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Die vier Crz-Neurone des ventralen Nervensystems von Drosophila melanogaster sammeln Evidenz, wann im Rahmen eines Paarungsakts zirka 6 Minuten vergangen sind. Diese Entscheidung ist für die männliche Fliege von Bedeutung, da das Männchen vor Ablauf dieser ~6 Minuten, welche den Zeitpunkt der Ejakulation darstellen, eher das eigene Leben opfern würde, als dass es die Paarung beenden würde. Nach Ablauf der ~6 Minuten fällt die Motivation des Männchens dagegen dramatisch ab. Im Rahmen der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde zunächst mittels optogenetischer neuronaler Inhibitionsprotokolle sowie Verhaltensanalysen das Phänomen der Evidenz-akkumulation in den Crz-Neuronen genauer charakterisiert. Dabei zeigte sich, dass die akkumulierte Evidenz auch während einer elektrischen Inhibition der Crz-Neurone persistierte. Dieses Ergebnis warf die Hypothese auf, dass das Äquivalent der akkumulierten Evidenz in den Crz-Neuronen biochemischer Natur sein könnte. Es wurde daraufhin ein Hochdurchsatzscreening-Verfahren entwickelt, mittels dessen 1388 genetische Manipulationen der Crz-Neurone durchgeführt und auf eine Änderung der Evidenzakkumulation getestet wurden. Nur ~30 genetische Manipulationen zeigten eine veränderte Evidenzakkumulation, wobei die meisten dieser Manipulationen den cAMP-Signalweg betrafen. Mittels der optogenetischen Photoadenylatzyklase bPAC, einer Reihe weiterer genetischer Manipulationen des cAMP-Signalwegs sowie der ex vivo Kalzium-Bildgebung und Fluoreszenzlebensdauer-Mikroskopie konnte bestätigt werden, dass cAMP das Äquivalent der in den Crz-Neuronen spannungsabhängig akkumulierten Evidenz darstellt, wobei die Kombination dieser Methoden nahelegte, dass der Schwellenwert der Evidenzakkumulation durch die cAMP-Bindungsaffinität der regulatorischen PKA-Untereinheiten festgelegt sein könnte. Mittels genetischer Mosaikexperimente sowie bildgebenden Verfahren konnte darüber hinaus gezeigt werden, dass innerhalb des Crz-Netzwerks eine positive Rückkopplungsschleife aus rekurrenter Aktivität sowie der cAMP-Akkumulation besteht, welche, sobald die cAMP-Spiegel den Schwellenwert erreichen, zu einem netzwerkweit synchronisierten massiven Kalziumeinstrom führt, was die Abgabe des Crz-Signals an nachgeschaltete Netzwerke triggert. Dieses Phänomen könnte ein Analogon des Aktionspotenzials auf Netzwerkebene sowie auf Intervallzeitskalen darstellen und wurde als „Eruption“ bezeichnet. Genetische, optogenetische sowie Bildgebungsexperimente konnten zeigen, dass die CaMKII derartige Eruptionen durch Niedrighalten der cAMP-Spiegel unterdrückt, was den Zeitmessmechanismus des ersten beschriebenen Intervallzeitmessers CaMKII offenlegt.
We are living in a system that underlies permanent environmental changes due to the rotation of our planet. These changes are rhythmic with the most prominent one having a period of about 24 hours, but also shorter and longer rhythms characterize our environment. To cope with the ever-changing environmental conditions, it is thought to be beneficial if an organism can track and anticipate these changes. The so called endogenous clocks enable this and might provide a fitness advantage. To investigate and unravel the mechanism of endogenous clocks Chronobiologists have used different model organisms. In this thesis Drosophila melanogaster was used as model organism with its about 150 clock neurons representing the main endogenous clock of the fly in the central brain.
The molecular mechanisms and the interlocked feedback loops with the main circadian key players like period, timeless, clock or cycle are under investigation since the 1970s and are characterized quite well so far. But the impact of a functional endogenous clock in combination with diverse factors and the resulting fitness advantages were analysed in only a few studies and remains for the most part unknown. Therefore the aim of this thesis was to unravel the impact of Drosophila melanogaster`s endogenous clock on the fitness of the fly. To achieve this goal different factors – like day length, humidity and food composition – were analyzed in wild type CS and three different period mutants, namely perL, perS and per01, that carry a point mutation altering or abolishing the free-running period of the fruit fly as well as a second arrhythmic strain, clkAR.
In competition assay experiments wild type and clock mutant flies competed for up to 63 generations under a normal 24 hour rhythm with 12 hours light/day and 12 hours darkness/night (LD12:12) or T-cycles with 19 or 29 hours, according to the mutants free-running period, or constant light (LL) in case of the arrhythmic mutant as well as under natural-like outdoor conditions in two consecutive years. Overall the wild type CS strain was outcompeting the clock mutant strains independent of the environmental conditions. As the perL fly strain elongated their free-running period, the competition experiments were repeated with naturally cantonized new fly strains. With these experiments it could be shown that the genetic background of the fly strains – which are kept for decades in the lab, with backcrosses every few years – is very important and influences the fitness of flies. But also the day length impacts the fitness of the flies, enabling them to persist in higher percentage in a population under competition. Further factors that might influence the survival in a competing population were investigated, like e.g. mating preferences and locomotor activity of homo- and heterozygous females or sperm number of males transferred per mating. But these factors can still not explain the results in total and play no or only minor roles and show the complexity of the whole system with still unknown characteristics.
Furthermore populations of flies were recorded to see if the flies exhibit a common locomotor activity pattern or not and indeed a population activity pattern could be recorded for the first time and social contact as a Zeitgeber could be verified for Drosophila melanogaster.
In addition humidity and its impact on the flies´ fitness as well as a potential Zeitgeber was examined in this thesis. The flies experienced different relative humidities for eclosion and wing expansion and humidity cycle phase shifting experiments were performed to address these two different questions of fitness impact and potential Zeitgeber. The fruit fly usually ecloses in the morning hours when the relative humidity is quite high and the general assumption was that they do so to prevent desiccation. The results of this thesis were quite clear and demonstrate that the relative humidity has no great effect on the fitness of the flies according to successful eclosion or wing expansion and that temperature might be the more important factor. In the humidity cycle phase shifting experiments it could be revealed that relative humidity cannot act as a Zeitgeber for Drosophila melanogaster, but it influences and therefore masks the activity of flies by allowing or surpressing activity at specific relative humidity values.
As final experiments the lifespan of wild type and clock mutant flies was investigated under different day length and with different food qualities to unravel the impact of these factors on the fitness and therefore survival of the flies on the long run. As expected the flies with nutrient-poor minimum medium died earlier than on the nutrient-rich maximum medium, but a small effect of day length could also be seen with flies living slightly longer when they experience environmental day length conditions resembling their free-running period. The experiments also showed a fitness advantage of the wild type fly strain against the clock mutant strains for long term, but not short term (about the first 2-3 weeks).
As a conclusion it can be said that genetic variation is important to be able to adapt to changing environmental conditions and to optimize fitness and therefore survival. Having a functional endogenous clock with a free-running period of about 24 hours provides fitness advantages for the fruit fly, at least under competition. The whole system is very complex and many factors – known and unknown ones – play a role in this system by interacting on different levels, e.g. physiology, metabolism and/or behavior.
Neuropeptides and peptide hormones carrying neural or physiological information are intercellular signalling substances. They control most if not all biological processes in vertebrates and invertebrates by acting on specific receptors on the target cell. In mammals, many different neuropeptides and peptide hormones are involved in the regulation of feeding and sleep. In \textit{Drosophila}, allatostatin A (AstA) and myoinhibitory peptides (MIPs) are brain-gut peptides. The AstA receptors are homologues of the mammalian galanin receptors and the amino acid sequences of MIPs are similar to a part of galanin, which has an orexigenic effect and is implicated in the control of sleep behaviour in mammals. I am interested in dissecting pleiotropic functions of AstA and MIPs in the regulation of food intake and sleep in \textit{Drosophila}. \par
In the first part of the dissertation the roles of brain-gut peptide allatostatin A are analysed. Due to the genetic and molecular tools available, the fruit fly \textit{Drosophila melanogaster} is chosen to investigate functions of AstA. The aims in this part are to identify pleiotropic functions of AstA and assign specific effects to the activity of certain subsets of AstA expressing cells in \textit{Drosophila} adults. A new and restricted \textit{AstA\textsuperscript{34}-Gal4} line was generated. The confocal imaging result showed that AstA neurons are located in the posterior lateral protocerebrum (PLP), the gnathal ganglia (GNG), the medullae, and thoracic-abdominal ganglion (TAG). AstA producing DLAa neurons in the TAG innervate hindgut and the poterior part of midgut. In addition, AstA are detected in the enteroendocrine cells (EECs).\par
Thermogenetic activation and neurogenetic silencing tools with the aid of the \textit{UAS/Gal4} system were employed to manipulate the activity of all or individual subsets of AstA cells and investigate the effects on food intake, locomotor activity and sleep. Our experimental results showed that thermogenetic activation of two pairs of PLP neurons and/or AstA expressing EECs reduced food intake, which can be traced to AstA signalling by using \textit{AstA} mutants. In the locomotor activity, thermogenetic activation of two pairs of PLP neurons and/or AstA expressing EECs resulted in strongly inhibited locomotor activity and promoted sleep without sexual difference, which was most apparent during the morning and evening activity peaks. The experimental and control flies were not impaired in climbing ability. In contrast, conditional silencing of the PLP neurons and/or AstA expressing EECs reduced sleep specifically in the siesta. The arousal experiment was employed to test for the sleep intensity. Thermogenetically activated flies walked significantly slower and a shorter distance than controls for all arousal stimulus intensities. Furthermore, PDF receptor was detected in the PLP neurons and the PLP neurons reacted with an intracellular increase of cAMP upon PDF, only when PDF receptor was present. Constitutive activation of AstA cells by tethered PDF increased sleep and thermogenetic activation of the PDF producing sLNvs promoted sleep specifically in the morning and evening. \par
The study shows that the PLP neurons and/or EECs vis AstA signalling subserve an anorexigenic and sleep-regulating function in \textit{Drosophila}. The PLP neurons arborise in the posterior superior protocerebrum, where the sleep relevant dopaminergic neurons are located, and EECs extend themselves to reach the gut lumen. Thus, the PLP neurons are well positioned to regulate sleep and EECs potentially modulate feeding and possibly locomotor activity and sleep during sending the nutritional information from the gut to the brain. The results of imaging, activation of the PDF signalling pathway by tethered PDF and thermoactivation of PDF expressing sLNvs suggest that the PLP neurons are modulated by PDF from sLNv clock neurons and AstA in PLP neurons is the downstream target of the central clock to modulate locomotor activity and sleep. AstA receptors are homologues of galanin receptors and both of them are involved in the regulation of feeding and sleep, which appears to be conserved in evolutionary aspect.\par
In the second part of the dissertation, I analysed the role of myoinhibitory peptides. MIPs are brain-gut peptides in insects and polychaeta. Also in \textit{Drosophila}, MIPs are expressed in the CNS and EECs in the gut. Previous studies have demonstrated the functions of MIPs in the regulation of food intake, gut motility and ecdysis in moths and crickets. Yet, the functions of MIPs in the fruit fly are little known. To dissect effects of MIPs regarding feeding, locomotor activity and sleep in \textit{Drosophila melanogater}, I manipulated the activity of MIP\textsuperscript{WÜ} cells by using newly generated \textit{Mip\textsuperscript{WÜ}-Gal4} lines. Thermogenetical activation or genetical silencing of MIP\textsuperscript{WÜ} celles did not affect feeding behaviour and resulted in changes in the sleep status. \par
My results are in contradiction to a recent research of Min Soohong and colleagues who demonstrated a role of MIPs in the regulation of food intake and body weight in \textit{Drosophila}. They showed that constitutive silencing of MIP\textsuperscript{KR} cells increased food intake and body weight, whereas thermogenetic activation of MIP\textsuperscript{KR} cells decreased food intake and body weight by using \textit{Mip\textsuperscript{KR}-Gal4} driver. Then I repeated the experiments with the \textit{Mip\textsuperscript{KR}-Gal4} driver, but could not reproduce the results. Interestingly, I just observed the opposite phenotype. When MIP\textsuperscript{KR} cells were silenced by expressing UAS-tetanus toxin (\textit{UAS-TNT}), the \textit{Mip\textsuperscript{KR}$>$TNT} flies showed reduced food intake. The thermogenetic activation of MIP\textsuperscript{KR} cells did not affect food intake. Furthermore, I observed that the thermogenetic activation of MIP\textsuperscript{KR} cells strongly reduced the sleep duration.\par
In the third part of the dissertation, I adapted and improved a method for metabolic labelling for \textit{Drosophila} peptides to quantify the relative amount of peptides and the released peptides by mass spectrometry under different physiological and behavioural conditions. qRT-PCR is a practical technique to measure the transcription and the corresponding mRNA level of a given peptide. However, this is not the only way to measure the translation and production of peptides. Although the amount of peptides can be quantified by mass spectrometry, it is not possible to distinguish between peptides stored in vesicles and released peptides in CNS extracts. I construct an approach to assess the released peptides, which can be calculated by comparing the relative amount of peptides between two timepoints in combination with the mRNA levels which can be used as semiquantitative proxy reflecting the production of peptides during this period. \par
After optimizing the protocol for metabolic labelling, I carried out a quantitative analysis of peptides before and after eclosion as a test. I was able to show that the EH- and SIFa-related peptides were strongly reduced after eclosion. This is in line with the known function and release of EH during eclosion. Since this test was positive, I next used the metabolic labelling in \textit{Drosophila} adult, which were either fed \textit{ad libitum} or starved for 24 hrs, and analysed the effects on the amount of AstA and MIPs. In the mRNA level, my results showed that in the brain \textit{AstA} mRNA level in the 24 hrs starved flies was increased compared to in the \textit{ad libitum} fed flies, whereas in the gut the \textit{AstA} mRNA level was decreased. Starvation induced the reduction of \textit{Mip} mRNA level in the brain and gut. Unfortunately, due to technical problems I was unable to analyse the metabolic labelled peptides during the course of this thesis.\par
During my PhD I studied two principal biological aspects employing Drosophila melanogaster. Therefore, this study is divided into Part I and II.
Part I: Bruchpilot and Complexin interact to regulate synaptic vesicle tethering to the
active zone cytomatrix
At the presynaptic active zone (AZ) synaptic vesicles (SVs) are often physically linked to an electron-dense cytomatrix – a process referred to as “SV tethering”. This process serves to concentrate SVs in close proximity to their release sites before contacting the SNARE complex for subsequent fusion (Hallermann and Silver, 2013). In Drosophila, the AZ protein Bruchpilot (BRP) is part of the proteinous cytomatrix at which SVs accumulate (Kittel et al., 2006b; Wagh et al., 2006; Fouquet et al., 2009). Intriguingly, truncation of only 1% of the C-terminal region of BRP results in a severe defect in SV tethering to this AZ scaffold (hence named brpnude; Hallermann et al., 2010b).
Consistent with these findings, cell-specific overexpression of a C-terminal BRP fragment, named mBRPC-tip (corresponds to 1% absent in brpnude; m = mobile) phenocopied the brpnude mutant in behavioral and functional experiments. These data indicate that mBRPC-tip suffices to saturate putative SV binding sites, which induced a functional tethering deficit at motoneuronal AZs. However, the molecular identity of the BRP complement to tether SVs to the presynaptic AZ scaffold remains unknown. Moreover, within larval motoneurons membrane-attached C-terminal portions of BRP were sufficient to tether SVs to sites outside of the AZ. Based on this finding a genetic screen was designed to identify BRP interactors in vivo. This screen identified Complexin (CPX), which is known to inhibit spontaneous SV fusion and to enhance stimulus evoked SV release (Huntwork and Littleton, 2007; Cho et al., 2010; Martin et al., 2011). However, so far CPX has not been associated with a function upstream of priming/docking and release of SVs. This work provides morphological and functional evidence, which suggests that CPX promotes recruitment of SVs to the AZ and thereby curtails synaptic short-term depression. Together, the presented findings indicate a functional interaction between BRP and CPX at Drosophila AZs.
Part II: The Adhesion-GPCR Latrophilin/CIRL shapes mechanosensation
The calcium independent receptor of α-latrotoxin (CIRL), also named Latrophilin, represents a prototypic Adhesion class G-protein coupled-receptor (aGPCR). Initially, Latrophilin was identified based on its capacity to bind the α-component of latrotoxin (α-LTX; Davletov et al., 1996; Krasnoperov et al., 1996), which triggers massive exocytotic activity from neurons of the peripheral nervous system (Scheer et al., 1984; Umbach et al., 1998; Orlova et al., 2000). As a result Latrophilin is considered to play a role in synaptic transmission. Later on, Latrophilins have been associated with other biological processes including tissue polarity (Langenhan et al., 2009), fertility (Prömel et al., 2012) and synaptogenesis (Silva et al., 2011). However, thus far its subcellular localization and the identity of endogenous ligands, two aspects crucial for the comprehension of Latrophilin’s in vivo function, remain enigmatic.
Drosophila contains only one latrophilin homolog, named dCirl, whose function has not been investigated thus far.
This study demonstrates abundant dCirl expression throughout the nervous system of Drosophila larvae. dCirlKO animals are viable and display no defects in development and neuronal differentiation. However, dCirl appears to influence the dimension of the postsynaptic sub-synaptic reticulum (SSR), which was accompanied by an increase in the postsynaptic Discs-large abundance (DLG). In contrast, morphological and functional properties of presynaptic motoneurons were not compromised by the removal of dCirl. Instead, dCirl is required for the perception of mechanical challenges (acoustic-, tactile- and proprioceptive stimuli) through specialized mechanosensory devices, chordotonal organs (Eberl, 1999). The data indicate that dCirl modulates the sensitivity of chordotonal neurons towards mechanical stimulation and thereby adjusts their input-output relation. Genetic interaction analyses suggest that adaption of the molecular mechanotransduction machinery by dCirl may underlie this process. Together, these results uncover an unexpected function of Latrophilin/dCIRL in mechanosensation and imply general modulatory roles of aGPCR in mechanoception.
Finding the right behavior at the right time is one of the major tasks of brains. In a natural scenery there is often an abundance of stimuli present and the brain has to separate the relevant from the irrelevant ones. Selective visual attention (SVA) is a property of higher visual systems that achieves this separation, as it allows to ‘[…] focus on one source of sensory input to the exclusion of others’ (Luck and Mangun, 1996). There are probably several forms of SVA depending upon the criteria used for the separation, such as salience, color, location in space, novelty, or motion. Many studies have investigated SVA in humans and non-human primates. However, complex functions like attention were initially not expected to be already implemented in the brains of simple organisms like Drosophila. After a first demonstration of selective attention in the fly (Wolf and Heisenberg, 1980), it took some time until other studies included attentional mechanisms in their argumentation to explain certain behaviors of Drosophila. However, their definition and characterization of attention differed and often was ambiguous.
Here, one particular form, spatially selective visual attention in the fly Drosophila is investigated. It has been shown earlier that the fly spontaneously may restrict its behavioral responses in stationary flight to the visual stimuli on one side of the visual field. On the basis of experiments of Sareen et al., (2011) it has been conjectured that the fly has a focus of attention (FoA) and that the fly responds to the visual stimuli within this area of the visual field. Whether the FoA is the adequate concept for this spatial property of SVA in the fly needs to be further discussed and is a subject also of the present study. At this stage, the concept will be used in the description of the new results expanding the characterization of SVA.
This study continued the investigation of SVA during tethered flight with variable but controlled visual input and an automated primary data evaluation. This standardized paradigm allowed for analysis of wild-type behavior as well as for a comparison of several mutant and pharmacologically manipulated strains to the wild-type. Some properties of human SVA like the occurrence of externally as well as internally caused shifts of attention were found in Drosophila and it could be shown, that SVA in the fly can be externally guided and has an attention span. Additionally, a neurotransmitter and proteins, which play a significant role in SVA were discovered. Based on this, the genetic tools available for Drosophila provided the means to a first examination of cells and circuits involved in SVA. Finally, the free walk behavior of flies that had been shown to have compromised SVA was characterized. The results suggested that the observed phenotypes of SVA were not behavior specific.
Covert shifts of the FoA were investigated. The FoA can be externally guided by visual cues to one or the other side of the visual field and even after the cue has disappeared it remains there for <4s. An intriguing finding of this study is the fact, that the quality of the cue determines whether it is attractive or repellent. For example a cue can be changed from being repellent (negative) to being attractive (positive) by changing its oscillation amplitude from 4° to 2°. Testing the effectiveness of cues in the upper and lower visual field separately, revealed that the perception of a cue by the fly is not exclusively based on a sum of its specifications. Because positive cueing did not have an after-effect in each of the two half-fields alone, but did so if the cue was shown in both, the fly seems to evaluate the cue for each combination of parameters specifically. Whether this evaluation of the cue changed on a trial-to-trial basis or if the cue in some cases failed to shift the FoA can at this point not be determined.
Looking at the responses of the fly to the displacement of a black vertical stripe showed that they can be categorized as no responses, syn-directional responses (following the direction of motion of the stripe) and anti-directional responses (in the opposite direction of the motion of the stripe). The yaw-torque patterns of the latter bared similarities with spontaneous body saccades and they most likely represented escape attempts of the fly. Syn-directional responses, however, were genuine object responses, distinguishable by a longer latency until they were elicited and a larger amplitude. These properties as well as the distribution of response polarities were not influenced by the presence or absence of a cue. When two stripes were displaced simultaneously in opposite directions the rate of no responses increased in comparison to the displacement of a single stripe. If one of the stripes was cued, both, the responses towards and away from the side of cue resembled the syn-directional responses.
Significant progress was made with the elucidation of the neuronal underpinnings of SVA. Ablation of the mushroom bodies (MB) demonstrated their requirement for SVA. Furthermore, it was shown that dopamine signaling has to be balanced between too much and too little. Either inhibiting the synthesis of dopamine or its re-uptake at the synapse via the dDAT impaired the flies’ susceptibility to cueing. Using the Gal4/UAS system, cell specific expression or knockdown of the dDAT was used to scrutinize the role of MB sub-compartments in SVA. The αβ-lobes turned out to be necessary and sufficient to maintain SVA. The Gal4-line c708a labels only a subset of Kenyon cells (KC) within the αβ-lobes, αβposterior. These cells stand out, because of (A) the mesh-like arrangement of their fibers within the lobes and (B) the fact that unlike the other KCs they bypass the calyx and thereby the main source of olfactory input to the MBs, forming connections only in the posterior accessory calyx (Tanaka et al., 2008). This structure receives no or only marginal olfactory input, suggesting for it a role in tasks other than olfaction. This study shows their requirement in a visual task by demonstrating that they are necessary to uphold SVA. Restoring dDAT function in these approximately only 90 cells was probably insufficient to lower the dopamine concentration at the relevant synapses and hence a rescue failed. Alternatively, the processes mediating SVA at the αβ-lobes might require an interplay between all of their KCs. In conclusion, the results provide an initial point for future research to fully understand the localization of and circuitry required for SVA in the brain.
In the experiments described so far, attention has been externally guided. However, flies are also able to internally shift their FoA without any cues from the outside world. In a set of 60 consecutive simultaneous displacements of two stripes, they were more likely to produce a response with the same polarity as the preceding one than a random polarity selection predicted. This suggested a dwelling of the FoA on one side of the visual field. Assuming that each response was influenced by the previous one in a way that the probability to repeat the response polarity was increased by a certain factor (dwelling factor, df), a random selection of response type including a df was computed. Implementation of the df removed the difference between observed probability of polarity repetition and the one suggested by random selection. When the interval between displacements was iteratively increased to 5s, no significant df could be detected anymore for pauses longer than 4s. In conclusion, Drosophila has an attention span of approximately 4s. Flies with a mutation in the radish gene expressed no after-effect of cueing and had a shortened attention span of about 1s. The dDAT inhibitor methylphenidate is able to rescue the first, but does not affect the latter phenotype. Probably, radish is differently involved in the two mechanisms.
This study showed, that endogenous (covert) shifts of spatially selective visual attention in the fly Drosophila can be internally and externally guided. The variables determining the quality of a cue turned out to be multifaceted and a more systematic approach is needed for a better understanding of what property or feature of the cue changes the way it is evaluated by the fly. A first step has been made to demonstrate that SVA is a fundamental process and compromising it can influence the characteristics of other behaviors like walking. The existence of an attention span, the dependence of SVA on dopamine as well as the susceptibility to pharmacological manipulations, which in humans are used to treat respective diseases, point towards striking similarities between SVA in humans and Drosophila.
In dieser Arbeit sollte die Funktion von RSK in Motoneuronen von Drosophila untersucht
werden. Mutationen im RSK2-Gen verursachen das Coffin-Lowry-Syndrom (CLS), das durch
mentale Retardierung charakterisiert ist. RSK2 ist hauptsächlich in Regionen des Gehirns
exprimiert, in denen Lernen und Gedächtnisbildung stattfinden. In Mäusen und Drosophila, die
als Modellorganismen für CLS dienen, konnten auf makroskopischer Ebene keine
Veränderungen in den Hirnstrukturen gefunden werden, dennoch wurden in verschiedenen
Verhaltensstudien Defekte im Lernen und der Gedächtnisbildung beobachtet.
Die synaptische Plastizität und die einhergehenden Veränderungen in den Eigenschaften der
Synapse sind fundamental für adaptives Verhalten. Zur Analyse der synaptischen Plastizität
eignet sich das neuromuskuläre System von Drosophila als Modell wegen des stereotypen
Innervierungsmusters und der Verwendung ionotroper Glutamatrezeptoren, deren
Untereinheiten homolog sind zu den Untereinheiten der Glutamatrezeptoren des AMPA-Typs
aus Säugern, die wesentlich für die Bildung von LTP im Hippocampus sind.
Zunächst konnte gezeigt werden, dass RSK in den Motoneuronen von Drosophila an der
präsynaptischen Seite lokalisiert ist, wodurch RSK eine Synapsen-spezifische Funktion
ausüben könnte. Morphologische Untersuchungen der Struktur der neuromuskulären Synapsen
konnten aufzeigen, dass durch den Verlust von RSK die Größe der neuromuskulären Synapse,
der Boutons sowie der Aktiven Zonen und Glutamatrezeptorfelder reduziert ist. Obwohl mehr
Boutons gebildet werden, sind weniger Aktive Zonen und Glutamatrezeptorfelder in der
neuromuskulären Synapse enthalten. RSK reguliert die synaptische Transmission, indem es die
postsynaptische Sensitivität, nicht aber die Freisetzung der Neurotransmitter an der
präsynaptischen Seite beeinflusst, obwohl in immunhistochemischen Analysen eine
postsynaptische Lokalisierung von RSK nicht nachgewiesen werden konnte. RSK ist demnach
an der Regulation der synaptischen Plastizität glutamaterger Synapsen beteiligt.
Durch immunhistochemische Untersuchungen konnte erstmals gezeigt werden, dass aktiviertes
ERK an der präsynaptischen Seite lokalisiert ist und diese synaptische Lokalisierung von RSK
reguliert wird. Darüber hinaus konnte in dieser Arbeit nachgewiesen werden, dass durch den
Verlust von RSK hyperaktiviertes ERK in den Zellkörpern der Motoneurone vorliegt. RSK
wird durch den ERK/MAPK-Signalweg aktiviert und übernimmt eine Funktion sowohl als
Effektorkinase als auch in der Negativregulation des Signalwegs. Demnach dient RSK in den
Zellkörpern der Motoneurone als Negativregulator des ERK/MAPK-Signalwegs. Darüber
hinaus könnte RSK die Verteilung von aktivem ERK in den Subkompartimenten der
Motoneurone regulieren.
Da in vorangegangenen Studien gezeigt werden konnte, dass ERK an der Regulation der
synaptischen Plastizität beteiligt ist, indem es die Insertion der AMPA-Rezeptoren zur Bildung
der LTP reguliert, sollte in dieser Arbeit aufgeklärt werden, ob der Einfluss von RSK auf die
synaptische Plastizität durch seine Funktion als Negativregulator von ERK zustande kommt.
Untersuchungen der genetischen Interaktion von rsk und rolled, dem Homolog von ERK in
Drosophila, zeigten, dass die durch den Verlust von RSK beobachtete reduzierte Gesamtzahl
der Aktiven Zonen und Glutamatrezeptorfelder der neuromuskulären Synapse auf die Funktion
von RSK als Negativregulator von ERK zurückzuführen ist. Die Größe der neuromuskulären
Synapse sowie die Größe der Aktiven Zonen und Glutamatrezeptorfelder beeinflusst RSK
allerdings durch seine Funktion als Effektorkinase des ERK/MAPK-Signalwegs.
Studien des axonalen Transports von Mitochondrien zeigten, dass dieser in vielen
neuropathologischen Erkrankungen beeinträchtigt ist. Die durchgeführten Untersuchungen des
axonalen Transports in Motoneuronen konnten eine neue Funktion von RSK in der Regulation
des axonalen Transports aufdecken. In den Axonen der Motoneurone von RSK-Nullmutanten
wurden BRP- und CSP-Agglomerate nachgewiesen. RSK könnte an der Regulation des
axonalen Transports von präsynaptischem Material beteiligt sein. Durch den Verlust von RSK
wurden weniger Mitochondrien in anterograder Richtung entlang dem Axon transportiert, dafür verweilten mehr Mitochondrien in stationären Phasen. Diese Ergebnisse zeigen, dass
auch der anterograde Transport von Mitochondrien durch den Verlust von RSK beeinträchtigt
ist.
Circadianes und Stress-System sind zwei physiologische Systeme, die dem Organismus helfen sich an Veränderungen ihrer Umwelt anzupassen. Während letzteres spontane und schnelle Antworten auf akute, unvorhersehbare Umweltreize liefert, sagt das circadiane System täglich wiederkehrende Ereignisse vorher and bereitet den Organismus so vorzeitig auf diese nahende Umweltveränderung vor. Dennoch, trotz dieser unterschiedlichen Reaktionsmechanismen agieren beide Systeme nicht komplett autonom. Studien der vergangen Jahre belegen vielmehr eine Interaktion beider Systeme. So postulieren sie zum einem Unterschiede in der Stressantwort in Abhängigkeit von der Tageszeit zu der der Reiz auftritt und weisen zugleich auf eine Zunahme von gestörten biologischen Tagesrhythmen, wie zum Beispiel Schlafstörungen, in Folge von unkontrollierten oder exzessiven Stress hin. Ebenso liefern kürzlich durchgeführte Studien an Vertebraten und Pilzen Hinweise, dass mit p38, eine Stress-aktivierte Kinase, an der Signalweiterleitung zur inneren Uhr beteiligt ist (Hayashi et al., 2003), sogar durch dieses endogene Zeitmesssystem reguliert wird (Vitalini et al., 2007; Lamb et al., 2011) und deuten damit erstmals eine mögliche Verbindung zwischen Stress-induzierten und regulären rhythmischen Anpassungen des Organismus an Umweltveränderungen an. Molekulare und zelluläre Mechanismen dieser Verknüpfung sind bisher noch nicht bekannt.
Während die Rolle von p38 MAPK bei der Stress- und Immunantwort in Drosophila melanogaster gut charakterisiert ist, wurden Expression und Funktion von p38 in der inneren Uhr hingegen bislang nicht untersucht. Die hier vorliegende Arbeit hatte daher zum Ziel mittels immunhistochemischer, verhaltensphysiologischer und molekularer Methoden eine mögliche Rolle der Stress-aktivierten Kinase im circadianen System der Fliege aufzudecken. Antikörperfärbungen sowie Studien mit Reporterlinien zeigen deutliche Färbesignale in den s-LNv, l-LNv und DN1a und erbringen erstmals einen Nachweis für p38 Expression in den Uhrneuronen der Fliege. Ebenso scheint die Aktivität von p38 MAPK in den DN1a uhrgesteuert zu sein. So liegt p38 vermehrt in seiner aktiven Form in der Dunkelphase vor und zeigt, neben seiner circadian regulierten Aktivierung, zusätzlich auch eine Inaktivierung durch Licht. 15-Minuten-Lichtpulse in der subjektiven Nacht führen zu einer signifikanten Reduktion von aktivierter, phosphorylierter p38 MAPK in den DN1a von Canton S Wildtypfliegen im Vergleich zu Fliegen ohne Lichtpuls-Behandlung. Aufzeichnungen der Lokomotoraktivität offenbaren zusätzlich die Notwendigkeit von p38 MAPK für wildtypisches Timing der Abendaktivität sowie zum Erhalt von 24-Stunden-Verhaltensrhythmen unter konstanten Dauerdunkel-Bedindungen. So zeigen Fliegen mit reduzierten p38 Level in Uhrneuronen einen verzögerten Beginn der Abendaktivität und stark verlängerte Freilaufperioden. In Übereinstimmung mit Effekten auf das Laufverhalten scheint darüber hinaus die Expression einer dominant-negativen Form von p38b in Drosophila’s wichtigsten Uhrneuronen eine verspätete nukleäre Translokation von Period zur Folge zu haben. Westernblots legen zusätzlich einen Einfluss von p38 auf den Phosphorylierungsgrad von Period nahe und liefern damit einen mögliche Erklärung für den verspäteten Kerneintritt des Uhrproteins. Abschließende Stützung der Westernblotergebnisse bringen in vitro Kinasenassays und deuten auf p38 als eine potentielle „Uhrkinase“ hin, welche auch in vivo Period an Serin 661 sowie weiteren potentiellen Phosphorylierungsstellen phosphorylieren könnte.
Zusammengenommen deuten die Ergebnisse der hier vorliegenden Arbeit eindeutig auf eine bedeutende Rolle von p38, neben dessen Funkion im Stress-System, auch im circadianen System der Fliege hin und offenbaren damit die Möglichkeit, dass p38 als Schnittstelle zwischen beider Systeme fungiert.
Organisms have evolved endogenous clocks which allow them to organize their behavior, metabolism and physiology according to the periodically changing environmental conditions on earth. Biological rhythms that are synchronized to daily changes in environment are governed by the so-called circadian clock. Since decades, chronobiologists have been investigating circadian clocks in various model organisms including the fruitfly Drosophila melanogaster, which was used in the present thesis.
Anatomically, the circadian clock of the fruitfly consists of about 150 neurons in the lateral and dorsal protocerebrum, which are characterized by their position, morphology and neurochemistry. Some of these neurons had been previously shown to contain either one or several neuropeptides, which are thought to be the main signaling molecules used by the clock. The best investigated of these neuropeptides is the Pigment Dispersing Factor (PDF), which had been shown to constitute a synchronizing signal between clock neurons as well as an output factor of the clock.
In collaboration with various coworkers, I investigated the roles of three other clock expressed neuropeptides for the generation of behavioral rhythms and the partly published, partly unpublished data are presented in this thesis. Thereby, I focused on the Neuropeptide F (NPF), short Neuropeptide F (sNPF) and the Ion Transport Peptide (ITP). We show that part of the neuropeptide composition within the clock network seems to be conserved among different Drosophila species. However, the PDF expression pattern in certain neurons varied in species deriving from lower latitudes compared to higher latitudes. Together with findings on the behavioral level provided by other people, these data suggest that different species may have altered certain properties of their clocks - like the neuropeptide expression in certain neurons - in order to adapt their behavior to different habitats.
We then investigated locomotor rhythms in Drosophila melanogaster flies, in which neuropeptide circuits were genetically manipulated either by cell ablation or RNA interference (RNAi). We found that none of the investigated neuropeptides seems to be of equal importance for circadian locomotor rhythms as PDF. PDF had been previously shown to be necessary for rhythm maintenance in constant darkness (DD) as well as for the generation of morning (M) activity and for the right phasing of the evening (E) activity in entrained conditions. We now demonstrate that NPF and ITP seem to promote E activity in entrained conditions, but are clearly not the only factors doing so. In addition, ITP seems to reduce nighttime activity. Further, ITP and possibly also sNPF constitute weak period shortening components in DD, thereby opposing the effect of PDF. However, neither NPF or ITP, nor sNPF seem to be necessary in the clock neurons for maintaining rhythmicity in DD.
It had been previously suggested that PDF is released rhythmically from the dorsal projection terminals. Now we discovered a rhythm in ITP immunostaining in the dorsal projection terminals of the ITP+ clock neurons in LD, suggesting a rhythm in peptide release also in the case of ITP. Rhythmic release of both ITP and PDF seems to be important to maintain rhythmic behavior in DD, since constantly high levels of PDF and ITP in the dorsal protocerebrum lead to behavioral arrhythmicity.
Applying live-imaging techniques we further demonstrate that sNPF acts in an inhibitory way on few clock neurons, including some that are also activated by PDF, suggesting that it acts as signaling molecule within the clock network and has opposing effects to PDF. NPF did only evoke very little inhibitory responses in very few clock neurons, suggesting that it might rather be used as a clock output factor. We were not able to apply the same live-imaging approach for the investigation of the clock neuron responsiveness to ITP, but overexpression of ITP with various driver lines showed that the peptide most likely acts mainly in clock output pathways rather than inter-clock neuron communication.
Taking together, I conclude that all investigated peptides contribute to the control of locomotor rhythms in the fruitfly Drosophila melanogaster. However, this control is in most aspects dominated by the actions of PDF and rather only fine-tuned or complemented by the other peptides. I assume that there is a high complexity in spatial and temporal action of the different neuropeptides in order to ensure correct signal processing within the clock network as well as clock output.
Synaptic plasticity determines the development of functional neural circuits. It is widely accepted as the mechanism behind learning and memory. Among different forms of synaptic plasticity, Hebbian plasticity describes an activity-induced change in synaptic strength, caused by correlated pre- and postsynaptic activity. Additionally, Hebbian plasticity is characterised by input specificity, which means it takes place only at synapses, which participate in activity. Because of its correlative nature, Hebbian plasticity suggests itself as a mechanism behind associative learning.
Although it is commonly assumed that synaptic plasticity is closely linked to synaptic activity during development, the mechanistic understanding of this coupling is far from complete.
In the present study channelrhodopsin-2 was used to evoke activity in vivo, at the glutamatergic Drosophila neuromuscular junction. Remarkably, correlated pre- and postsynaptic stimulation led to increased incorporation of GluR-IIA-type glutamate receptors into postsynaptic receptor fields, thus boosting postsynaptic sensitivity. This phenomenon is input-specific.
Conversely, GluR-IIA was rapidly removed from synapses at which neurotransmitter release failed to evoke substantial postsynaptic depolarisation. This mechanism might be responsible to tame uncontrolled receptor field growth. Combining these results with developmental GluR-IIA dynamics leads to a comprehensive physiological concept, where Hebbian plasticity guides growth of postsynaptic receptor fields and sparse transmitter release stabilises receptor fields by preventing overgrowth.
Additionally, a novel mechanism of retrograde signaling was discovered, where direct postsynaptic channelrhodopsin-2 based stimulation, without involvement of presynaptic neurotransmitter release, leads to presynaptic depression. This phenomenon is reminiscent of a known retrograde homeostatic mechanism, of inverted polarity, where neurotransmitter release is upregulated, upon reduction of postsynaptic sensitivity.
Many organisms evolved an endogenous clock to adapt to the daily environmental changes caused by the earth’s rotation. Light is the primary time cue (“Zeitgeber”) for entrainment of circadian clocks to the external 24-h day. In Drosophila, several visual pigments are known to mediate synchronization to light: The blue-light photopigment Cryptochrome (CRY) and six well-described rhodopsins (Rh1-Rh6). CRY is present in the majority of clock neurons as well as in the compound eyes, whereas the location of rhodopsins is restricted to the photoreceptive organs – the compound eyes, the ocelli and the HB-eyelets. CRY is thought to represent the key photoreceptor of Drosophila’s circadian clock. Nevertheless, mutant flies lacking CRY (cry01) are able to synchronize their locomotor activity rhythms to light-dark (LD) cycles, but need significantly longer than wild-type flies. In this behavior, cry01 mutants strongly resemble mammalian species that do not possess any internal photoreceptors and perceive light information exclusively through their photoreceptive organs (eyes). Thus, a mammalian-like phase-shifting behavior would be expected in cry01 flies. We investigated this issue by monitoring a phase response curve (PRC) of cry01 and wild-type flies to 1-h light pulses of 1000 lux irradiance. Indeed, cry01 mutants produced a mammalian-similar so called type 1 PRC of comparatively low amplitude (< 25% of wild-type) with phase delays to light pulses during the early subjective night and phase advances to light pulses during the late subjective night (~1 h each). Despite the predominant role of CRY, the visual system contributes to the light sensitivity of the fly’s circadian clock, mainly around dawn and dusk. Furthermore, this phase shifting allows for the slow re-entrainment which we observed in cry01 mutants to 8-h phase delays of the LD 12 h:12 h cycle. However, cry01 also showed surprising differences in their shifting ability: First of all, their PRC was characterized by a second dead zone in the middle of the subjective night (ZT17-ZT19) in addition to the usual unresponsiveness during the subjective day. Second, in contrast to wild-type flies, cry01 mutants did not increase their shift of activity rhythms neither in response to longer stimuli nor to light pulses of higher irradiance. In contrast, both 6-h light pulses of 1000 lux and 1-h light pulses of 10,000 lux light intensity during the early subjective night even resulted in phase advances instead of the expected delays. Thus, CRY seems to be not only responsible for the high light sensitivity of the wild-type circadian clock, but is apparently also involved in integrating and processing light information. Rhodopsin 7 (Rh7) is a yet uncharacterized protein, but became a good photoreceptor candidate due to sequence similarities to the six known Drosophila Rhs. The second part of this thesis investigated the expression pattern of Rh7 and its possible functions, especially in circadian photoreception. Furthermore, we were interested in a potential interaction with CRY and thus, tested cry01 and rh70 cry01 mutants as well. Rh1 is the main visual pigment of the Drosophila compound eye and expressed in six out of eight photoreceptors cells (R1-R6) in each of the ~800 ommatidia. Motion vision depends exclusively on Rh1 function but, moreover, Rh1 plays an important structural role and assures proper photoreceptor cell development and maintenance. In order to investigate its possible photoreceptive function, we expressed Rh7 in place of Rh1. Rh7 was indeed able to overtake the role of Rh1 in both aspects: It prevented retinal degeneration and mediated the optomotor response (OR), a motion vision-dependent behavior. At the transcriptional level, rh7 is expressed at approximately equal amounts in adult fly brains and retinas. Due to a reduced specificity of anti-Rh7 antibodies, we could not verify this result at the protein level. However, analysis of rh7 null mutants (rh70) suggested different Rh7 functions in vivo. Previous experiments strongly indicated an increased sensitivity of the compound eyes in the absence of Rh7 and suggested impaired light adaptation. We aimed to test this hypothesis at the levels of circadian photoreception. Locomotor activity rhythms are a reliable output of the circadian clock. Rh70 mutant flies generally displayed a wild-type similar bimodal activity pattern comprising morning (M) and evening (E) activity bouts. Activity monitoring supported the proposed “shielding” function, since rh70 mutants behaved like wild-type flies experiencing high irradiances. Under all investigated conditions, their activity peaks lay further apart resulting in a prolonged midday break. The behavior of cry01 mutants was mainly characterized by an unexpectedly high flexibility in the timing of M and E activity bouts which allowed tracking of lights-on and lights-off even under extreme photoperiods. Activity profiles of the corresponding rh70 cry01 double mutants reflected neither synergistic nor antagonistic effects of Rh7 and CRY and were dominated by a broad E activity peak. In the future, the different circadian phenotypes will be further investigated on the molecular level by analysis of clock protein cycling in the underlying pacemaker neurons. The work of this thesis confirmed that Rh7 is indeed able to work as a photoreceptor and to initiate the classical phototransduction cascade. On the other hand, it provided further evidence at the levels of circadian photoreception that Rh7 might serve as a shielding pigment for Rh1 in vivo, thereby mediating proper light adaptation.
In this thesis the Drosophila mutant loechrig (loe), that shows progressive degeneration of the nervous system, is further described. Loe is missing a neuronal isoform of the protein kinase AMPK γ subunit (AMP-activated protein kinase- also known as SNF4Aγ) The heterotrimeric AMPK controls the energy level of the cell, which requires constant monitoring of the ATP/AMP levels. It is activated by low energy levels and metabolic insults like oxygen starvation and regulates multiple important signal pathways that control cell metabolism. Still, its role in neuronal survival is unclear. One of AMPK’s downstream targets is HMGR (hydroxymethylglutaryl-CoA- reductase), a key enzyme in cholesterol and isoprenoid synthesis. It has been shown that manipulating the levels of HMGR affects the severity of the neurodegenerative phenotype in loe. Whereas the regulatory role of AMPK on HMGR is conserved in Drosophila, insects cannot synthesize cholesterol de novo. However, the synthesis of isoprenoids is a pathway that is evolutionarily conserved between vertebrates and insects. Isoprenylation of target proteins like small G-proteins provides a hydrophobic anchor that allows the association of these proteins with membranes and following activation. This thesis shows that the loe mutation interferes with the prenylation of Rho1 and the regulation of the LIM kinase pathway, which plays an important role in actin turnover and axonal outgrowth. The results suggest that the mutation in LOE, causes hyperactivity of the isoprenoid synthesis pathway, which leads to increased farnesylation of RHO1 and therefore higher levels of phospho-cofilin. A mutation in Rho1 improves the neurodegenerative phenotype and life span. The increased inactive cofilin amount in loe leads to an up regulation of filamentous actin. Actin is involved in neuronal outgrowth and experiments analyzing loe neurons gave valuable insights into a possible role of AMPK and accordingly actin on neurite growth and stability. It was demonstrated that neurons derived from loe mutants exhibit reduces axonal transport suggesting that changes in the cytoskeletal network caused by the effect of loe on the Rho1 pathway lead to disruptions in axonal transport and subsequent neuronal death. It also shows that actin is not only involved in neuronal outgrowth, its also important in maintenance of neurons, suggesting that interference with actin dynamics leads to progressive degeneration of neurons. Together, these results further support the importance of AMPK in neuronal function and survival and provide a novel functional mechanisms how alterations in AMPK can cause neuronal degeneration
Animals need to evaluate their experiences in order to cope with new situations they encounter. This requires the ability of learning and memory. Drosophila melanogaster lends itself as an animal model for such research because elaborate genetic techniques are available. Drosphila larva even saves cellular redundancy in parts of its nervous system. My Thesis has two parts dealing with associative olfactory learning in larval Drosophila. Firstly, I tackle the question of odour processing in respect to odour quality and intensity. Secondly, by focusing on the evolutionarily conserved presynaptic protein Synapsin, olfactory learning on the cellular and molecular level is investigated. Part I.1. provides a behaviour-based estimate of odour similarity in larval Drosophila by using four recognition-type experiments to result in a combined, task-independent estimate of perceived difference between odour-pairs. A further comparison of these combined perceived differences to published calculations of physico-chemical difference reveals a weak correlation between perceptual and physico-chemical similarity. Part I.2. focuses on how odour intensity is interpreted in the process of olfactory learning in larval Drosophila. First, the dose-effect curves of learnability across odour intensities are described in order to choose odour intensities such that larvae are trained at intermediate odour intensity, but tested for retention either with that trained intermediate odour intensity, or with respectively HIGHer or LOWer intensities. A specificity of retention for the trained intensity is observed for all the odours used. Such intensity specificity of learning adds to appreciate the richness in 'content' of olfactory memory traces, and to define the demands on computational models of associative olfactory memory trace formation. In part II.1. of the thesis, the cellular site and molecular mode of Synapsin function is investigated- an evolutionarily conserved, presynaptic vesicular phosphoprotein. On the cellular level, the study shows a Synapsin-dependent memory trace in the mushroom bodies, a third-order “cortical” brain region of the insects; on the molecular level, Synapsin engages as a downstream element of the AC-cAMP-PKA signalling cascade.
Is behaviour response or action? In this Thesis I study this question regarding a rather simple organism, the larva of the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster. Despite its numerically simple brain and limited behavioural repertoire, it is nevertheless capable to accomplish surprisingly complex tasks. After association of an odour and a rewarding or punishing reinforcement signal, the learnt odour is able to retrieve the formed memory trace. However, the activated memory trace is not automatically turned into learned behaviour: Appetitive memory traces are behaviourally expressed only in absence of the rewarding tastant whereas aversive memory traces are behaviourally expressed in the presence of the punishing tastant. The ‘decision’ whether to behaviourally express a memory trace or not relies on a quantitive comparison between memory trace and current situation: only if the memory trace (after odour-sugar training) predicts a stronger sugar reward than currently present, animals show appetitive conditioned behaviour. Learned appetitive behaviour is best seen as active search for food – being pointless in the presence of (enough) food. Learned aversive behaviour, in turn, can be seen as escape from a punishment – being pointless in absence of punishment. Importantly, appetitive and aversive memory traces can be formed and retrieved independent from each other but also can, under appriate circumstances, summate to jointly organise conditioned behaviour. In contrast to learned behaviour, innate olfactory behaviour is not influenced by gustatory processing and vice versa. Thus, innate olfactory and gustatory behaviour is rather rigid and reflexive in nature, being executed almost regardless of other environmental cues. I suggest a behavioural circuit-model of chemosensory behaviour and the ‘decision’ process whether to behaviourally express a memory trace or not. This model reflects known components of the larval chemobehavioural circuit and provides clear hypotheses about the kinds of architecture to look for in the currently unknown parts of this circuit. The second chapter deals with gustatory perception and processing (especially of bitter substances). Quinine, the bitter tastant in tonic water and bitter lemon, is aversive for larvae, suppresses feeding behaviour and can act as aversive reinforcer in learning experiments. However, all three examined behaviours differ in their dose-effect dynamics, suggesting different molecular and cellular processing streams at some level. Innate choice behaviour, thought to be relatively reflexive and hard-wired, nevertheless can be influenced by the gustatory context. That is, attraction toward sweet tastants is decreased in presence of bitter tastants. The extent of this inhibitory effect depends on the concentration of both sweet and bitter tastant. Importantly, sweet tastants differ in their sensitivity to bitter interference, indicating a stimulus-specific mechanism. The molecular and cellular processes underlying the inhibitory effect of bitter tastants are unknown, but the behavioural results presented here provide a framework to further investigate interactions of gustatory processing streams.
An animal depends heavily on its sense of smell and its ability to form olfactory associations as this is crucial for its survival. This thesis studies in two parts about such associative olfactory learning in larval Drosophila. The first part deals with different aspects of odour processing while the second part is concerned with aspects related to memory and learning. Chapter I.1 highlights how odour intensities could be integrated into the olfactory percept of larval Drosophila. I first describe the dose-effect curves of learnability across odour intensities for different odours and then choose odour intensities from these curves such that larvae are trained at intermediate odour intensity, but are tested for retention with either that trained intermediate odour intensity, or with respectively HIGHer or LOWer intensities. I observe a specificity of retention for the trained intensity for all the odours used. Further I compare these findings with the case of adult Drosophila and propose a circuit level model of how such intensity coding comes about. Such intensity specificity of learning adds to appreciate the richness in 'content' of olfactory memory traces, and to define the demands on computational models of olfaction and olfactory learning. Chapter I.2 provides a behaviour-based estimate of odour similarity using four different types of experiments to yield a combined, task-independent estimate of perceived difference between odour-pairs. Further comparison of these perceived differences to published measures of physico- chemical difference reveals a weak correlation. Notable exceptions to this correlation are 3-octanol and benzaldehyde. Chapter I.3 shows for two odours (3-octanol and 1-octene-3-ol) that perceptual differences between these odours can either be ignored after non-discriminative training (generalization), or accentuated by odour-specific reinforcement (discrimination). Anosmic Or83b1 mutants have lost these faculties, indicating that this adaptive adjustment is taking place downstream of Or83b expressing sensory neurons. Chapter II.1 of this thesis deals with food supplementation with dried roots of Rhodiola rosea. This dose-dependently improves odour- reward associative function in larval Drosophila. Supplementing fly food with commercially available tablets or extracts, however, does not have a 'cognitive enhancing' effect, potentially enabling us to differentiate between the effective substances in the root versus these preparations. Thus Drosophila as a genetically tractable study case should now allow accelerated analyses of the molecular mechanism(s) that underlie this 'cognitive enhancement' conveyed by Rhodiola rosea. Chapter II.2 describes the role of Synapsin, an evolutionarily conserved presynaptic phosphoprotein using a combined behavioural and genetic approach and asks where and how, this protein affects functions in associative plasticity of larval Drosophila. This study shows that a Synapsin-dependent memory trace can be pinpointed to the mushroom bodies, a 'cortical' brain region of the insects. On the molecular level, data in this study assign Synapsin as a behaviourally- relevant effector of the AC-cAMP-PKA cascade.
Understanding of complex interactions and events in a nervous system, leading from the molecular level up to certain behavioural patterns calls for interdisciplinary interactions of various research areas. The goal of the presented work is to achieve such an interdisciplinary approach to study and manipulate animal behaviour and its underlying mechanisms. Optical in vivo imaging is a new constantly evolving method, allowing one to study not only the local but also wide reaching activity in the nervous system. Due to ease of its genetic accessibility Drosophila melanogaster represents an extraordinary experimental organism to utilize not only imaging but also various optogenetic techniques to study the neuronal underpinnings of behaviour. In this study four genetically encoded sensors were used to investigate the temporal dynamics of cAMP concentration changes in the horizontal lobes of the mushroom body, a brain area important for learning and memory, in response to various physiological and pharmacological stimuli. Several transgenic lines with various genomic insertion sites for the sensor constructs Epac1, Epac2, Epac2K390E and HCN2 were screened for the best signal quality, one line was selected for further experiments. The in vivo functionality of the sensor was assessed via pharmacological application of 8-bromo-cAMP as well as Forskolin, a substance stimulating cAMP producing adenylyl cyclases. This was followed by recording of the cAMP dynamics in response to the application of dopamine and octopamine, as well as to the presentation of electric shock, odorants or a simulated olfactory signal, induced by acetylcholine application to the observed brain area. In addition the interaction between the shock and the simulated olfactory signal by simultaneous presentation of both stimuli was studied. Preliminary results are supporting a coincidence detection mechanism at the level of the adenylyl cyclase as postulated by the present model for classical olfactory conditioning. In a second series of experiments an effort was made to selecticvely activate a subset of neurons via the optogenetic tool Channelrhodopsin (ChR2). This was achieved by recording the behaviour of the fly in a walking ball paradigm. A new method was developed to analyse the walking behaviour of the animal whose brain was made optically accessible via a dissection technique, as used for imaging, thus allowing one to target selected brain areas. Using the Gal4-UAS system the protocerebral bridge, a substructure of the central complex, was highlighted by expressing the ChR2 tagged by fluorescent protein EYFP. First behavioural recordings of such specially prepared animals were made. Lastly a new experimental paradigm for single animal conditioning was developed (Shock Box). Its design is based on the established Heat Box paradigm, however in addition to spatial and operant conditioning available in the Heat Box, the design of the new paradigm allows one to set up experiments to study classical and semioperant olfactory conditioning, as well as semioperant place learning and operant no idleness experiments. First experiments involving place learning were successfully performed in the new apparatus.
Neuroanatomical data in fly brain research are mostly available as spatial gene expression patterns of genetically distinct fly strains. The Drosophila standard brain, which was developed in the past to provide a reference coordinate system, can be used to integrate these data. Working with the standard brain requires advanced image processing methods, including visualisation, segmentation and registration. The previously published VIB Protocol addressed the problem of image registration. Unfortunately, its usage was severely limited by the necessity of manually labelling a predefined set of neuropils in the brain images at hand. In this work I present novel tools to facilitate the work with the Drosophila standard brain. These tools are integrated in a well-known open-source image processing framework which can potentially serve as a common platform for image analysis in the neuroanatomical research community: ImageJ. In particular, a hardware-accelerated 3D visualisation framework was developed for ImageJ which extends its limited 3D visualisation capabilities. It is used for the development of a novel semi-automatic segmentation method, which implements automatic surface growing based on user-provided seed points. Template surfaces, incorporated with a modified variant of an active surface model, complement the segmentation. An automatic nonrigid warping algorithm is applied, based on point correspondences established through the extracted surfaces. Finally, I show how the individual steps can be fully automated, and demonstrate its application for the successful registration of fly brain images. The new tools are freely available as ImageJ plugins. I compare the results obtained by the introduced methods with the output of the VIB Protocol and conclude that our methods reduce the required effort five to ten fold. Furthermore, reproducibility and accuracy are enhanced using the proposed tools.
Synapsen als Stellen der Kommunikation zwischen Neuronen besitzen spezialisierte Bereiche – Aktive Zonen (AZs) genannt –, die aus einem hoch komplexen Netzwerk von Proteinen aufgebaut sind und die Maschinerie für den Prozess der Neurotransmitter-Ausschüttung und das Vesikel-Recycling beinhalten. In Drosophila ist das Protein Bruchpilot (BRP) ein wichtiger Baustein für die T-förmigen Bänder („T-Bars“) der präsynaptischen Aktiven Zonen. BRP ist notwendig für eine intakte Struktur der Aktiven Zone und eine normale Exocytose von Neurotransmitter-Vesikeln. Auf der Suche nach Mutationen, welche die Verteilung von Bruchpilot im Gewebe beeinträchtigen, wurde eine P-Element-Insertion im Gen CG11489 an der Position 79D identifiziert, welches eine Kinase kodiert, die einen hohen Grad an Homologie zur Familie der SR Proteinkinasen (SRPKs) von Säugern aufweist. Die Mitglieder dieser Familie zeichnen sich durch eine evolutionär hoch konservierte zweigeteilte Kinasedomäne aus, die durch eine nicht konservierte Spacer-Sequenz unterbrochen ist. SRPKs phosphorylieren SR-Proteine, die zu einer evolutionär hoch konservierten Familie Serin/Arginin-reicher Spleißfaktoren gehören und konstitutive sowie alternative Spleißprozesse steuern und damit auf post-transkriptioneller Ebene die Genexpression regulieren. Mutation des Srpk79D-Gens durch die P-Element-Insertion (Srpk79DP1) oder eine Deletion im Gen (Srpk79DVN Nullmutante) führt zu auffälligen BRP-Akkumulationen in larvalen und adulten Nerven. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wird gezeigt, dass diese BRP-Akkumulationen auf Ultrastruktur-Ebene ausgedehnten axonalen Agglomeraten elektronendichter Bänder entsprechen und von klaren Vesikeln umgeben sind. Charakterisierung durch Immuno-Elektronenmikroskopie ergab, dass diese Strukturen BRP-immunoreaktiv sind. Um die Bildung BRP-enthaltender Agglomerate in Axonen zu verhindern und damit eine intakte Gehirnfunktion zu gewährleisten, scheint die SRPK79D nur auf niedrigem Niveau exprimiert zu werden, da die endogene Kinase mit verschiedenen Antikörpern nicht nachweisbar war. Wie in anderen Arbeiten gezeigt werden konnte, ist die Expression der PB-, PC- oder PF-Isoform der vier möglichen SRPK79D-Varianten, die durch alternativen Transkriptionsstart in Exon eins beziehungsweise drei und alternatives Spleißen von Exon sieben zustande kommen, zur Rettung des Phänotyps der BRP-Akkumulation im Srpk79DVN Nullmutanten-Hintergrund ausreichend. Zur Charakterisierung der Rescue-Eigenschaften der SRPK79D-PE-Isoform wurde mit der Klonierung der cDNA in einen UAS-Vektor begonnen. Offenbar beruht die Bildung der axonalen BRP-Agglomerate nicht auf einer Überexpression von BRP in den betroffenen Neuronen, denn auch bei reduzierter Expression des BRP-Proteins im Srpk79DVN Nullmutanten-Hintergrund entstehen die BRP-Agglomerate. In Köpfen der Srpk79DVN Nullmutante ist die Gesamtmenge an Bruchpilot-Protein im Vergleich zum Wildtyp nicht deutlich verändert. Auch die auf Protein-Ebene untersuchte Expression der verschiedenen Isoformen der präsynaptischen Proteine Synapsin, Sap47 und CSP weicht in der Srpk79DVN Nullmutante nicht wesentlich von der Wildtyp-Situation ab, sodass sich keine Hinweise auf verändertes Spleißen der entsprechenden prä-mRNAs ergeben. Jedes der sieben bekannten SR-Proteine von Drosophila ist ein potentielles Zielprotein der SRPK79D. Knock-down-Experimente für die drei hier untersuchten SR-Proteine SC35, X16/9G8 und B52/SRp55 im gesamten Nervensystem durch RNA-Interferenz zeigten allerdings keinen Effekt auf die Verteilung von BRP im Gewebe. Hinsichtlich der Flugfähigkeit der Tiere hat die Srpk79DVN Nullmutation keinen additiven Effekt zum Knock-down des BRP-Proteins, denn die Doppelmutanten zeigten bei der Bestimmung des Anteils an flugunfähigen Tieren vergleichbare Werte wie die Einzelmutanten, die entweder die Nullmutation im Srpk79D-Gen trugen, oder BRP reduziert exprimierten. Vermutlich sind Bruchpilot und die SR Proteinkinase 79D somit Teil desselben Signalwegs. Durch Doppelfärbungen mit Antikörpern gegen BRP und CAPA-Peptide wurde abschließend entdeckt, dass Bruchpilot auch im Median- und Transvers-Nervensystem (MeN/TVN) von Drosophila zu finden ist, welche die Neurohämal-Organe beherbergen. Aufgabe dieser Organe ist die Speicherung und Ausschüttung von Neuropeptid-Hormonen. Daher ist zu vermuten, dass das BRP-Protein neben Funktionen bei der Neurotransmitter-Exocytose möglicherweise eine Rolle bei der Ausschüttung von Neuropeptiden spielt. Anders als in den Axonen der larvalen Segmental- und Intersegmentalnerven der Srpk79DVN Nullmutante, die charakteristische BRP-Agglomerate aufweisen, hat die Mutation des Srpk79D-Gens in den Axonen der Va-Neurone, die das MeN/TVN-System bilden, keinen sichtbaren Effekt auf die Verteilung von Brp, denn das Muster bei Färbung gegen BRP weist keine deutlichen Veränderungen zum Wildtyp auf.
This thesis consists of three major chapters, each of which has been separately published or under the process for publication. The first chapter is about anatomical characterization of the mushroom body of adult Drosophila melanogaster. The mushroom body is the center for olfactory learning and many other functions in the insect brains. The functions of the mushroom body have been studied by utilizing the GAL4/UAS gene expression system. The present study characterized the expression patterns of the commonly used GAL4 drivers for the mushroom body intrinsic neurons, Kenyon cells. Thereby, we revealed the numerical composition of the different types of Kenyon cells and found one subtype of the Kenyon cells that have not been described. The second and third chapters together demonstrate that the multiple types of dopaminergic neurons mediate the aversive reinforcement signals to the mushroom body. They induce the parallel memory traces that constitute the different temporal domains of the aversive odor memory. In prior to these chapters, “General introduction and discussion” section reviews and discuss about the current understanding of neuronal circuit for olfactory learning in Drosophila.
Morphologie und Organisation individueller oktopaminerger Neurone im Gehirn von Drosophila m.
(2009)
Das biogene Amin Oktopamin moduliert verschiedene Verhaltensweisen in Invertebraten. In verschiedenen Insektenspezies, wie Heuschrecken, Grillen oder Schaben, ist die Funktion und die Architektur des peripheren oktopaminergen Systems auf Einzelzellebene bekannt. Um die zelluläre Grundlage für die verschiedenen Funktionen von Oktopamin im Zentralnervensystem zu verstehen, ist eine detaillierte Analyse der Architektur des zentralen oktopaminergen Systems notwendig. Innerhalb meiner Doktorarbeit fertigte eine anatomische Karte individueller oktopaminerger Neurone des adulten Hirns von Drosophila an. Ich nutzte die Flp-out Technik, um einzelne oktopaminerge Neurone anzufärben. Anhand ihrer Projektionsmuster konnte ich 28 verschiedene Zelltypen in vier Oktopamin-immunoreaktiven Zellclustern identifizieren. Ihre Morphologie sowie die Verteilung genetischer Marker zeigte, dass die meisten Zelltypen mehrere Neuropile innervieren und dabei eine klare Trennung von Prä- und Postsynaptischen Regionen aufweisen. Die Mehrheit der Zelltypen bildet dendritische Verzweigungen in einer bestimmten Region, der posterioren Slope. Jedoch innerviert jeder Zelltyp stereotyp eine bestimmte Kombination von Zielregionen im Gehirn. Das deutet stark darauf hin, dass oktopaminerge Neurone kombinatorisch organisiert sind: Jedes individuelle Neuron scheint Komponente eines spezifischen neuronalen Schaltkreises zu sein. Dabei könnte jeder Zelltyp eine Art “Modul” darstellen, das selektiv bestimmte Funktionen in den jeweiligen Zielregionen moduliert. Das oktopaminerge Mittelliniencluster des Subösophagealen Ganglions zeigt eine besondere zelluläre Organisation. Es besteht aus gepaarten und ungepaarten Neuronen, die des Zentralgehirn mit extensiven Verzweigungen versorgen. Um die Ordnung hinter dieser komplexen Organisation zu verstehen, wurden die segmentale Organistion der Mittellinienneurone auf Einzelzellebene analysiert und ihre embryonalen Anlagen verglichen. Letzteres ermöglichte die morphologische Analyse von einzelnen oktopaminergen Mittellinienklonen. OA-VPM und OA-VUM Neurone bilden zusammen drei Subcluster im Subösophagealen Ganglion, die wahrscheinlich die drei gnathalen Neuromere repräsentieren. Alle OA-VUM Neurone stammen von der embryonalen Mittellinie ab. In den mandibularen und maxillaren Neuromeren formen sie morphologisch identische Zelltypen, mit stereotypen Innervationsmustern. OA-VPM Neurone gehen nicht aus der embryonalen Mittellinie hervor und sind nicht segmental dupliziert. Diese Arbeit vermittelt nicht nur einen Eindruck über die Architektur individueller oktopaminerger Neurone, sondern auch über die Organisation des oktopaminergen Systems auf Einzelzellebene.
Die Entwicklung von Ethanoltoleranz ist ein Indikator für eine mögliche Abhängigkeit von Alkohol. Der genaue molekulare Mechanismus der Ethanoltoleranzentwicklung ist jedoch nicht bekannt. Drosophila ermöglicht die molekulare und phänotypische Untersuchung von verschiedenen Mutanten mit veränderter Toleranz und kann so zu einem besseren Verständnis beitragen. Die hangAE10 Mutante entwickelt eine reduzierte Ethanoltoleranz, wobei dieser Phänotyp auf Defekte in der zellulären Stressantwort zurückzuführen ist. Für ein besseres Verständnis, in welchen molekularen Mechanismen bzw. Signalwegen HANG wirkt, wurde die Funktion des Proteins auf zellulärer Ebene analysiert und mögliche Zielgene charakterisiert. Die auffällige Proteinstruktur von HANG spricht für eine Interaktion mit Nukleinsäuren. Immunhistochemische Analysen von ektopisch exprimiertem Hangover Protein ergaben, dass dieses nicht mit der DNA co-lokalisiert und auch nicht an polytänen Chromosomen nachgewiesen werden kann. Die ektopische Expression von HANG in Speicheldrüsenzellen zeigte eine punktförmige Verteilung des Proteins innerhalb des Zellkerns. Dieses punktförmige Expressionsmuster wird häufig in RNA-bindenden Proteinen gefunden. Deshalb wurden Co-Lokalisationsstudien von HANG mit Markern für RNAmodifizierende Proteine durchgeführt. Dabei wurde keine Interaktion mit verschiedenen Markerproteinen des Spleißapparates gefunden. Mithilfe von in vitro Experimenten konnte aber die Bindung von RNA an bestimmten Hangover Proteinbereichen nachgewiesen werden Diese Ergebnisse legen nahe, dass HANG eine RNA-regulierende Funktion hat. In einem cDNA Microarray Experiment wurde das Gen dunce als mögliches Zielgen von Hangover identifiziert. Das Gen dunce kodiert für eine Phosphodiesterase, welche spezifisch cAMP hydrolysiert. Zur Bestätigung der cDNA Microarray Experimente wurden die dnc Transkriptunterschiede in Wildtyp und hangAE10 Mutante mithilfe von semiquantitativer RT-PCR für jede der vier Gruppen untersucht. Dabei konnte eine Reduktion der dncRMRA-Transkriptgruppe in hangAE10 Mutanten nachgewiesen werden. Aufgrund dieser Ergebnisse wurde die dncRMRA -spezifische dncΔ143 Mutante hergestellt und auf Verhaltensebene analysiert. Die Experimente zeigten, dass sowohl dnc1, als auch die dncΔ143 Mutante eine reduzierte Ethanoltoleranz und Defekte in der zellulären Stressantwort aufweisen. Für die Rettung der reduzierten Toleranz von hangAE10 und dncΔ143 in dncRMRA-spezifischen Neuronen wurde die dncRMRA Promotor- GAL4 Linie hergestellt. Die reduzierte Ethanoltoleranz der dncΔ143 Mutanten konnte über die Expression von UAS-dnc mit der dncRMRA-GAL4 Linie auf Wildtyp Level gerettet werden. Die reduzierte Toleranz der hangAE10 Mutante konnte mithilfe derselben GAL4 Linie verbessert werden. Dies beweist, dass in beiden Mutanten dieselben Zellen für die Entwicklung von Ethanoltoleranz benötigt werden und sie wahrscheinlich in der gleichen Signaltransduktionskaskade eine Funktion haben. Aufgrund der Anfälligkeit der UAS/ GAL4 Systems gegenüber Hitze war es außerdem nicht möglich die Defekte der zellulären Stressantwort von dncΔ143 bzw. hangAE10 Fliegen zu retten. Die Rettung der reduzierten Ethanoltoleranz der dcnΔ143 Mutante führte außerdem zu der Vermutung, dass die cAMP Regulation eine wichtige Funktion bei der Ethanoltoleranzentwicklung hat. Über die Expression von cAMP-regulierenden Proteinen in dncRMRA-spezifischen Neuronen wurde der Einfluss von cAMP bei Ethanol-induziertem Verhalten überprüft. Bei der Überexpression von dunce und rutabaga konnte weder eine Veränderung für die Ethanolsensitivität, noch für die Toleranzentwicklung festgestellt werden. Eine Erklärung hierfür wäre, dass Veränderungen in der cAMP Konzentration über Rückkopplungsmechanismen zwischen Dunce und Rutabaga ausgeglichen werden können. Für eine genauere Aussage müsste jedoch die cAMP Konzentration in diesen Fliegen gemessen werden. Die Überexpression von pka- in dncRMRA spezifischen Zellen führt zu einer erhöhten Ethanolresistenz. Das bedeutet, dass die Modulation der cAMP Konzentration durch dunce und rutabaga in dncRMRA spezifischen Zellen keinen Einfluss auf Ethanol-induziertes Verhalten hat, wohingegen die Stärke der cAMP vermittelten Signalverarbeitung über die cAMP-abhängige PKA zu Veränderungen im Verhalten führt. Für Mutanten des cAMP Signalweges ist außerdem bekannt, dass sie Defekte im olfaktorischen Lernen bzw. Gedächtnis aufweisen. Deshalb wurden die dncΔ143, dnc1 und hangAE10 Mutanten in diesem Paradigma getestet. Sowohl dnc1, als auch dncΔ143 Fliegen zeigten einen reduzierten Performance Index für das zwei und 30 Minuten Gedächtnis. Nach 180 Minuten verhielten sich die dncΔ143 Mutanten nicht mehr unterschiedlich zum Wildtyp, die dnc1 Mutante zeigte jedoch immer noch eine Reduktion des Performance Index im Vergleich zur Kontrolle. Demnach ist in dncΔ143 Mutanten nur das Kurzzeitgedächtnis betroffen, wohingegen hangAE10 Mutanten keine Reduktion des Performance Index für das olfaktorische Kurzzeitgedächtnis aufweisen. Die unterschiedlichen Ergebnisse der beiden Mutanten in der Gedächtnisentwicklung deuten außerdem daraufhin, dass Lernen und Gedächtnis in dncΔ143 und hangAE10 Mutanten von der Toleranzentwicklung unabhängig über unterschiedliche cAMP-abhängige Signaltransduktionskaskaden reguliert werden.