. In addition, inhibition studies with mAbs recognizing specifically different short consensus repeats (SCR) of Factor H suggested that SCR 19-20 of Factor H are essential for the pneumococcal interaction with host epithelial cells via Factor H. In the presence of Factor H, attachment of pneumococci to human polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNs) is enhanced. The integrin CD11b/CD18 was identified as the cellular receptor on PMNs. By using pharmacological inhibitors the impact of host cell cytoskeleton and signalling molecules, such as PTKs and PI3-kinase, for Factor H-mediated pneumococcal internalization into eukaryotic cells was shown. Taken together, the results revealed that Factor-H mediated pneumococcal infection requires a concerted role of host epithelial cell surface glycosaminoglycans, integrins and host cell signalling pathways.
Carcinoembryonic antigen-related cell adhesion molecules (CEACAMs) are exploited by human-specific pathogens to anchor themselves to or invade host cells. Interestingly, human granulocytes express a specific isoform, CEACAM3, that can direct efficient, opsonin-independent phagocytosis of CEACAM-binding Neisseria, Moraxella and Haemophilus species. As opsonin-independent phagocytosis of CEACAM-binding Neisseria depends on Src-family protein tyrosine kinase (PTK) phosphorylation of the CEACAM3 cytoplasmic domain, we hypothesized that an SH2-containing protein might be involved in CEACAM3-initiated, phagocytosis-promoting signals. Accordingly, we screened glutathione-S-transferase (GST) fusion proteins containing SH2 domains derived from a panel of signaling and adapter molecules for their ability to associate with CEACAM3. In vitro pull-down assays demonstrated that the SH2 domain of the adapter molecule Nck (GST-Nck SH2), but not other SH2 domains such as the Grb2 SH2 domain, interact with CEACAM3 in a phosphotyrosine-dependent manner. Either deletion of the cytoplasmic tail of CEACAM3, or point-mutation of a critical arginine residue in the SH2 domain of Nck (GST-NckSH2R308K) that disrupts phosphotyrosine binding, both abolished CEACAM3-Nck-SH2 interaction. Upon infection of human cells with CEACAM-binding Neisseria, full-length Nck comprising an SH2 and three SH3 domains co-localized with tyrosine phosphorylated CEACAM3 and associated bacteria as analyzed by immunofluorescence staining and confocal microscopy. In addition, Nck could be detected in CEACAM3 immunoprecipitates confirming the interaction in vivo. Importantly, overexpression of a GFP-fusion protein of the isolated Nck SH2 domain (GFP-Nck-SH2), but not GFP or GFP-Nck SH2 R308K reduced CEACAM3-mediated phagocytosis of CEACAM-binding Neisseria suggesting that the adaptor molecule Nck plays an important role in CEACAM3-initiated signaling leading to internalization and elimination of human-specific pathogens.
Cutaneous leishmaniasis is an infectious disease that is endemic especially in tropical and desert regions with an incidence of 1.5 million cases per year and a prevalence of 12 million people infected worldwide. The infection can be caused by the intracellular parasite Leishmania major. The disease has been studied extensively in the murine model. It has become apparent that the induction of a class of interferon (IFN)--producing CD4+ T helper cells (TH1 cells) that activate macrophages to kill the parasites they harbor is desicive for the establishment of immunity. The redirection of the host’s immune response towards a protective TH1 phenotype will also be the key to an effective vaccine. Dendritic cells (DC) loaded with leishmanial antigens ex vivo were lately described as vaccines against L. major infections. One single recombinant Leishmania antigen, LeIF (Leishmania homologue of eukaryotic ribosomal initiation factor 4a), which was identified as a protein that stimulates DC to secrete interleukin (IL)-12 and discussed as a pattern-associated molecular pattern (PAMP), was found to mediate a protective TH1-dependent effect when used for pulsing of DC. The application of recombinant proteins is tied to many disadvantages, which is why other methods of antigen administration have been developed. RNA electroporation of DC has recently emerged from tumor research as a safe and versatile method of antigen delivery, by which a large number of RNA molecules encoding a specific antigen gains access to the cytosol of DC by an electrical impulse. The present study describes, for the first time, transfection of DC with RNA encoding a molecularly defined parasite antigen. Initially, a standardized protocol for RNA transfection was established, using the enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) as reporter antigen. EGFP-RNA was well translatable in an in vitro translation system, and both a DC cell line (fetal skin-derived DC; FSDC) and murine primary bone marrow-derived DC (BMDC) could be transfected efficiently, with a yield of up to 90% and 75%, respectively. In both cell types, maximal transfection efficiency was attained with 20 µg RNA and could not be further increased with larger amounts of RNA. The level of antigen expression, measured as the mean fluorescence intensity (MFI) by flow cytometry, was directly proportional to the amount of RNA used for transfection. In FSDC, transfection efficiency and MFI were generally higher than in BMDC when the same amounts of RNA were used. Furthermore, the kinetics was shown to be sensitive to treatment with lipopolysaccharide (LPS): the expression peak was higher and was reached sooner, followed by a more rapid decline. In transfection experiments with LeIF, two variants of LeIF-RNA were used: LeIF(fl)-RNA, encoding the complete LeIF sequence, and LeIF(226)-RNA, encoding only the aminoterminal half of the LeIF sequence (226 amino acids), the immunogenic part of LeIF. Only LeIF(fl) was detectable by Western Blot in whole cell lysates of BMDC after LeIF(fl)-RNA transfection, whereas LeIF(226) could never be detected in LeIF(226)-transfected BMDC. However, as both constructs were well translatable in a cell-free system, the failure to detect LeIF(226) in BMDC lysates did not represent a failure in RNA translation, but rather a rapid antigen degradation. It was therefore expected that LeIF(226)-transfected BMDC should nevertheless be able to present LeIF(226)-derived antigenic peptides to T cells from BALB/c mice primed with recombinant LeIF (rLeIF). This hypothesis was confirmed by measuring IFN- production in BMDC-T cell co-incubation assays, showing that rLeIF-pulsed, LeIF(226)- and LeIF(fl)-transfected day 7 BMDC did indeed activate T cells from LeIF-immunized mice in an antigen-specific manner. In contrast, IL-4 was not produced, which was consistent with the fact that T cells found in lymph nodes from LeIF-primed mice are primarily of the TH1 type. In the supernatants of LeIF-transfected BMDC cultures, in contrast to rLeIF-pulsed BMDC, the proinflammatory cytokines IL-1β, IL-6, IL-10 and IL-12 were not detected. This effect was not due to the electroporation procedure, as cytokine production by BMDC electroporated with rLeIF was only partially impaired. Also, the expression levels of CD86 were lower upon LeIF transfection than after pulsing with rLeIF. Thus, LeIF transfection did not induce maturation of DC. In conclusion, LeIF-transfected BMDC may have acted as semi-mature antigen-specific tolerance inducers, with regulatory T cells as responders. The effect of LeIF transfection on the immunostimulatory capacity of BMDC was not significantly increased when day 8 or 9 BMDC were used. However, day 8, and even more day 9 BMDC pulsed with rLeIF mounted a vigorous T cell response. Day 9 BMDC were able to activate naïve T cells. In conclusion, before a strong T cell response against LeIF can be induced, DC need to – besides presenting antigen and expressing co-stimulatory molecules – exhibit a susceptibility to the innate signaling molecule LeIF which is linked to their maturation age. This third signal is provided by extracellular rLeIF, but it is not conveyed – or is suppressed – by intracellular LeIF after LeIF-RNA transfection. Furthermore, electroporation of rLeIF abrogated IL-12 production by BMDC completely, the production of IL-1 was reduced with higher antigen doses, and the production of IL-10 was partially increased. The IL-6 production was unaffected. This altered cytokine profile suggests that LeIF as a PAMP might have a bipartite nature: besides exhibiting the capacity to stimulate IL-12 production upon extracellular presence, thereby enhancing host resistance against L. major, LeIF could also contribute to parasitic host evasion mechanisms from intracellular compartments of DC, possibly by interfering with mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase signaling pathways. Thus, the adjuvant properties of LeIF depend both on its mode of delivery (transfection with RNA vs. pulsing with the recombinant protein) and the targeted compartment (extra- vs. intracellular). From this work, it can be summarized that BMDC are well transfectable with a parasite antigen. The antigen is processed and presented, but it is not recognized as a PAMP by DC. Hence, transfection with antigen-encoding mRNA by itself does not convey all necessary signals for the elicitation of a potent immune response.
Bacteriosponges contain large amounts of morphologically and phylogenetically diverse microorganisms in their mesohyl. The association is permanent, stable and highly specific, however, little is known about the establishment and maintenance of this association. The first aim of this Ph.D. thesis was to examine cospeciation between eight Aplysina species from the Mediterranean and Caribbean and their cyanobacterial associates. Host phylogeny was constructed with 18S rDNA and ITS-2 sequences using an alignment based on the secondary structure of the molecular markers and five different algorithms each. The genus Aplysina appeared as monophyletic. Aplysina sponges could be distinguished into a Caribbean and a Mediterranean cluster and a possible Tethyan origin is suggested. Comparison of the host phylogeny to the 16S rDNA phylogeny of the cyanobacterial strains revealed the lack of a congruent pattern. Therefore it is proposed that Aplysina sponges have not cospeciated with their cyanobacterial phylotypes and probably also not with other sponge specific microbes. The second aim of this Ph.D. thesis was to examine vertical transmission of microorganisms through reproductive stages of sponges. A general transmission electron microscopy (TEM) suvey revealed a clear correlation in that bacteriosponges always contained many microorganisms in their reproductive stages whereas non-bacteriosponges were always devoid of microbes in their reproductive stages. The transmission of the microbial community via sponge reproductive stages is concluded. Based on the previous results Ircinia felix was chosen for a detailed documentation of vertical transmission. I. felix larvae contained large amounts of microorganisms extracellularly in the central region whereas the outer region was almost free of microbes as shown by TEM. In I. felix juveniles microorganisms were located between densely packed sponge cells. The microbial profiles of I. felix adult, larvae, and juveniles were compared using denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE). Similar microbial community patterns were found in adult and the respective larvae indicating that a large subset of the adult microbial community was vertically transmitted. In contrast, microbial communities of larvae pools released by different adult individuals seemed to be more variable. Juvenile banding patterns were a mixture of sponge specific and seawater microbes due to DNA extraction artefacts but demonstrated that at least half of the adult microbial community is present in the next generation. Finally, a comprehensive phylogenetic analysis was conducted by sequencing excised DGGE bands from adult and offspring of the bacteriosponges Agelas wiedenmayeri, I. felix, and Smenospongia aurea and by taking additional 16S rDNA sequences of Ectyoplasia ferox and Xestospongia muta (unpublished data of the laboratory). The identification of 24 vertical transmission clusters in at least 8 eubacterial phyla demonstrates that a complex and uniform microbial community is transferred via sponge reproductive stages. Vertical transmission is specific in that the microorganisms of bacteriosponges, but not those from seawater, are passed on, but unselective in that there appears to be no differentiation between individual sponge-specific lineages. In conclusion, vertical transmission points to a mutualistic and long-term association of bacteriosponges and complex microbial consortia.
The prevention of restenosis after percutaneous coronary intervention is a major task for researchers and clinicians in cardiovascular pharmacology. Nearly 1.5 million PTCA are performed every year worldwide and, due to the implantation of stents, most of the cases can be treated successfully. 60% of those patients develop restenosis within 6 months. SMC migration and ECM deposition are known to be responsible for neointima formation. Among many processes, integrin initiated signalling events play a central role in SMC migration. Many integrins recognize a specific RGD sequence which is present in several ECM proteins and cell surface immunoglobulin super family molecules. Until now, there are various integrin antagonists such as antibodies, cyclic peptides, peptidomimetics, and non-peptides have been shown to interfere with such pathological situations indicating the importance of integrin initiated signalling pathways in SMC migration. Therefore, in this study SMC migration induced by ECM proteins was inhibited either using pharmacological inhibitor or by overexpressing the endogenous inhibitor of FAK by AAV vector system. In the first part of the thesis, the effect of integrin-ligand stimulation on hCASMCs was studied. The tyrosine phosphorylation of many cellular proteins was observed from serum starved hCASMCs replated on VN but not on PL coated plates. The major tyrosine phosphorylated protein was identified as FAK by immunoprecipitation and also phosphorylation was found at Tyr 397, the autophosphorylation site of FAK. Further, VN induced the dose dependent migration of hCASMCs in haptotaxis assay. The integrin v inhibitor was used to block those ECM stimulated integrin signalling pathways and cell migration. It inhibited the ECM stimulated tyrosine phosphorylation in a dose dependent manner. Interestingly, specific potent antagonism of integrin v abrogated both ECM induced haptotaxis and growth factor induced chemotaxis. The inhibition of migration is consistent with the replating assay results that show interference with integrin induced signalling pathways particularly the FAK tyrosine phosphorylation. The integrin v inhibitor also is able to interfere with hCASMC invasion through matrigel by reducing MMP-2 secretion. Importantly, integrin v inhibitor did not induce the apoptosis in hCASMCs. FAK is a key player in many cellular events and its involvement in cell migration was extensively studied in various cell types. The present study explored the function of FAK in hCASMC migration by overexpression of FRNK, the C-terminal domain of FAK. Overexpression of FRNK inhibited the in vitro SMC migration as well as the neointima formation in a porcine restenosis model in vivo. The last part of this thesis focused on the identification of putative binding partners for the N-terminal domain of FAK by bacterial two-hybrid screen. One of the interesting binding partners was a putative protein of 17.9 kDa. Its human homolog is AGS4, which acts as a GTPase activator. The preliminary results revealed that it is able to interact with N-FAK domain and its expression is high in haematopoietic cells. Taken together the above results suggest that integrin v and FAK are promising targets for inhibition of SMC migration. Disruption of FAK-mediated signalling pathways by a pharmacological inhibitor or by overexpression of FRNK, which acts as dominant-negative regulator, resulted in decreased migration of SMCs and thus can lead to reduction of neointima formation.
The massive remodeling of the heart tissue, as observed in response to pressure overload or myocardial infarction, is considered to play a causative role in the development of heart failure. Alterations in the heart architecture clearly affect the mechanical properties of the heart muscle, but they are rooted in changes at the cellular level including modulation of gene expression. Together with integrins, the transmembrane receptors linking the extracellular environment to the cytoskeleton, extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins and matricellular proteins are key components of the remodeling process in the heart. Therefore, this thesis was aimed at analysing the role of integrins in the regulation of gene expression and heart muscle performance during cardiac wound repair induced by pressure overload or myocardial infarction (MI). To investigate the contribution of integrin Beta 1, we characterised the response of mice with a conditional, cardiac-specific deletion of the integrin Beta 1 gene in an experimental model of pressure overload by aortic banding (AB). In particular, we measured physiological alterations and gene expression events in the stressed heart in the presence or absence of integrin Beta 1. Interestingly, mice containing a knock-out allele and the ventricular myocyte-specific conditional allele of the integrin Beta 1 gene were born and grew up to adulthood. Though these animals still exhibited minor amounts of integrin Beta1 in the heart (expressed by non-myocytes), these mice displayed abnormal cardiac function and were highly sensitive to AB. Whereas a compensatory hypertrophic response to pressure overload was observed in wildtype mice, the integrin Beta 1-deficient mice were not able to undergo heart tissue remodeling. Furthermore, ECM gene expression was altered and, in particular, the increased expression of the matricellular protein SPARC after AB was abolished in integrin Beta 1–deficient mice. Interestingly, we also found a transient upregulation of SPARC mRNA during heart remodeling after MI using cDNA macroarrays. Indeed, increased SPARC protein levels were observed starting at day 2 (2.55±0.21fold, p<0.01), day 7 (3.72±0.28 fold, p<0.01) and 1 month (1.9±0.16 fold, p<0.01) after MI, which could be abolished by using an integrin alpha v inhibitor in vivo. Immunofluorescence analysis of heart tissue demonstrated that the increased SPARC expression was confined to the infarcted area and occurred together with the influx of fibroblasts into the heart. In vitro, either TGF-Beta 1 or PDGF-BB stimulated SPARC expression by fibroblasts. Inhibition of integrin alpha v did not interfere with TGF-Beta1 or PDGF induced SPARC secretion as determined by ELISA assays or Western blot. However, secretion of TGF-Beta1 and PDGF-BB by cardiomyocytes was induced by vitronectin, a ligand of integrin alpha v, and this response was blocked by the integrin alpga v inhibitor. Functionally, SPARC modulated the migratory response of fibroblasts towards ECM proteins suggesting that the local deposition of SPARC following MI contributes to scar formation. Taken together, our combined in vivo and in vitro data demonstrate that several integrin subunits play critical roles during tissue remodeling in the injured heart. Integrin-dependent gene expression events such as the upregulation of SPARC following MI are critical to orchestrate the healing response. These processes appear to involve complex cross-talk between different cell types such as cardiomyocytes and fibroblasts to allow for locally confined scar formation. The elucidation of the sophisticated interplay between integrins, matricellular proteins such as SPARC, and growth factors will undoubtedly provide us with a better and clinically useful understanding of the molecular mechanisms governing heart remodeling.
The obligate intracellular gram-negative bacterium, Chlamydophila pneumoniae (Cpn), has a significant impact as an acute and chronic disease-causing pathogen. Its potential to undergo persistent infections has been linked to chronic diseases. Several in vitro cell culture models are used to study persistent conditions, mainly IFN_ stimulation, treatment with antibiotics and iron depletion. Little is known about changes in the Cpn transcriptome during the acute and persistent infection. Therefore, the Cpn transcriptome during its acute developmental cycle and iron depletion-mediated persistence was examined in this study. Based on expression profiles, genes with similar expression changes formed 12 clusters using the self-organizing map algorithm. While other studies define genes based on their onset of transcription, here the important feature for clustering was the expression profile. This turned out to be more appropriate for comparing the time specific relevance of a certain cluster of genes to their proposed functions in the cycle. The Cpn clusters were grouped into the 'Early', 'Mid' and 'Late' classes as described for Ctr. Additionally, a new gene expression class containing genes with steadily increasing expression at the end of the developmental cycle was defined and termed 'Tardy' class. Comparison of the Cpn clusters to published proteomics data showed that genes encoding elementary body (EB) proteins peaked in the 'Late' gene cluster. This indicated that genes of the ‘Late’ and ‘Tardy’ class have different roles in RB to EB re-differentiation. Moreover, using lexical comparison the EB mRNA profile was significantly linked to the ‘Tardy’ cluster class. This provided evidence that initial translation in the cycle might be directed from stable transcripts present in the infectious EB form. Based on these criteria the novel ‘Tardy’ class was separated from the ‘Late’ class. The gene ontologies were used to identify specific pathways and physiological functions active during the different phases of development. Additionally, the transcriptome of Cpn in the persistent stage was compared to that of the acute developmental cycle. The Cpn transcriptome was altered in the iron-depletion mediated persistence. Genes upregulated were linked to clusters at the beginning of the developmental cycle, and genes down-regulated were linked to clusters at the end of the developmental cycle. These data provided strong evidence that the Cpn transcriptome during persistence is a gene expression arrest in mid-development. In early acute infection convergently or divergently oriented gene pairs preferentially had an antagonistic expression profile, whereas tandemly oriented gene pairs showed a correlated expression profile. This suggests that the Cpn genome is organized mainly in tandemly arranged operons and in convergently or divergently oriented genes with favored antagonistic profiles. The microarray studies done with the Cpn strain CWL029 also showed expression signals for several genes annotated only for the Cpn strains AR39 and J138. BLAST comparison verified that these genes are also coded in the CWL029 genome. Several of these genes were convergently arranged with their neighboring gene and shared overlapping genome information. Among these were parB, involved in DNA segregation and rpsD, an alternative sigma factor responsible for the transcription at late stages of the developmental cycle. Both genes have been described to have major roles in the chlamydial cycle. These genes had an antagonistic expression profile at the beginning of the acute developmental cycle and in persistence, as described before to be predominant for convergently oriented genes. Real time RT-PCR analysis showed that full-length rpsD mRNA transcripts were down-regulated, whereas short-length rpsD mRNA transcripts were up-regulated during the persistent infection. This demonstrated that the rpsD promoter is activated during the persistent infection and that because of the collision of the RNA polymerases full length transcripts were down-regulated. This sigma factor-independent mechanism is known as ‘Transcriptional Interference’. This is the first description on how the alternative sigma factor rpsD might be down-regulated during persistent infections. Finally, the host cell transcriptome was analyzed in the acute and persistent infection mediated by the depletion of iron. Cpn infection triggered the upregulation of relB, involved in an alternative NF-KB signaling pathway. Several genes coding for cell cycle proteins were triggered, including cyclin G2 and cyclin D1 and inhibitors of CDK4. Taken together, this work provides insights into the modulation of the pathogen and the host transcriptome during the acute infection and the iron mediated persistent infection.
According to the hygiene hypothesis, the exposure to infectious agents in early childhood prevents the development of allergen-specific Th2 immune responses because it establishes Th1-based immunity or alternatively, induces the generation of T regulatory cells. Based on this theory, the present study pretended to identify promising microorganism-derived vaccine candidates against allergic asthma in the murine model. In the first part of this work, the efficacy of four different known Th1-inducing adjuvants, i.e. live BCG, heat-killed BCG, CpG and PPD, as components of vaccines aimed at inhibiting allergic asthma was compared. All the adjuvants were effective in inhibiting the development of allergen-induced airway eosinophilia, mucus production, and with the exception of PPD also airway hyperreactivity (AHR), when they were applied together with OVA/alum. Suppression of airway eosinophilia was not observed in IFN-gamma- or IL-12-deficient mice (hk-BCG, CpG-ODN and PPD). Interestingly, live BCG was still able to suppress allergen-induced Th2 responses in the absence of either IFN-gamma or IL-12. The effect of live BCG was also independent on IL-10-, TLR-2-, TLR-4- or MyD88-mediated signaling. When mice vaccinated with the different adjuvants together with OVA/alum were subjected to a second period of OVA/alum immunization, only live and hk-BCG were able to efficiently suppress the development of airway inflammation. This effect could be adoptively transferred by CD4+ T cells. Taken together our data suggest that live BCG>>hk-BCG>CpG>PPD are effective in suppressing allergen-induced Th2 responses. Secondly, the evaluation of a dendritic cell-based vaccination strategy leading to the induction of allergen-specific Th1 cells to protect against the development of allergen-specific Th2 responses was performed. The application of OVA-pulsed BM-DC maturated with CpG was unable to reduce airway eosinophilia and inflammation in OVA-immunized mice. OVA-specific IgG1 or IgE serum levels were also not reduced. The experiments using LC pulsed with OVA yielded similar results. However, the mice vaccinated with CpG/OVA pulsed BM-DC had greatly enhanced levels of OVA-specific IgG2a in the serum, suggesting the induction of allergen-specific Th1 responses in vivo. Thus, these data suggest that the vaccination of mice with OVA-pulsed BM-DC matured with CpG or OVA-pulsed LC did not result in a reduction of allergen-specific Th2 responses in a murine model of severe atopic asthma. Lastly, NES, an excretory/secretory product derived from the helminth Nippostrongylus brasiliensis was evaluated as a new potential adjuvant to prevent the development of allergic responses. The application of NES together with OVA/alum greatly inhibited the development of airway eosinophilia, airway goblet cell metaplasia and mucus production and the development of airway hyperreactivity after metacholine challenge. Furthermore, OVA-specific IgG1 and IgE levels in the serum were also strongly reduced. NES preparations contained small amounts of endotoxin, which may explain these results. However, the suppressive effects of NES on the development of allergen-specific Th2 responses was independent upon IFN-gamma or TLR-4 and still observed in mice treated with LPS-depleted NES. NES reduced OVA-induced Th2 responses also in a IL-10-independent manner. In addition, the digestion with proteinase K or the heat-treatment of NES did not abolish its ability to inhibit allergen-induced Th2 responses. Interestingly, NES suppress OVA-specific Th2 responses in vivo in the presence of a strong NES-specific Th2 environment. Taken together our results suggest that the helminth N. brasiliensis secretes substances which interfere with the development of allergic Th2 responses. In summary, distinct substances derived from microorganisms or helminths which may be used as potential adjuvants to prevent the development of allergic Th2 responses were identified. These findings contribute to the design of efficient vaccines protecting humans from developing allergic asthma.
The establishment of genomic approaches including the sequence determination of complete bacterial genomes started a new era in microbiological research. Since then more than two hundred prokaryotic and eukaryotic genomes have been completely sequenced, and there are additional complete genome projects including different bacterial species and strains in progress (http://www.tigr.org, http://www.sanger.ac.uk). The continously growing amount of bacterial DNA sequence information gives us also the possibility to gain deeper insight into bacterial pathogenesis. With the help of comparative genomics, microbiological research can focus on those DNA sequences that are present in pathogenic bacteria but are absent in non-pathogenic strains. With this knowledge and with the help of molecular biological methods such as PCR,DNA-chip technology, subtractive hybridisation, transcriptomics and proteomics we can analyse in detail what makes a particular bacterial strain pathogenic. This knowledge also gives us the possibility to develop new vaccines, therapeutic approaches or diagnostic tools. The aim of this work was the structural and functional analysis of DNA regions of uropathogenic Escherichia coli strain 536 that belong to the flexible E. coli gene pool. The first part of this thesis focused on the identification and structural characterisation of pathogenicity island V of strain 536 (PAI V536). PAI V536 is integrated at the pheV tRNA gene at 64 minutes of the E. coli K-12 chromosome. In addition to the intact pheV tRNA gene, a truncated copy ('pheV) that represents the last 22 bp of this gene’s 3'-end was identified 49 kb downstream of pheV on PAI V536. The analysis of the DNA sequence flanked by pheV and 'pheV revealed characteristics that are typical of PAIs. This DNA region exhibits homology to IS-elements and prophages and also comprises determinants coding for the Pix fimbriae, a phosphoglycerate transport system, an autotransporter, as well as for hypothetical proteins. Downstream of 'pheV, the K15 capsule determinant (kpsK15) of this strain is located. Structural analysis of the 20-kb kpsK15 locus revealed a so far unknown genetic organisation indicative of recombination events between a group 2 and group 3 capsule gene cluster. Downstream of the capsule determinant, the genes encoding a type II secretion system (general secretion pathway -GSP) are located on PAI V536. The K15 capsule locus was functionally characterized. Specific inactivation of each of the regions 1 to 3 of the kpsK15 gene cluster, and the use of a K15 capsule-specific antiserum demonstrated that this determinant is the functional K15 capsule locus of strain 536. It has been shown in an experimental murine model of ascending urinary tract infection with suckling mice that the K15 capsule contributes to urovirulence. Interestingly, the K15 capsule is not involved in serum resistance of strain 536. Inactivation of the PAI V536-encoded type II secretion system excluded a role of this general secretion pathway for capsule biosynthesis and virulence of strain 536 in the murine ascending urinary tract infection model. In the second part of the thesis, the transferability of PAIs was further investigated. Using PAI II536 as a model, mobilisation of this island from strain 536 into suitable recipient strains was investigated. For this purpose, an antibiotic resistance cassette, the R6K origin of replication as well as plasmid pGP704 carrying the mobilisation region of plasmid RP4 have been inserted into PAI II536. Transformation with the helper plasmid RP4, resulted a derivative of strain 536 that was used as a donor for conjugation experiments, while for recipient the pir + laboratory strain SY327 was used. After deletion the circularised PAI II536 was mobilised with the help of the conjugative helper plasmid (RP4) into the recipient laboratory strain SY327. The frequency of this event was about 10-8. It was also demonstrated that in the transconjugant strains the mobilized PAI II536 could be permanently present as a circular form and also can be integrated into the chromosome at the same chromosomal insertion site (leuX) as in the donor strain 536. Furthermore, after mobilisation and chromosomal integration of PAI II536 it was possible to remobilise this PAI back to a PAI II536-negative derivative of strain 536. The results obtained in this thesis increase our knowledge of the structure and function of a pathogenicity island of uropathogenic E. coli strain 536 and shed some light on the mechanisms contributing to genome plasticity and evolution of pathogenic E. coli variants.
In this study, the role of histone-like proteins in gene regulation in uropathogenic Escherichia coli isolate 536 was monitored. The histone-like nucleoid structuring protein H-NS is a global regulator in Escherichia coli that has been intensively studied in non-pathogenic strains. No comprehensive study on the role of H-NS and it’s homolog StpA on gene expression in a pathogenic E. coli strain has been carried out so far. Moreover, we identified a third, so far uncharacterized member of the H-NS-like protein family in uropathogenic E. coli isolate 536, which was designated Hlp (H-NS-like protein). Hlp is a 134-amino acid protein, which shares 58 % sequence identity with H-NS. The gene coding for the Hlp protein, hlp, is found in several uropathogenic E. coli variants, but not in non-pathogenic E. coli K-12. In UPEC strains 536 and CFT073, Hlp is encoded on a possibly horizontally acquired 23-kb genomic region inserted into the serU locus. Studies on hlp transcription revealed, that the gene is transcribed monocistronically from a single promoter and that expression is repressed by H-NS. Purified Hlp protein was binding to its own and to the hns promoter, thereby mediating negative auto- and crossregulation. Furthermore, Hlp and H-NS were directly interacting, resulting in the formation of stable heteromers. Complementation studies with hns mutant strains in a K-12 background revealed that the Hlp protein had in vivo activity, being able to complement the lack of H-NS in terms of motility, growth, and repression of the proU, bgl, and clyA genes. When analyzing the role of the histone-like proteins in expression of virulence-associated genes by using DNA arrays and classical phenotypic assays, most of the observed effects were mediated by the H-NS protein alone. Expression profiling revealed that transcript level of more than 500 genes was affected by an hns mutation, resulting in increased expression of alpha-hemolysin, fimbriae and iron-uptake systems, as well as genes involved in stress adaptation. Furthermore, several other putative virulence factors were found to be part of the H-NS regulon. On the other hand, no effect of StpA alone was observed. An hns stpA double mutant, however, exhibited a distinct gene expression pattern that differed in great parts from that of the hns single mutant. This suggests a direct interaction between the two homologs and the existence of distinct regulons of H-NS and an H-NS/StpA heteromeric complex. Although the H-NS protein has – either as homomer or in complex with StpA – a marked impact on gene expression in pathogenic E. coli strains, its effect on urovirulence is ambiguous. At a high infection dose, hns mutants accelerate lethality in murine UTI and sepsis models relative to the wild type, probably due to increased production of alpha-hemolysin. At lower infectious dose, however, mutants lacking H-NS are attenuated through their impaired growth rate, which can only partially be compensated by the higher expression of numerous virulence factors. As seen with StpA, an hlp single mutant did not exhibit a notable phenotype under standard growth conditions. A severe growth defect of hns hlp double mutants at low temperatures, however, suggests a biological relevance of H-NS/Hlp heteromers under certain circumstances. Furthermore, these mutants expressed more capsular polysaccharide and curli fimbriae, thereby indicating a distinct role of H-NS and Hlp in regulation of these surface structures. The H-NS paralogs Hlp and StpA also modulated H-NS-mediated regulation of fimbrial adhesins, and are oppositely required for normal growth at low or high temperatures, respectively. Finally, expression levels of the three histone-like proteins H-NS, StpA and Hlp itself varied with different temperatures, thereby suggesting a flexible composition of the nucleoid-associated protein pool. Hence, we propose that the biological role of Hlp and StpA does not rely on a distinct function of the single protein, but rather on their interaction with the global regulator H-NS.
1. Summary Candida albicans is an opportunistic human fungal pathogen that causes a variety of infections, ranging from superficial mucosal to deep-seated systemic infections, especially in immunocompromised patients. Although the ability of C.albicans to cause disease largely depends on the immune status of the host, the fungus also exhibits specific characteristics that facilitate colonization, dissemination, and adaptation to different host niches and thereby turn C.albicans from a harmless commensal to an aggressive pathogen. In response to various environmental stimuli C.albicans switches from growth as a budding yeast to invasive filamentous growth, and this morphogenetic switch plays an important role in C.albicans pathogenesis. Nitrogen limitation is one of the signals that induce filamentous growth in C.albicans, and the control of the morphogenetic transition by nitrogen availability was studied in detail in the present work. Ammonium is a preferred nitrogen source for yeasts that is taken up into the cells by specific transporters. It was found in this study that C.albicans possesses two major ammonium transporters, encoded by the CaMEP1 and CaMEP2 genes, expression of which is induced by nitrogen starvation. Whereas mep1 or mep2 single mutants grew as well as the wild-type strain on limiting concentrations of ammonium, deletion of both transporters rendered C.albicans unable to grow at ammonium concentrations below 5 mM. In contrast to mep1 mutants, mep2 mutants failed to filament and grew only in the yeast form under nitrogen starvation conditions, indicating that in addition to its role as an ammonium transporter CaMep2p also has a signaling function in the induction of filamentous growth. CaMep2p was found to be a less efficient ammonium transporter than CaMep1p and to be expressed at much higher levels, a distinguishing feature important for its signaling function. By the construction and analysis of serially truncated versions of CaMep2p, the C-terminal cytoplasmic tail of the protein was shown to be essential for signaling but dispensable for ammonium transport, demonstrating that these two functions of CaMep2p are separable. In C.albicans at least two signal transduction pathways, a MAP kinase cascade and a cAMP-dependent pathway ending in the transcriptional regulators Cph1p and Efg1p, respectively, control filamentous growth, and mutants defective in either one of these pathways are defective for filamentation under nitrogen starvation conditions. A hyperactive CaMEP2 allele rescued the filamentation defect of a cph1 or a efg1 mutant, but not of a cph1 efg1 double mutant or a mutant deleted for RAS1, which acts upstream of and activates both signaling pathways. Conversely, a dominant active RAS1 allele or addition of exogenous cAMP rescued the filamentation defect of mep2 mutants. These results suggest that CaMep2p activates both the MAP kinase and the cAMP pathway in a Ras1p dependent manner to promote filamentous growth under nitrogen starvation conditions. At sufficiently high concentrations, ammonium repressed filamentous growth even when the signaling pathways were artificially activated. Therefore, C.albicans has established a regulatory circuit in which a preferred nitrogen source, ammonium, serves as an inhibitor of morphogenesis that is taken up into the cell by the same transporter that induces filamentous growth in response to nitrogen starvation. Although a detailed understanding of virulence mechanisms of C.albicans may ultimately lead to novel approaches to combat infections caused by this pathogen, the identification and characterization of essential genes as potential targets for the development of antifungal drugs is a strategy favoured by most pharmaceutical companies. Therefore, C.albicans homologs of three genes that are essential in other fungi were selected in collaboration with an industrial partner and functionally characterized in this work. RAP1 encodes the repressor/activator protein 1, a transcription factor and telomere binding protein that is essential for viability in the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. However, deletion of the C.albicans RAP1 homolog did not affect viability or growth of the mutants, suggesting that it is not a promising target. CBF1 (centromere binding factor 1) is necessary for proper chromosome segregation and transcriptional activation of methionine biosynthesis genes in S.cerevisiae and is essential for viability in the related yeasts Kluyveromyces lactis and Candida glabrata. Deletion of CBF1 in C.albicans did not result in an increased frequency of chromosome loss, indicating that it has no role in chromosome segregation in this organism. However, the C.albicans cbf1 mutants exhibited severe growth impairment, temperature sensitivity at 42°C, and auxotrophy for sulphur amino acids, suggesting that Cbf1p is a transcription factor that is important for normal growth of C.albicans. YIL19 is an essential gene in S.cerevisiae that is involved in 18S rRNA maturation. YIL19 was found to be an essential gene also in C.albicans. Conditional mutants in which the YIL19 gene could be excised from the genome by inducible, FLP-mediated recombination were non-viable and accumulated rRNA precursors, demonstrating that YIL19 is essential for this important cellular process and for viability of C.albicans and could serve as a target for the development of antifungal drugs.
In the last years more than one hundred microbial genomes have been sequenced, many of them from pathogenic bacteria. The availability of this huge amount of sequence data enormously increases our knowledge on the genome structure and plasticity, as well as on the microbial diversity and evolution. In parallel, these data are the basis for the scientific “revolution” in the field of industrial and environmental biotechnology and medical microbiology – diagnostics and therapy, development of new drugs and vaccines against infectious agents. Together with the genomic approach, other molecular biological methods such as PCR, DNA-chip technology, subtractive hybridization, transcriptomics and proteomics are of increasing importance for research on infectious diseases and public health. The aim of this work was to characterize the genome structure and -content of the probiotic Escherichia coli strain Nissle 1917 (O6:K5:H31) and to compare these data with publicly available data on the genomes of different pathogenic and non-pathogenic E. coli strains and other closely related species. A cosmid genomic library of strain Nissle 1917 was screened for clones containing the genetic determinants contributing to the successful survival in and colonization of the human body, as well as to mediate this strain’s probiotic effect as part of the intestinal microflora. Four genomic islands (GEI I-IVNissle 1917) were identifed and characterized. They contain many known fitness determinants (mch/mcm, foc, iuc, kps, ybt), as well as novel genes of unknown function, mobile genetic elements or newly identified putative fitness-contributing factors (Sat, Iha, ShiA-homologue, Ag43-homologues). All islands were found to be integrated next to tRNA genes (serX, pheV, argW and asnT, respectively). Their structure and chromosomal localization closely resembles those of analogous islands in the genome of uropathogenic E. coli strain CFT073 (O6:K2(?):H1), but they lack important virulence genes of uropathogenic E. coli (hly, cnf, prf/pap). Evidence for instability of GEI IINissle 1917 was given, since a deletion event in which IS2 elements play a role was detected. This event results in loss of a 30 kb DNA region, containing important fitness determinants (iuc, sat, iha), and therefore probably might influence the colonization capacity of Nissle 1917 strain. In addition, a screening of the sequence context of tRNA-encoding genes in the genome of Nissle 1917 was performed to identify genome wide potential integration sites of “foreign” DNA. As a result, similar “tRNA screening patterns” have been observed for strain Nissle 1917 and for the uropathogenic E. coli O6 strains (UPEC) 536 and CFT073. I. Summary 4 The molecular reason for the semi-rough phenotype and serum sensitivity of strain Nissle 1917 was analyzed. The O6-antigen polymerase-encoding gene wzy was identified, and it was shown that the reason for the semi-rough phenotype is a frame shift mutation in wzy, due to the presence of a premature stop codon. It was shown that the restoration of the O side-chain LPS polymerization by complementation with a functional wzy gene increased serumresistance of strain Nissle 1917. The results of this study show that despite the genome similarity of the E. coli strain Nissle 1917 with the UPEC strain CFT073, the strain Nissle 1917 exhibits a specific set of geno- and phenotypic features which contribute to its probiotic action. By comparison with the available data on the genomics of different species of Enterobacteriaceae, this study contributes to our understanding of the important processes such as horizontal gene transfer, deletions and rearrangements which contribute to genome diversity and -plasticity, and which are driving forces for the evolution of bacterial variants. At last, the fim, bcs and rfaH determinats whose expression contributes to the mutlicellular behaviour and biofilm formation of E. coli strain Nissle 1917 have been characterized.
The present investigation report a protocol to obtain dendritic cells (DC) that protects mice against fatal leishmaniasis. DC were generated from bone marrow precursors, pulsed with leishmanial antigen and activated with CpG oligodeoxinucleotides. Mice that were vaccinated with these cells were strongly protected against the clinical and parasitological manifestations of leishmaniasis and developed a Th1 immune response. protection was solid and long-lasting, and was also dependent of the via of administration. Whe the mechanism of protection was studied, it was observed that the availability of the cytokine interleukin-12 at the time of vaccination was a key requirement, but that the source of this cytokine is not the donor cells but unidentified cells from the recipients.
We have recently demonstrated that the frequency ofT cells expressing granzyme A is significantly higher in skin lesions and spleens of susceptible BALB/c mice compared with resistant C57BL/6 mice infected with Leishmania major, a cause of human cutaneous leishmaniasis. In the present study, we have performed in vitro studies to characterize the subpopulation, the antigen responsiveness and the lymphokine production pattern of granzyme A-expressing T cells in L. major-infected mice. Using a limiting dilution system for functional analysis of selected T cells at the clonallevel, we could show that granzyme A activity in infected BALB/c mice can be assigned to L. major-reactive CD4\(^+\) T cells secreting interleukin-2 (IL-2) and IL-4. Granzyme A production was most pronounced in the early phase of infection. On the other hand, granzyme A expression could not be detected in C57BL/6-derived T cells responding to L. major. The da ta support the suggestion that granzyme A is produced by L. major-responsive CD4\(^+\) T cells facilitating lesion formation and the dissemination of infection.
A novel technique for independent and simultaneous labeling of two antigens expressed on individual cells (referred to as mixed labeling) is presented. The staining procedure combined three-step (streptavidin-biotin) immunogold-silver staining with three-step immunoenzymatic labeling. To ensure both high specificity and high sensitivity, particular emphasis was placed on designing a protocol that avoids immunological crossreactivity between the antibody reagents and overlapping of the final color products. Two examples for usage of this mixed labeling technique are described: lymphocyte subpopulations were identified in inflammatory lesions of human skin and infected host cells were characterized in the skin of mice infected with the obligatory intracellular parasite Leishmania major, a cause of human cutaneous leishmaniasis.
Murine epidermal Langerhans cells (LC) have been demonstrated to stimulate a vigorous T cell response to Leishmania major, a cause of human cutaneous leishmaniasis. It was therefore of interest to analyze whether LC can take up viable parasites. Epidermal cells were obtained from mouse ear skin for incubation with L. major and subsequent detection of intracellular parasites by cytochemistry. Freshly isolated LC, but not cultured LC, phagocytosed L. major and the uptake was inhibited by antibodies to the complement receptor type 3. Electron microscopic studies revealed the presence of viable amastigotes within Le. Moreover, with double-Iabeling techniques, L. major-containing LC could also be detected in infected skin. The results demonstrate that LC can internalize L. major. Since the number of organisms per infected LC remained consistently low, the prime task of LC may not be the promotion of parasite spreading but the presentation of L. major antigen to T cells and, thus, the regulation of the cellular immunity during cutaneous leishmaniasis.
In leishmaniasis, macrophages are known to play a central role as modulators of the specific immune activity. In this article, Heidrun Moll presents evidence for the critical involvement of another component of the skin immune system, the epidermal Langerhans cell. She proposes that Langerhans cells take up parasites in the skin and transport them to the draining lymph node for presentation to T cells and initiation of the specific immune response.
S fimbrial adbesins (Sfa), which are able to recognize sialic acid-containing receptors on eukaryotic cells, are produced by Escherichia coli strains causing urinary tract infections or newbom meningitis. We recently described tbe cloning and molecular cbaracterization of a determinant, termed sftJI, from the chromosome of an E. coli urinary tract infection strain. Herewe present data conceming a S fimbria-specific gene duster, designated sfall, of an E. coli newbom meningitis strain. Like tbe Sfal complex, Sfall consists of tbe major subunit protein SfaA (16 kDa) and the minor subunit proteins SfaG (17 kDa), SfaS (15 kDa), and SfaH (29 kDa). The genes encoding tbe subunit proteins of Sfall were identified and sequenced. Their protein sequences were calculated from the DNA sequences and compared with tbose of the Sfal complex subunits. Altbough the sequences ofthe two major SfaA subunits ditf'ered markedly, tbe sequences ofthe minor subunits sbowed only a few amino acid exchanges (SfaG, SfaH) or were completely identical (SfaS). The introduction of a site-specific mutation into the gene sfaSII and subsequent analysis of an SfaS-negative clone indicated that sfaSII codes for the sialic acid-specific adhesin of tbe meninigitis isolate. These data were confirmed by tbe isolation and characterization of tbe SfaSII protein and the determination of its N-terminal amino acid sequence. The identity between the sialic acid-specific adhesins of Sfal and Sfall revealed that difl'erences between the two Sfa complexes with respect to tbeir capacities to agglutinate erythrocytes must result from sequence alterations of subunit proteins other tban SfaS.
Escherichia coli isolates of serotype 06: K5 are the most common causative agents of cystitis and pyelonephritis in adults. To answer the question, as to whether strains of this particular serotype represent one special clonal group, out of a collection of 34 serotype 06: K5 isolates [Zingler et al. ( 1990) Zentralbl. Bakteriol Mikrobiol Hyg [A] 274:372-381] 15 strains were selected andanalyzed in detail. The flagellar (H) antigen and the outer membrane protein (OMP) pattern were determined. Furtherserum resistance properties and the genetic presence and expression of other virulence factors, including hemolysin, aerobactin, P fimbriae, S/F1C fimbriae and type 1 fimbriae was evaluated. In~laddition the Xbalmacrorestriction pattern of ten representative isolates was elaborated and the fimbrial (F) antigentype ofthe P fimbriae was determined, to obtain the complete 0: K: H: F pattern. These analyses could clearly show that the 06: K5 isolates do not represent one clonal group. The Xbal-macrorestriction profiles were heterogeneaus and marked differences in the hybridization patterns, using virulenceassociated gene probes in Southern hybridization of long-range-separated genomic DNA, were observed among the strains. However, some of strains showed similarities in the genomic profiles, arguing for clonal groupings among the 06: K5 isolates. lnterstingly the strains grouped tagether exhibited the same fimbrial F typethat many indicate a coincidence of this phenotypic trait with clonality.
The sfa determinant codes for S fimbrial adhesins which constitute adherence factors of pathogenic Escherichia coli strains. Wehave recently shown that the sfa determinant is transcribed from three prömoters, pA, pB, and pC. In comparison with the promoters pB and pC, promoter pA, which is located in front of the structural gene sfaA, showed very weak activity. Herewe have determined the exact positions ofthe mRNA start points by primer extension studies. We have also shown that mRNAs of 500, 700 and 1400 bases can be detected using oligonucleotide probes specific for the genes sfaB, sfaC and sfaA. SfaB and SfaC arepositive regulators infiuencing fimbriation and the production of the S-specific adhesin which is encoded by the gene sfaS Iocated in the distal half of the determinant. In addition, it is demonstrated that SfaB and SfaC interfere with the regulatory effect of the histone-like protein H-NS, encoded by a locus termed drdX or osmZ. In a drdx+ strain the regulators are necessary for transcription of the sfa determinant. In contrast, sfa expression is activator-independent in a drdx- strain. In this latter genetic background, a substantial fraction of the sfa transcripts is initiated from promoter pA. On the basis of these data we discuss a model for the regulation of this adhesin-specific determinant.
During a study of the nutritional requirements of clinical isolates of Escherichia coli, we found that 21 (7.0%) of 301 strains required nicotinamide to grow in minimal medium. The nicotinamide- requiring strains were present in 16 (15.8%) of 101 cultures of urine from young women with acute cystitis, in 5 (5.0%) of 100 stool specimens from healthy adults, and in none of 100 blood samples from adult patients with bacteremia. Most of the strains belonged to serogroup OI8:KI:H7, were hemolytic, possessed type I fimbriae, and exhibited similar patterns of antibiotic susceptibility. Two of the urinary isolates expressed S fimbriae, and all 16 urinary isolates contained the s/aS homologue gene on their chromosomes. One of the stool isolates contained the s/aS gene. The urinary isolates closely resembled a large clone of E. coli that is reportedly associated with neonatal meningitis and sepsis. It may be possible to detect this and related clones by their requirement for nicotinamide and to screen strains for S fimbriae by relatively inexpensive hemagglutination methods, including the use of avian PI antigens to detect mannose- resistant, non-P-fimbriated E. coli; the agglutination of bovine erythrocytes; and the use of bovine mucin to detect sialyl galactosides in S fimbriae.
Legionella pneumophila, the causative agent of Legionnaires' disease is a facultative intracellular bacterium, which in the course of human infection multiplies in lung macrophages predominantly manifesting as pneumonia. The natural habitat of Legionella is found in sweet water reservoirs and man-made water systems. Virulent L. pneumophila spontaneously convert to an avirulent status at a high frequency. Genetic approaches have led to the identification of various L. pneumophila genes. The mip (macrophage infectivity potentiator) determinant remains at present the sole established virulence factor. The Mip protein exhibits activity of a peptidyl prolyl cis trans isomerase (PPiase), an enzyme which is able to bind the immunosuppressant FK506 and is involved in protein folding. The recently cloned major outer membrane protein (MOMP) could play a role in the uptake of legionellae by macrophages. Cellular models are useful in studying the intracellular replication of legionellae in eukaryotic cells. Human celllines and protozoan models are appropriate for this purpose. By using U 937 macrophage-like cells and Acanthamoeba castellanii as hosts, we could discriminate virulent and avirulent L. pneumophila variants since only the virulent strain was capable of intracellular growth at 37 oc. By using these systems we further demonstrated that a hemolytic factor cloned and characterized in our laboratory, legiolysin (lly), had no influence on the intracellular growth of L. pneumophila.
S fimbriae are able to recognize receptor molecules containing sialic acid and are produced by pathogenic E. coli strains causing urinary tract infection and menigitis. In order to characterize the corresponding genetic determinant, termed S fimbrial adhesin ( sfa) gene duster, we have cloned the S-specific genes from a urinary pathogen and from a meningitis isolate. Nine genes are involved in the production of S fimbriae, two of these, sfaB and sfaC code for regulatory proteins being necessary for the expression of S fimbriae. Two promoters, PB and Pc, are located in front of these genes. Transcription of the sfa determinant is influenced by activation of the promotersvia SfaB and SfaC, the action of the H-NS protein and an RNaseE-specific mRNA processing. In addition, a third promoter, P A• located in front of the major subunit gene sfaA, can be activated under special circumstances. Four genes of the sfa determinant code for the subunit-specific proteins, SfaA (16 kda), SfaG (17 kda), SfaS (14 kda) and SfaH (29 kda). It was demonstrated that the protein SfaA is the major subunit protein while SfaS is identical to the sialic-acid-specific adhesin of S fimbriae. The introduction of specific mutations into sfaS revealed that a region of six amino acids of the adhesin which includes two lysine and one arginine residues is involved in the receptor specific interaction of S fimbriae. Additionally, it has been shown that SfaS is necessary for the induction of fimbriation while SfaH plays a role in the stringency of binding of S fimbriae to erythrocytes.
Thirtccn StttJ1hylococcus dw·eus and s: <'pid<'l'· midis strains ohtaincd from nnsc and hand nf twn cmployccs and onc paticnt uf a mcdical ward as weil as two S. hemol.\"licus strains wcrc analyscd according to thcir rcstrktion fmgmcnt lcngth pattcrns ( RFLP) hy pulscd-ficld gcl clcctrophorcsis (PFGE) using thc rcslriction cnzymcs SmaJ and s.. .· tll. Spccics idcntification nf thc isolatcs was pcrformcd hy a systcm which includcs :!O hiochcmical rc"ctions. Furthcrmorc. thc antillintic resistancc pattcrns of thc stmins wcrc dctcrmincd. Whilc scvcral isolatcs cxhihitcd idcnticaf antihiotic susccptihilitics and hiochcmical prnfilcs. diffcrences in thc RFLP wcrc ohtaincd. ln thrcc cascs, S. epidermülis strains colonizing thc skin showcd an idcntical rcstriction profilc as isollltcs from thc mucous mcmhrancs of thc samc pcrson. Wc C(mcludcd that thc analysis of staphylococcal strains hy PFGE is an important cpidcmiolngical tnnl with high discrimination power.
A hospital warm water system was monitored for the prcsence and distribution of lcgionellac. Subtyping of ten scletled Legionella pneumophiltl isolates. originating from four different sites in the system by using serogroup spccific antisera in an indircct immunofluorcscence tcst, rcvcalcd that nine of the tcn isolatcs belonged to scrogroup 6, while the remaining one was serogroup I 0. Two monoclonal antibodics (mAbs) spccific for a subgroup of serogroup 6 strains were further used for characterization. None of the strains reactcd with these mAbs. Genome analysis by elaborating Not I profiles using the pulscd field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) technique revealed that nearly all serogroup 6 isolates dcrived from different sites, including a new building connected hy a ring pipe. wcrc identical according to restriction fragment pattems. The patterns were distinguishable from those of the two L. pnewnophi/a serogroup 6 rcfcrencc strains, and ftom that of thc L. pneumophila scrogroup 10 isolate. These data arguc for a relatively homogeneaus L. pneunwpltila serogroup 6 population in the entire watcr system.
S-fimbriae mediated adhesin of Escherichia coli to human buccal epithelial cells is age independent
(1992)
S-fimbriated Escherichia coli, which cause sepsis and meningitis in the newbom, bind to sialic acid-containing glycoprotein structures on the surface of human buccal epithelial cells. The dependence of · this binding on host age was examined. S-fimbriated · E. coli adhered in comparable numbers to cells in newborns, infants, children and adults (23.0 ± 8.6; 23.1 ± 11.5; 24.7 ± 7.9; 28.9 ± 8.8). Thus, the increased susceptibility of neonates to infections caused by S-fimbriated E. coli cannot be explained by enhanced · adhesion to epithelial cells
Mip protein of Legionella pneumophila exhibits peptidyl-prolyl cis-trans-isomerase (PPIase) activity
(1992)
Legfonells pneumoph/la is an intracellular paraslte which ts able to survtve and multipJy in human monocytes and alveolar macrophages. The Mtp (macrophage lnfectiv1ty potentlator) protein has been shown to be an essential virulente factor. A search of translated nuclelt .acld data ba.ses has shown that the Mip proteJn from strain Wadsworth possesses reglons homologaus to those found in the FK.506-bindfng proteins (FKBPs) of several different eukaryotlc organisms. FKBPs are abte to bind to the fmmunosuppressant macrollde FK506 and possess peptidyf .. prolyl cisltrans Isomerase (PPiase) activlty. The gene coding for the Mlp proteln was cloned from the ehromo. some of L. pneumophila straln Philadelph·a I and sequenced. II was synthesl%ed in Escherichla coll ·K- 12 and alter purlfication it exhibited PPiase activity catalyslng the slow clsltrans lsomerization of prolyl peptlde bonds. ln ollgopeptides. Mip ls inhibi~ted by FK506 and fully reslstant to cyclosporln A, as was also found for the recently characterlzed FKBP-type PPiases of eukaryotes. However, the N-terminal extenslon of Mip and/or the substltutrons of the vari· ab1e amlno acrds ln the C-termlnal FKBP core Iead to variatlons,. when compared with eukaryotlc FKBPs, Jn substrate specfflclty wlth the Oligopeptide substrates of' type Suc-Aia-Xaa-Pro-Phe·4·nitroanUide. Never· theless, the Legionella Mip factor represents a bacte· rial gene product whtch shares some characteristics normally found in eukaryotic proteins. ln view of the activity of PPiases in protein-folding reactlonsf such prokaryotic FKBP analogues may represent a new class of bacterial. pathogenicity factors.
We investigated the presence of factors in human milkthat inhibit Invasion of pathogenic bacteria. The efl'ect of human milk fat globule membrane (HMFGM) components on adhesion of cloned S-fimbriated Escherichia coli to human buccal epithelial cells was analyzed. S fimbriae are a common feature of E. coli strains causing sepsis and meningitis in newborns and are bound to epithelia via sialyl-(a-2-3)galactoside structures. Human milk fat globules (HMFG) could be agglutinated by the above-mentioned bacteria. Agglutination could be inhibited by fetuin, human glycophorin, and a 1-acid glycoprotein. In addition, pretreatment of HMFG with Jlibrio cholerae neuraminidase markedly reduced bacterium-induced agglutinations, indicating the involvement of neuraminic acid-containing glycoproteins. In contrast, Iipid droplets of infant formula or artificiallipid emulsions (Intralipid) could not be agglutinated. HMFG were present in stools of breast-fed neonates as shown by indirect immunofluorescence staining with a monoclonal antibody directed against carbohydrate residues present on HMFGM. These HMFG could be agglutinated by bacteria. HMFG inhibited E. coli adhesion to buccal epithelial cells. To further characterize relevant E. coli binding structures, HMFGM components w~re separated by gel chromatography. The mucin fraction showed the most pronounced inhibitory efrect on adhesion of S-fimbriated E. coli to human buccal epithelial cells. Our data soggest that HMFG inhibit bacterial adhesion in the entire intestine and thereby may provide protection against bacterial infection.
A total of 36 Escherichia coli urinary tract isolates (UTI) of serotype 06, with different combinations of capsule ( K) and flagellin ( H) antigens, were analysed according to the outer membrane pattern (OMP), serum resistance properties, mannose-resistant hemagglutination using various types of erythrocytes, and also for the genetic presence and the expression of Pfimbriae. S fimbriae/F1 C fimbriae, Type 1 fimbriae, aerobactin and hemolysin. Twenty selected strains were further analysed by pulsed field gel electrophoresis (PFGE), elaborating genomic profilas by Xba I cleavage and subsequent Southern hybridization to virulence-associated DNA probes. lt could be shown that 06 UTI isolates represent a highly heterogeneaus group of strains according to the occurrence and combination of these traits. Relatedness an the genetic and the phenotypic Ievei was found for some of the strains exhibiting the same 0: K: H: F serotype. DNA Iang-range mapping further indicated some interesting features, according to the copy number and the genomic linkage of virulence genes.
We investigated the ability of meconium, feces from human milk-fed (HMF) newborns, and feces from formula-fed (FF) newborns to inhibit adhesion of S-fimbriated E. coli to human buccal epithelial cells. S-fimbriae are a common property of E.·coli strains causing sepsis and meningitis in neonates. Meconium had the highest content of neuraminic acid and the strongest inhibitory effect on bacterial adhesion. HMF also exerted high inhibitory activity while FF was markedly less active: To achieve inhibitory effects comparable to HMF a sixfold amount of FF was required. Glycoproteins from excretions were separated by gel chromatography. Fractions obtained were analyzed for adhesion-inhibiting activity. In all excretions analyzed, the mucin-containing fraction could be identified as the major inhibitory component. Inhibition was probably mediated by specific interaction of this fraction with S-fimbriae, as shown by binding of isolated fimbriae on Western blots after electrophoretic separation of glycoproteins. In conclusion, our data support the view that the mucin-containing fraction from meconium and human milk exerts antibacterial functions by preventing adhesin-mediated binding of pathogenic bacteria to mucosal epithelia. Key Words: S-fimbriated E. coli-Inhibition of adhesion-Meconium- Feces of human milk-fed newborns-Feces of formula-fed newborns-Mucins.
Escherichia coli 0139: K82: H1 strains originating from outbreaks and single cases of oedema disease in pigs were characterized by their genomic restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP), their virulence pattern, and by the occurrence as well as the genomic distribution of the determinants for hemolysin (hly) and verotoxins (shiga-like toxins; sltI, sltII). Whereas the RFLPs revealed considerable variation among the E. coli 0139: K82: H1 isolates depending the origin and epidemic source of the strains, the virulence gene slt II was found to be present in nearly all strains in a particular chromosomal region. Similar to RFLPs, the plasmid profiles are useful for epidemiological analysis.
E. coli strain 536 (06: K15: H31) isolated from a case of acute pyelonephritis, expresses S-fimbrial adhesins, P-related fimbriae, common type I fimbriae, and hemolysins. The respective chromosomally encoded determinants were cloned by constructing a genomic library of this strain. Furthermore, the strain produces the iron uptake substance, enterocheline, damages HeLa cells, and behaves in a serum-resistant mode. Genetic analysis of spontaneously arising non-hemolytic variants revealed that some of the virulence genes were physically linked to large unstable DNA regions, termed "pathogenicity islands", which were mapped in the respective positions on the E. coli K-12linkage map. By comparing the wild type strain and mutants in in vitro and in vivo assays, virulence features have been evaluated. In addition, a regulatory cross talk between adhesin determinants was found for the wild-type isolate. This particular mode of virulence regulation is missing in the mutant strain.
Legionella pneumophila generares exotoxins, cytolysins, proteases oc hemolysins that darnage host cells llke erythrocytes or rissue cu lrure cells. The gene for a new L. pneumophila hemolysin withour a proteolytic activiry was idemified, cloned in E. coli and sequenced. The gene producr was analysed by SDS-Polyacrylamide-gel-electrophoresis.
Freshly isolated human T lymphocytes were tested for their response to mycobacteria, mycobacteriallysates, 2 dimensional (2D) PAGE separated mycobacteriallysates, leishmania and defined leishmanial antigen preparations. While,o T cells proliferated vigourously in the presence of mycobacteria and mycobacteria derived lysates, a significant stimulation from 2 D gel separated lysates was not detected. In addition '10 T cells failed to respond towards leishmania or leishmanial components. In the ab T cell compartment some donors, presumably according to their state of immunity against mycobacteria, responded to mycobacteria, mycobacterial lysates and 2 D gel separated mycobacterial lysates. Neither freshly isolated '10 T cells nor ab T cells from naive donors did mount a significant immune response against leishmania.
The expression of T-cell-associated serine proteinase 1 (MTSP-1) in vivo during Leishmania major infection was analyzed in genetically resistant C57BL/6 mice and in genetically susceptible BALB/c mice. Using a monoclonal antibody as well as an RNA probe specific for MTSP-1 to stain tissue sections, we found T cells expressing MTSP-1 in skin lesions and spleens of mice of both strains. In skin lesions, MTSP-1-positive T cells could be detected as early as 3 days after infection. Most importantly, the frequency of T cells expressing MTSP-1 was significantly higher in susceptible BALB/c mice than in resistant C57BL/6 mice. These findings suggest that MTSP-1 is associated with disease-promoting T cells and that it may be an effector molecule involved in the pathogenesis of cutaneous leishmaniasis.
A total of 127 extraintestinal Escherichia coli strains of the capsule serotypes Kl, KS, and KlOO from human and animal sources were analyzed for DNA sequences specific for the genes for various adhesins (P fimbriae fpap] and P-related sequences fprs], S fimbriae [s/a)/FlC fimbriae [foc], and type I fimbriae lfim]), aerobactin (aer), and hemolysin (hly). The expression of corresponding virulence factors was also tested. Twenty-four selected strains were analyzed by long-range DNA mapping to evaluate their genetic relationships. DNA sequences for the adhesins were often found in strains not expressing them, while strains with hemolysin and aerobactin genes usually did express them. Different isolates of the same serotype orten expressed different virulence patterns. The use of virulence-associated gene probes for Southern hybridization with genomic DNA fragments separated by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis revealed that a highly heterogeneous restriction fragment length and hybridization pattern existed even within strains of the same serotype. Long-range DNA mapping is therefore useful for the evaluation of genetic relatedness among individual isolates and facilitates the performance of .precise molecular epidemiology.
The legiolysin gene (lly) cloned from Legionella pneumophila Philadelphia 1 confers the phenotypes of hemolysis and browning of the culture medium. An internal Uy-specific DNA probe was used in Southern hybridizations for the detection of Uy-specific DNA in the genomes of legioneUae and other gram-negative pathogenic bacteria. Under conditi9ns of high stringency, tlie Uy DNA probe specifically reacted with DNA fragments fr9m L. pneumophiüz isolates; by reducing stringency, hybridization was also observed for all other Legionella strains tested. No hybridization occurred with DNAs isolated from bact~ria of other genera. The Uy genewas mapped by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis to the respective genomic Notl fragments of Legionelltz isolates. By using antilegiolysin monospecific polyclonal antibodies in Western blots (immunoblots), Lly proteins could be detected only in L. pneumophila isolates.
Legionel/a pneumophila, the causative agent of Legionnaires' disease, was analysed by electron microscopy for production of surface structures. Crystalline surface (S-) layers and fimbriae were not detected, but monotrichous flagellation was seen. Polyclonal antibodies specific for the 47 kDa ftagellin subunit of L. pneumophila Philadelphia I were used in Western blots to confirm the presence of flagella subunits in various L. pneumophila strains tested, but the antiserumalso reacted with flagellin subunits of L. micdlulei, L. hackelia (serogroup (SG) l and SG21 and L./ongbetichae (SG2). Flagellation of Legionellae was shown to be temperature regulated. When the growth temperature of virulent and avirulent variants of strain L. pneumophila Philadelphia I was shifted from 30 oc to either 37 or 41 oc, a decrease in the percentage offtagellated bacteria within the populationwas observed.
The protein PpiA (19 kD) cloned from a genomic library of Legionella pneumophila, Philadelphia 1, represents a peptido-glycan associated outer membrane protein in recombinant E. coli K-12 and L. pneumophila. lt exhibits distinct sequence homology to Iipoproteins of Haemophilus influenzae and E. coli. A ppiA specific DNA probe generated by PCR was used in Southern hybridizations of chromosomal DNA of Legionella strains and other Gram-negative pathogens. Under conditions of high stringency, hybridization could only be observed in L. pneumophila isolates, but alt other Legionella strains tested displayed hybridization under lower stringency. No signals appeared after hybridization of chromosomal DNA from a variety of other bacteria. Using anti-PpiA monospecific polyclonal antibodies in Western blots, it was demonstrated that PpiA related proteins of nearly the same size are found in all L. pneumophila isolates and in a variety of, but not alt, the Legionella species analysed here.
Ten Legionella pneumophUa strains isolated from dift'erent sources were analyzed according to their restriction fragment patterils obtained by cle~vage of gen.omic DNA With Notl and Sftl and separation by pulsed field electrophoresis. Three L. pneumophila isolate~ from a nosocomial outbreak in Lü~k (Germany) and three other L. prreumophilll stralns independently isolated from a water tap located in the care unit where tbe patients were bospitalized 'xhibited identical restricti9n fragment profiles. Therefore, we concluded that these environment81 spee~ens were the source of the Legionnatres dlsease. Anotber two isolates from patients and two strains from the environment, all unrelated to the outJlreak described, sbowed different cleavage patterns.
Legionella pneumophila, the causative agent of Legionnaires' disease is able to live and multiply within macrophages as weil as within protozoan organisms. Legionella strains inhibit phagosome-lysosome fusion and phagosome acidification. By using two different cell culture systems, one derived from human macrophages and the other from human.embryo lung fibro:blastic cells, it is demonstrated that Legionella strains lose their virulence following cultivation in the laboratory. In order to study the mechanisms involved in intracellular survival of Legionella a genomic library of strain Legionella pneumophila Philadelphia I was established in Escherichia coli K-12. By cosmid cloning technique we were able to clone five putative virulence factors, two of which exhibit hemolytic activities and three of which represent membrane-associated proteins of 19, 26 and 60 kilodalton. One of the hemolytic proteins, termed legiolysin, represents a new toxin which specifically lyses human erythrocytes. The other hemolysin exhibits proteolytic properties in addition and is cytolytic for Vero and CHO cells. Further sturlies will be necessary to determine the exact role of the cloned proteins in the pathogenesis of Legionella. Zusammenfassung: Intrazelluläres Überleben
The uropathogenic Escherichia coli wiJd..:type strain 536 produces S-fimbriae, P-related fimbriae and type I fimbriae. Using immuno-colony dot and ELISA techniques, variants were detected showing an increased degree of S-fimbrial production. It was demonstrated by itrtmunofluorescence microscopy that in noimal (wild-type) and hyperS- fimbriated E. coli populaiions non-fimbriated cells also · exist, and that the percentage of Sfinibrlated and non-fimbriated bacteria was roughly identica1 in either population. Hyper-Sfimbriated variants could be stably maintained. The transition from wild-type to hyper-S-fimbriation, which occurs spontaneously, is markedly higher than vice versa. Southern blot analysis of the S fimbrial adhesin (sfa) determinants of normal and hyper-fimbriated strains revealed no marked difference in the gene structure.