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Neisseria meningitidis (the meningococcus) is one of the major causes of bacterial meningitis, a life-threatening inflammation of the meninges. Traversal of the meningeal blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier (mBCSFB), which is composed of highly specialized brain endothelial cells (BECs), and subsequent interaction with leptomeningeal cells (LMCs) are critical for disease progression. Due to the human-exclusive tropism of N. meningitidis, research on this complex host-pathogen interaction is mostly limited to in vitro studies. Previous studies have primarily used peripheral or immortalized BECs alone, which do not retain relevant barrier phenotypes in culture. To study meningococcal interaction with the mBCSFB in a physiologically more accurate context, BEC-LMC co-culture models were developed in this project using BEC-like cells derived from induced pluripotent stem cells (iBECs) or hCMEC/D3 cells in combination with LMCs derived from tumor biopsies.
Distinct BEC and LMC layers as well as characteristic expression of cellular markers were observed using transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and immunofluorescence staining. Clear junctional expression of brain endothelial tight and adherens junction proteins was detected in the iBEC layer. LMC co-culture increased iBEC barrier tightness and stability over a period of seven days, as determined by sodium fluorescein (NaF) permeability and transendothelial electrical resistance (TEER). Infection experiments demonstrated comparable meningococcal adhesion and invasion of the BEC layer in all models tested, consistent with previously published data. While only few bacteria crossed the iBEC-LMC barrier initially, transmigration rates increased substantially over 24 hours, despite constant high TEER. After 24 hours of infection, deterioration of the barrier properties was observed including loss of TEER and altered expression of tight and adherens junction components. Reduced mRNA levels of ZO-1, claudin-5, and VE-cadherin were detected in BECs from all models. qPCR and siRNA knockdown data suggested that transcriptional downregulation of these genes was potentially but not solely mediated by Snail1. Immunofluorescence staining showed reduced junctional coverage of occludin, indicating N. meningitidis-induced post-transcriptional modulation of this protein, as previous studies have suggested. Together, these results suggest a potential combination of transcellular and paracellular meningococcal traversal of the mBCSFB, with the more accessible paracellular route becoming available upon barrier disruption after prolonged N. meningitidis infection. Finally, N. meningitidis induced cellular expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines such as IL-8 in all mBCSFB models. Overall, the work described in this thesis highlights the usefulness of advanced in vitro models of the mBCSFB that mimic native physiology and exhibit relevant barrier properties to study infection with meningeal pathogens such as N. meningitidis.
The Role of Sphingosine 1-phosphate and S1PR1-3 in the Pathophysiology of Meningococcal Meningitis
(2024)
Neisseria meningitidis (N. meningitidis) is an obligate human pathogen which causes live-threatening sepsis and meningitis. The fatality rate after meningococcal infection is high and surviving patients often suffer from severe sequelae. To cause meningitis, N. meningitidis must overcome the endothelium of the blood-brain barrier. The bacterium achieves this through the interaction with endothelial surface receptors leading to alternations of the cellular metabolism and signaling, which lastly results in cellular uptake and barrier traversal of N. meningitidis. Sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P) is a lipid mediator that belongs to the class of sphingolipids and regulates the integrity of the blood-brain barrier through the interaction with its cognate receptors S1P receptors 1-3 (S1PR1-3).
In this study, high performance liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) was used to generate a time-resolved picture of the sphingolipid metabolism in a brain endothelial cell line (hCMEC/D3) upon meningococcal infection. Among various changes, S1P was elevated in the cellular compartment as well as in the supernatant of infected hCMEC/D3s. Analysis of mRNA expression in infected hCMEC/D3s with quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) revealed that the increase in S1P could be attributed to the enhanced expression of the S1P-generating enzyme sphingosine kinase 1 (SphK1). Antibody-based detection of SphK1 protein or phosphorylation at SphK1 residue Serine 225 in hCMEC/D3 plasma membrane fractions via Western Blot revealed that N. meningitidis also induced SphK1 phospho-activation and recruitment to the plasma membrane. Importantly, recruitment of SphK1 to the plasma membrane increases the probability of substrate encounter, thus elevating SphK activity. Enhanced SphK activity was also reflected on a functional level, as detected by a commercially available ATP depletion assay used for measuring the enzymatic activity of SphK. Infection of hCMEC/D3 cells with pilus-deficient mutants resulted in a lower SphK activation compared to the N. meningitidis wild type strain. hCMEC/D3 treatment with pilus-enriched protein fractions showed SphK activation similar to the infection with living bacteria and could be ascribed to pilus interaction with the membrane-proximal domain of cellular surface receptor CD147. Inhibition of SphK1 or SphK2 through pre-treatment with specific inhibitors or RNA interference reduced uptake of N. meningitidis into hCMEC/D3 cells, as measured with Gentamicin protection assays. Released S1P induced the phospho-activation of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) via S1PR2 activation, whose expression was also increasing during infection. Furthermore, S1PR2 blockage had a preventive effect on bacterial invasion into hCMEC/D3 cells. On the contrary, activation of S1PR1+3 also reduced bacterial uptake, indicating an opposing regulatory role of S1PR1+3 and S1PR2 during N. meningitidis uptake. Moreover, SphK2 inhibition prevented inflammatory cytokine expression as well as release of interleukin-8 after N. meningitidis infection. Taken together, this study demonstrates the central role of S1P and its cognate receptors S1PR1-3 in the pathophysiology of meningococcal meningitis.
The human specific gram-negative bacterium Neisseria meningitidis (Nme, meningococci) is a common colonizer of the upper respiratory tract. Upon becoming invasive, Nme can cause meningitis and life-threatening sepsis. The most important immune defense mechanism in invasive meningococcal disease (IMD) is the complement mediated killing of bacteria. The complement cascade is activated through different pathogen associated patterns and finally leads to the lysis of the bacteria by the membrane attack complex. In addition to the direct bacterial killing, the complement system is also an important player in different inflammatory processes. A hallmark of IMD is an overreaction of the immune system and the release of the potent anaphylatoxins C3a and C5a by the complement system is an important factor hereby. There are three anaphylatoxin receptors (ATRs), the C3aR, the C5aR1 and the C5aR2, capable of detecting these anaphylatoxins. It has already been shown that blocking the ATR C5aR1 strongly benefitted the outcome of IMD in a murine sepsis model. However, the roles of ATRs C3aR and C5aR2 in IMD are still unclear. This work aims to analyze the role of these ATRs in meningococcal sepsis and to identify possible underlying mechanisms. Furthermore, a possible involvement of the complement system, the ATRs and the type II CRISPR/Cas system on nasopharyngeal colonization is analyzed.
In vivo depletion experiments showed that without neutrophils or monocytes/macrophages the complement system alone was not able to clear a low dose Nme infection, which highlights the importance of cellular components in IMD. Analyzing the role of the ATRs in knock-out mice with high dose Nme infections, revealed that the lack of C5aR2, like the lack of C5aR1, was beneficial for the outcome of meningococcal induced sepsis. In contrast, the lack of C3aR in knock-out mice was detrimental. The positive outcome associated with the C5aRs could be reproduced by using an antagonist against both C5aRs or an antagonist specifically against C5aR1 in WT mice. These findings are giving hope to future therapeutic applications. Next, a possible contribution of neutrophils to this positive outcome was analyzed. Absence of C5aR1 led to a decrease of degranulation by neutrophils in a murine whole blood model, while the other ATRs showed no effect. Neutrophil analysis in human whole blood, on the other hand, revealed a reduced oxidative burst and IL-8 secretion upon inhibition of all three ATRs. A functional difference between the C5aRs and the C3aR in neutrophils was observed in phagocytosis, which was reduced upon C3aR inhibition, but was unaltered with C5aR1 or C5aR2 inhibition. Possible underlying mechanisms in the phosphorylation of ERK1/2 were analyzed in bone marrow derived macrophages isolated from ATR knock-out mice. The later phosphorylation of ERK1/2 in macrophages without C5aR1 or C5aR2 expression might explain, why blocking the C5aRs is beneficial for the outcome of IMD in mice. In contrast to these findings, the colonization of the nasopharynx in huCEACAM 1 expressing mice by Nme did not seem to depend on the Complement system factors C3 and C5 nor the ATRs. Additionally, no difference in the colonization could be observed in this model using Nme mutants lacking different parts of the type 2 CRISPR/Cas system.
Conclusively, this work highlights the importance of the complement system, the ATRs and the cellular components in IMD. Contrariwise, these factors did not play a role in the analyzed nasopharyngeal infection model. The beneficial effects of C5aR1 and C5aR2 lack/inhibition in IMD might have medicinal applications, which could support the standard therapies of IMD in the future.
Die saure Sphingomyelinase (Asm) ist ein lysosomales Enzym, das sezerniert werden kann und die Reaktion von Sphingomyelin zu Ceramid und Phosphocholin katalysiert. Seine Funktion ist bedeutsam für die Aufrechterhaltung des zellulären Lipidstoffwechsels und für die Integrität der Plasmamembran. Enzymdefekte sind an der Pathogenese von Infektionen und zahlreichen Stoffwechselerkrankungen wie z.B. der Niemann-Pick-Krankheit, Diabetes mellitus Typ II und auch an der Entstehung psychischer Erkrankungen beteiligt.
Immunologisch bedeutsam ist, dass durch Hemmung der Asm mit trizyklischen Antidepressiva (TZA) oder Serotonin-Wiederaufnahme-Inhibitoren (SSRI) die Frequenz CD4+ CD25+ Foxp3+ regulatorischer T-Zellen (Treg) der Maus erhöht wird. Grund für die Frequenzerhöhung ist jedoch nicht die Erhöhung der absoluten Treg-Zellzahl, sondern das selektive Sterben CD4+ CD25- Foxp3- konventioneller T-Zellen (Tconv). Erstaunlicherweise führt die Behandlung mit dem kompetitiven Asm-Inhibitor ARC39, einem Bisphosphonat, nicht zu diesem Effekt.
Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass IL-2 die regulatorischen T-Zellen vor dem durch Asm-Hemmung induziertem Zelltod schützt. In Abwesenheit von IL-2 gehen auch Treg-Zellen durch die Asm-Inhibition zugrunde. Treg-Zellen exprimieren konstitutiv CD25, den IL-2-Rezeptor, dessen α-Kette die Bindungsstelle von Interleukin-2 bildet. Die β- und γ-Kette des Rezeptors sind an der Bindung des Transkriptionsfaktors STAT5 beteiligt, das wiederum die Gentranskription von antiapoptotischen Proteinen wie bcl-2 und bcl-x sowie CD25 fördert. Dahingehend wurde versucht, den verantwortlichen Faktor für den Schutz von Treg-Zellen vor dem Zelltod in der IL-2-Signaltransduktion zu identifizieren. Der Transkriptionsfaktor STAT5 konnte hierbei ausgeschlossen werden. Weder die genetische Überexpression noch die Defizienz von STAT5 hatten Einfluss auf das T-Zell-Gleichgewicht. Die genauen molekularen Mechanismen der Treg-spezifischen IL-2-Protektion bleiben daher ungeklärt. Zu diskutieren sind der Einfluss von Zn2+-Ionen, Januskinasen und Mitgliedern der FoxO-Familie.
Die zugrundeliegende Hypothese, dass das spezifische Sterben konventioneller T-Zellen auf einer Erhöhung der lysosomalen Membranpermeabilität (LMP) besteht, woraufhin proapoptotisch wirksame Cathepsine ins Zytosol freigesetzt werden und Caspasen zur Auslösung von Apoptose führen, konnte nicht abschließend bestätigt werden. Jedoch wurde nachgewiesen, dass durch Inhibition von Cathepsinen das Sterben konventioneller T-Zellen in Abwesenheit von IL-2 verlangsamt wird. Eine Protektion der Tconv-Zellen durch Caspase-Inhibitoren kann nur bei hohen
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Konzentrationen des Inhibitors ZVAD bei gleichzeitig geringer Asm-Inhibitor-Konzentration erreicht werden. In Zusammenschau der Ergebnisse müssen weitere Formen des Zelltods neben der Apoptose, etwa eine durch Asm-Inhibition induzierte Ferroptose, in Erwägung gezogen werden.
Neben dem durch Asm-Inhibition erzeugten Lipidstress begünstigt das Vorliegen von hypoxischen Bedingungen die Induktion von Zelltod. Schon das alleinige Auftreten von Hypoxie ohne den Einfluss von Asm-Inhibitoren führt zu einer Treg-Frequenzerhöhung. Der Hypoxie-induzierte Faktor HIF-1α induziert die Expression von Foxp3, wodurch die Differenzierung und Suppressivität von CD4+ CD25+ Foxp3+ Treg-Zellen gefördert wird. Der Einfluss von Hypoxie spielt womöglich vor allem in der Tumortherapie eine entscheidende Rolle. HIF-1α regt hypoxische, nicht-vaskularisierte Tumorareale zur Neovaskularisation an und bremst durch die Frequenzerhöhung regulatorischer T-Zellen die eigene Immunabwehr. Ein Abbau des Transkriptionsfaktors HIF-1α stellt somit eine therapeutische Option in der Therapie solider Tumoren dar.
Abschließend lässt sich also festhalten, dass die relative Frequenzerhöhung regulatorischer T-Zellen durch Asm-Inhibition nicht durch Apoptose erklärt werden kann, sondern alternative Erklärungsmodelle wie z.B. die Ferroptose in Betracht gezogen werden müssen. Die Protektion CD25+ regulatorischer T-Zellen beruht auf der Wirkung von IL-2 und wird durch Hypoxie positiv beeinflusst. Eine genaue Identifizierung der für den Zelltod relevanten Mechanismen ist erforderlich, um sichere therapeutische Maßnahmen im Rahmen von Infektionen und Autoimmunkrankheiten zu etablieren.
The gram-negative diplococcus Neisseria meningitidis (Nme) is a frequent human-specific, commensal bacterium of the upper respiratory tract. Under certain conditions especially in infants, meningococci can translocate into the bloodstream and cause invasive meningococcal disease (IMD) manifesting as meningitis or sepsis or a combination of both. IMD is feared for its rapid progression and high fatality rate if it remains untreated. IMD affects up to one million people annually causing substantial morbidity and mortality worldwide. It is well-established that the complement system is an important protective factor in meningococcal disease through opsonization of bacteria with C3b and the lytic activity of the membrane attack complex although the inflammatory C5a/C5aR1 axis can aggravate IMD. The role of neutrophil granulocytes in meningococcal infection is less clear despite their abundant recruitment throughout the course of disease. This study aimed to characterize neutrophil responses to Nme in vitro and the influence of complement on these responses. In infection assays with whole blood and isolated PMNs, effective binding, internalization and killing of Nme by neutrophils was demonstrated. A significant complement-dependence of neutrophil phagocytosis and oxidative burst was observed. The opsonizing and lytic pathway of the complement cascade were found to be most relevant for these responses since blockade of C3 using inhibitor Compstatin Cp20 reduced phagocytosis and oxidative burst significantly more than the blockade of the inflammatory branch with C5aR1-antagonist PMX53. Opsonization with specific antibodies could not replicate the effect of complement activation indicating that engagement of neutrophil complement receptors, particularly complement receptor 3, is involved. Other neutrophil effector functions such as degranulation and IL-8 release were activated in a complement-independent manner implying activation by other inflammatory signals. Considering existing evidence on the overall protective effect of PMNs, further studies investigating the contribution of each neutrophil effector function to infection survival in vivo are required. Ideally, this should be studied in a murine meningitis or sepsis model in the context of complement activation.
Neisseria gonorrhoeae are Gram-negative bacteria with diplococcal shape. As an obligate human pathogen, it is the causative agent of gonorrhoea, a sexually transmitted disease. Gonococci colonize a variety of mucosal tissues, mainly the urogenital tract in men and women. Occasionally N. gonorrhoeae invades the bloodstream, leading to disseminated gonococcal infection. These bacteria possess a repertoire of virulence factors, which expression patterns can be adapted to the environmental conditions of the host. Through the accumulation of antibiotic resistances and in absence of vaccines, some neisserial strains have the potential to spread globally and represent a major public health threat. Therefore, it is necessary to understand the exact molecular mechanisms underlying the successful infection and progression of gonococci within their host. This deeper understanding of neisserial infection and survival mechanisms is needed for the development of new therapeutic agents.
In this work, the role of host-cell sphingolipids on the intracellular survival of N. gonorrhoeae was investigated. It was shown that different classes of sphingolipids strongly interact with invasive gonococci in epithelial cells. Therefore, novel and highly specific clickable sphingolipid analogues were applied to study these interactions with this pathogen. The formation of intra- and extracellular sphingosine vesicles, which were able to target gonococci, was observed. This direct interaction led to the uptake and incorporation of sphingosine into the neisserial membrane. Together with in vitro results, sphingosine was identified as a potential bactericidal reagent as part of the host cell defence. By using different classes of sphingolipids and their clickable analogues, essential structural features, which seem to trigger the bacterial uptake, were detected. Furthermore, effects of key enzymes of the sphingolipid signalling pathway were tested in a neutrophil infection model.
In conclusion, the combination of click chemistry and infection biology made it possible to shed some light on the dynamic interplay between cellular sphingosine and N. gonorrhoeae. Thereby, a possible “catch-and-kill” mechanism could have been observed.
Die zunehmende Antibiotikaresistenz vieler Krankheitserreger ist ein weltweites Problem, welches zu einem klinischen Bedarf an neuen antimikrobiellen Substanzen führt. Sphingolipide einschließlich Ceramide stellen eine vielfältige Gruppe strukturverwandter Lipide dar und bestehen aus einem Sphingosin-Grundgerüst, welches mit einer Fettsäure verbunden ist. Sowohl das Sphingosin-Grundgerüst allein als auch Sphingolipide zeigen eine antibakterielle Wirkung gegenüber einer Vielzahl pathogener Mikroorganismen. Die Intensität der Hemmung hängt von der Sphingolipidstruktur und dem Mikroorganismus ab. Neuere Studien konnten zeigen, dass Sphingosin, Ceramide und Ceramid-Analoga in N. meningitidis aufgenommen werden und eine bakteriostatische oder bakterizide Wirkung zeigen. Jedoch ist die antibakterielle Wirkungsweise noch nicht genau bekannt. Um mehr über den Wirkmechanismus zu erfahren haben wir die ultrastrukturellen Veränderungen von N. meningitidis nach Inkubation mit azido-funktionalisierten Sphingolipiden mit elektronenmikroskopischen Verfahren (transmissionselektronenmikroskopische und rasterelektronenmikroskopische Aufnahmen) untersucht. Mittels korrelativer Licht- und Elektronenmikroskopie (CLEM) konnten wir die azido-funktionalisierten Sphingolipide nach Aufnahme in N. meningitidis lokalisieren. Zum Anfärben der funktionalisierten Sphingolipide wurde die kupferfreie Azid-Alkin-Cyccloaddition verwendet.
Zahlreiche humanpathogene bakterielle Erreger können ihre Fähigkeit zur Kolonisation epithelialer Barrieren optimieren, indem sie mit dem Zellzyklus der infizierten Wirtszelle in Wechselwirkung treten und so die Abschilferung und Erneuerung des Epithels verzögern. Die hierbei wirksamen bakteriellen Effektoren sind als „Cyclomoduline“ bekannt und gelten als neue Klasse bakterieller Pathogenitätsfaktoren. Ziel der vorliegenden Promotionsarbeit war es zu untersuchen, ob durch die Infektion menschlicher pharyngealer Epithelzellen mit N. meningitidis der Zellzyklus der Wirtszelle beeinflusst wird. Mit zwei verschiedenen Untersuchungsmethoden konnte übereinstimmend gezeigt werden, dass die Infektion der Epithelzelllinie Detroit 562 mit verschiedenen Meningokokkenisolaten zu einer signifikanten Akkumulation von Epithelzellen in der G1-Phase führte. Dieser Effekt wurde sowohl von pathogenen Meningokokkenstämmen als auch von Trägerstämmen ausgelöst, jedoch nur durch Isolate, die fähig zur Adhärenz und zur Invasion in die Epithelzelle waren. Durch Hitzebehandlung der Bakterien konnte der Zellzyklusarrest vollständig aufgehoben werden. Ebenso konnte der Effekt durch Inkubation der Epithelzellen mit bakteriellen Kulturüberständen und durch Infektion der Zellen mit E. coli-Stämmen, welche die Meningokokkenadhäsine Opa und Opc überexprimieren, nicht ausgelöst werden.
Es konnte weiterhin nachgewiesen werden, dass die Infektion mit N. meningitidis in der Zielzelle zu einer signifikant gesteigerten Expression des CDK-Inhibitors p21WAF1/Cip1 führte, begleitet von einer vermehrten Lokalisation im Zellkern. Auch zeigte sich eine veränderte Proteinexpression der für die G1-Phase relevanten Cycline D und E. Diese scheint sich erst posttranslational zu ereignen, da die unterschiedliche Expression auf mRNA-Ebene nicht festgestellt werden konnte.
Zusammenfassend konnte dargestellt werden, dass die Infektion von Pharynxepithelzellen mit lebenden, zur Adhärenz und Invasion fähigen Meningokokkenstämmen in der menschlichen Zielzelle einen Zellzyklusarrest in der G1-Phase verursacht, vermutlich durch veränderte Expression der Zellzyklusregulatoren p21WAF1/Cip1, Cyclin D und Cyclin E. Möglicherweise stellt die Induktion dieses Zellzyklusarrestes einen wichtigen Schritt in der Pathogenese der bakteriellen Kolonisation des oberen Atemwegsepithels durch N. meningitidis dar.
Das bekapselte, Gram-negative, diplokokkenförmige Bakterium Neisseria meningitidis (Nme) ist ein asymptomatischer Kommensale des oberen Nasenrachenraums im Men-schen. Gerade bei Kindern ist es dem humanspezifischen Pathogen in seltenen Fällen möglich, in den Blutstrom einzuwandern und lebensbedrohliche Krankheitsbilder wie Meningoenzephalitis und Sepsis auszulösen, welche als „Invasive Meningokokkener-krankung“ (IMD) zusammengefasst werden. Jährlich ereignen sich weltweit bis zu 1,2 Mio Fälle von IMD, welche aufgrund des fulminanten Verlaufs und der hohen Letalität gefürchtet sind. In der Bekämpfung der Nme-Sepsis ist das humane Komplementsystem von entscheidender Bedeutung. Vor diesem Hintergrund ist die protektive Rolle des lytischen (Membranangriffskomplex MAK) und opsonisierenden Arms (Opsonine iC3b und C1q) der Komplementkaskade gut dokumentiert. Dagegen ist der Beitrag des in-flammatorischen Arms (Anaphylatoxine C3a und C5a) in der Nme-Sepsis bisher unklar. Aus diesem Grunde wurde mit dieser Arbeit die Rolle des inflammatorischen Arms an-hand des Komplement C5a-Rezeptors 1 (C5aR1) in der Pathophysiologie der Nme-Sepsis am Mausmodell untersucht. Nach Etablierung des murinen, intraperitonealen In-fektionsmodells konnte ein schädlicher Effekt des C5aR1 in der Nme-Sepsis beobachtet werden. Aus der Abwesenheit des C5aR1 resultierte eine höhere Überlebensrate, ein besserer klinischer Zustand, eine niedrigere Bakteriämie und niedrigere Konzentrationen der pro-inflammatorischen Mediatoren IL-6, CXCL-1 und TNF-α. Im Hinblick auf den zellulären Pathomechanismus sprechen Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit dafür, dass der C5aR1 primär eine gesteigerte Freisetzung inflammatorischer Mediatoren durch verschiedene Zellpopulationen triggert (Zytokinsturm), wodurch sekundär Zellparalyse, steigende Bakteriämie und höhere Letalität bedingt sind. Durch Depletionsversuche und Immun-fluoreszenzfärbungen konnte, unabhängig vom C5aR1, eine allgemein protektive Rolle von neutrophilen Granulozyten und Monozyten/Makrophagen in der Nme-Sepsis beo-bachtet werden. Darüber hinaus präsentierte sich der zyklische C5aR1-Antagonist PMX205 als erfolgsversprechende Therapieoption, um Parameter einer murinen Nme-Sepsis zu verbessern. Weitere Untersuchungen sind nötig, um die Wirksamkeit dieser Substanz in der humanen Nme-Sepsis zu erforschen. Zudem könnte das murine, intrape-ritoneale Infektionsmodell zur Klärung der Rolle des C5aR2 in der Nme-Sepsis genutzt werden.
Bacterial meningitis occurs when blood-borne bacteria are able to penetrate highly specialized brain endothelial cells (BECs) and gain access to the meninges. Neisseria meningitidis (Nm) is a human-exclusive pathogen for which suitable in vitro models are severely lacking. Until recently, modeling BEC-Nm interactions has been almost exclusively limited to immortalized human cells that lack proper BEC phenotypes. Specifically, these in vitro models lack barrier properties, and continuous tight junctions. Alternatively, humanized mice have been used, but these must rely on known interactions and have limited translatability. This motivates the need to establish novel human-based in vitro BEC models that have barrier phenotypes to research Nm-BEC interactions. Recently, a human induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) model of BECs has been developed that possesses superior BEC phenotypes and closely mimics the in vivo blood vessels present at the blood-meningeal barrier.
Here, iPSC-BECs were tested as a novel cellular model to study Nm-host pathogen interactions, with focus on host responses to Nm infection. Two wild type strains and three mutant strains of Nm were used to confirm that these followed similar phenotypes to previously described models. Importantly, the recruitment of the recently published pilus adhesin receptor CD147 underneath meningococcal microcolonies could be verified in iPSC-BECs. Nm was also observed to significantly increase the expression of pro-inflammatory and neutrophil-specific chemokines IL6, CXCL1, CXCL2, CXCL8, and CCL20, at distinct time points of infection, and the secretion of IFN γ and RANTES by iPSC-BECs. Nm was directly observed to disrupt tight junction proteins ZO-1, Occludin, and Claudin-5 at late time points of infection, which became frayed and/or discontinuous upon infection. This destruction is preceded by, and might be dependent on, SNAI1 activation (a transcriptional repressor of tight junction proteins). In accordance with tight junction loss, a sharp loss in trans-endothelial electrical resistance, and an increase in sodium fluorescein permeability was observed at late infection time points. Notably, bacterial transmigration correlated with junctional disruption, indicating that the paracellular route contributes for bacterial crossing of BECs. Finally, RNA-Sequencing (RNA-Seq) of sorted, infected iPSC-BECs was established through the use of fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) techniques following infection. This allowed the detection of expression data of Nm-responsive host genes not previously described thus far to play a role during meningitidis.
In conclusion, here the utility of iPSC-BECs in vitro to study Nm infection could be demonstrated. This is the first BEC in vitro model to express all major BEC tight junctions and to display high barrier potential. Altogether, here this model provides novel insights into Nm pathogenesis, including an impact of Nm on barrier properties and tight junction complexes and suggests that the paracellular route contributes to Nm traversal of BECs.