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Vom Monomer zum Polymer: Iterative Synthese und optische Spektroskopie von Squarain-Oligomeren
(2022)
Mittels einer Schutzgruppenstrategie wurden Squarain-basierte monodisperse Oligomere synthetisiert. Die lösungsmittelabhängigen Konformationen (Random Coil vs. Helix) wie auch der Faltungsprozess der Homooligomere wurden mittels optischer Spektroskopie, verschiedener NMR-Experimenten, Kleinwinkelneutronenstreuungsexperimenten sowie quantenchemischen Berechnungen näher beleuchtet. Die optisch-spektroskopischen Beobachtungen wurden mithilfe der Exzitonenkopplungstheorie und einer Orientierungs- und Winkelabhängigkeit der Übergangsdipolmomente der Oligomere erklärt. Der hohe Windungsabstand der helikalen Konformation führt zu einer Interkalation von Lösungsmittel, wodurch eine Art Klathrat gebildet wird. Zusätzlich wurden mittels eines Frenkel-Exzitonenmodells die Absorptions- und Fluoreszenzspektren modelliert. Es konnten die Exzitonendelokalisationslängen abgeschätzt und die Auswirkung der energetischen und strukturellen Unordnungen auf die Absorptions- und Fluoreszenzspektren bestimmt werden. Die Absorptionsspektren werden vorwiegend durch strukturelle Unordnungen verbreitert, die Fluoreszenzspektren dagegen von energetischen Übergangsenergieabweichungen.
Weiterhin wurden auch alternierende Squarain-Cooligomere synthetisiert und mittels optischer Spektroskopie untersucht. Es wurde, abhängig von dem gewählten Lösungsmittel, eine Verschiebung der Hauptbande beobachtet, was durch einen Random Coil vs. helikale-/schlaufenartige Konformation erklärt wird. Gestützt wurde dies mittels quantenchemischen Berechnungen der jeweiligen Konformationen.
Abschließend wurden alternierende Squarain-Copolymere synthetisiert, in verschiedenen Größen aufgetrennt und mittels optischer Spektroskopie untersucht. Mittels EEI2D-Experimenten wurde die Exzitonendynamik in Abhängigkeit von der Kettenlänge eingehender untersucht. Hierbei wird eine steigende, aber relativ abnehmende Kohärenzlänge bestimmt, die Auswirkungen auf die Exzitonendynamik hat. Der Exzitonentransport weist erst wellenförmiges und dann subdiffuses Verhalten auf.
In this work the synthesis, the spectroscopic and electrochemical investigation as well as some applications of a broad diversity of indolenine squaraine dyes were presented. This diversity was based on two parent squaraine dyes, one standard trans-configured compound (M1) and one in which one central oxygen atom was replaced by a dicyanomethylene moiety (M2), which increased the acceptor strength and induced a cis-configuration. The variety of synthesised dyes included functionalised squaraine monomers, donor- and acceptor-substituted monomeric model squaraines, donor- and acceptor-squaraine copolymers, pure squaraine homopolymers, a squaraine-squaraine copolymer, as well as some conjugated cyclic oligomers.
In order to be able to synthesise all these different kinds of dyes, several bromine and boronic ester derivatives were synthesised, which enabled the use of the Suzuki cross coupling reaction, to generate model dyes and copolymers. In addition, the bromine derivatives were used to carry out the Yamamoto homocoupling reaction to the respective homopolymers and macrocycles.
The absorption maximum of unsubstituted reference dye M1 was found at ~ 15500 cm–1, while that of M2 was red-shifted to ~ 14300 cm–1 due to the increased acceptor strength of the central unit. The extinction coefficients were in the order of ~ 300000 M–1 cm–1 and ~ 200000 M–1 cm–1, respectively. It was found that the implementation of functional groups (M3–M9), additional electron donors (M10–M19) or acceptors (M20–M22) at the periphery lead to bathochromic shifts of the absorption depending on the strength of either - and/or -donating properties of the substituents.
For the bis- and triarylamine substituted dyes M10–M13 and the dibrominated dyes M5 and M7 the electronic structure of the mono- and diradical (di)cations was explored using the interplay of cyclic voltammetry, spectroelectrochemistry, and DFT calculations. It was demonstrated that the monoradical cations still show a cyanine-like character and are delocalised Robin-Day class III species due to the low redox potential of the squaraine bridge between the additional amine redox centres. To the best of my knowledge, this made M13+∙, with an N-N-distance of 26 bonds between the additional redox centres to the longest bis(triarylamine) radical cation that is completely delocalised. For the diradical dications, the situation was of larger complexity. The computed most stable energetic state of the dianisylamine-substituted dyes turned out to be a broken-symmetry state with almost equal contributions of an open-shell singlet and triplet state. In addition, it was shown that the HOMO–1→HOMO transition dominated the absorption spectra of the diradical dications where the trans-/cis-configuration of the squaraines had a direct impact due to symmetry reasons.
Based on the donor–squaraine model compounds M10–M19, a series of donor–squaraine copolymers was synthesised (P7–P12) in order to further red shift and broaden the low energy absorption band. However, these effects were only of marginal extent. Both the optical and the electrochemical derived band gaps were barely lowered compared to the respective monomeric model dyes. This was assigned to an increased squaraine-squaraine distance and resulting lower exciton coupling between the squaraine chromophores due to the bridging units. In addition, according to semiempirical calculations the bridges were twisted out of the squaraine plane what reduced conjugational effects between the chromophores. To sum up, the idea to insert additional electron rich bridging units in order to create copolymers with broad and red-shifted absorption did not fully work out for the presented systems.
The addition of strong electron accepting NDI units at the periphery resulted in M21, the most unique monomeric model squaraine in this work. The common picture of a sharp low energy squaraine absorption completely altered due to the addition of the NDIs and a rather broad and solvent dependent low energy absorption was found. Spectroelectrochemical experiments and semiempirical calculations showed that this band is a superposition of the common squaraine HOMO→LUMO transition and a partial squaraine→NDI charge transfer transition. The latter was lost upon oxidation of the squaraine and the absorption spectrum of the monocation of M21 was found to be nearly a 1:1 image of a pure squaraine monocation. Both the monomeric model M21 and the respective copolymer P13 showed low electrochemically obtained band gaps of 1.05–1.20 eV, which were the lowest of all squaraines in this work. For both dyes, transient absorption measurements in the fs-time regime revealed the ultrafast formation of a CS state via an intermediate CT state within a few ps. Besides, charge recombination to the ground state also occured within a few ps. In the polymer, there was barely any further energy or charge transfer within the excited state lifetime and therefore the CS state was confined on adjacent squaraine-NDI pairs and did not further travel along the polymer strand.
The Ni-mediated Yamamoto homocoupling reaction was applied for the synthesis of the homopolymers (P1–P5). In contrast to the donor–squaraine copolymers, those polymers revealed strongly red-shifted and broad absorption in the red to NIR region in addition to a sharp fluorescence. These features could be explained to originate mainly from the exciton coupling of localised excited states and the presence of different superstructures in solution. For the polymers P1 and P2, an elongated J-type polymer chain caused the strong lowest energy absorption band whereas a zig-zag type arrangement of the single chromophores lead to transitions into both low and high energy excited states of the excitonic manifold. For the polymers P3 and P4, several polymer fractions of different size were investigated. Here, also an elongated chain with J-type character induced the lowest energy absorption band whereas a helical H-type arrangement caused transitions to higher energies of the excitonic manifold. The fractions to which these structures were formed depended on the chain length and the solvent. In thin film measurements, it was shown that the initially in solution formed superstructures were partly retained in the thin film but could be altered by annealing procedures. A control of the superstructures should enable the controlled tuning of the optical properties. Despite the strong interaction of the chromophores in the excited state, the redox potentials of the homopolymers barely differed to those of the respective reference dyes, indicating negligible electronic interaction in the ground state.
In addition squaraine-squaraine copolymer P6, consisting of alternating parent dyes M1 and M2, was synthesised. Likewise to the homopolymers, a broad and red-shifted absorption was observed. This was explained by exciton coupling theory, which was extended to also suit alternating copolymers. In toluene, an extraordinary narrow and intense lowest energy absorption band was observed. This exchange narrowing might be a result of a highly ordered J-type structure of the polymer especially in this solvent because it was not found in others. The features of the polymer may be compared to typical J-aggregates formed from monomeric cyanine molecules for example and the polymer used as model for excitonic interactions in an alternating copolymer. Transient absorption measurements revealed a strong energy dependence of the decay traces of the copolymer, most strikingly at early decay times. This was assigned to the occurrence of multiple excitations of one polymer strand (due to the large extinction coefficients of the polymer) and resulting exciton-exciton annihilation. Due to the large exciton diffusion constants that were estimated, the static exciton-exciton annihilation was the rate limiting process of the decay, in contrast to other conjugated polymers, where in thin film measurements the decay was diffusion controlled.
To sum up, for the polymers consisting of exclusively squaraine chromophores, it was shown that the exciton coupling of single chromophores with strong transition dipole moments was a fruitful way to tune the absorption spectra.
As a side product of some of the polycondensation reactions, unprecedented cyclic conjugated oligomers such as the triarylamine-bridged dimer Dim1, the cyclic homotrimers Tri1–Tri3, and the tetramer Tet1 were obtained by recycling GPC in low yields. Especially the cyclic trimers showed unusual absorption and even more extraordinary fluorescence properties. They showed multiple fluorescence bands in the NIR that covered a range from ~ 8000–12500 cm–1 (800–1250 nm). First hints from theoretical calculations indicated that the trimer was not fully planar but comprised a mixture of both planar and bent single squaraine chromophores. However, final results of the calculations were still missing at the time of writing.
In the last part of this work, the application of some monomeric and polymeric squaraines in binary and ternary bulk heterojunction solar cells was demonstrated. Also the utilisation as a dopant in a polymer matrix in an OLED device was shown. The homopolymers P1–P4 were tested in the binary BHJ solar cells revealing poor performances and especially very low short circuit currents. The utilisation of the polymers P3 and P4 that carried the dicyanomethylene group resulted in higher open circuit voltages due to the lower LUMO energy levels but still an overall poor performance. Neither for the different alkyl chains nor for the size of the polymers was a trend observed. In the ternary BHJ solar cells, small amounts of either monomer M14 or polymers P1A, P4–1 or P13 were added to a P3HT/PCBM system in order to generate an additional pathway for charge or energy transfer that should result in a better device performance. However, for none of the tested squaraines, improved solar cells could be built. In similarity to the binary solar cells, the short circuit currents were lower compared to a P3HT/PCBM reference device. These low short circuit currents indicated that the morphology of the squaraine dyes was the major limitation in those devices. It is possible that the dimethyl groups at the indolenine hindered a favoured alignment of the compounds that would allow decent charge transport. In the squaraine doped OLED the squaraine M6 worked rather well as an NIR emitter. Already at low dye loads the fluorescence of the host polymer SY-PPV was completely quenchend and emission from the squaraine was observed. For electroluminescence measurements, a lower dye load (0.5 wt.%) compared to the photoluminescence measurements was sufficient, indicating that apart from FRET additional quenching mechanisms were at work in the electrically driven devices such as charge carrier dynamics.
In the course of this work, a total of three photocatalytically active dyads for proton reduction could be synthesized together with the associated individual components. Two of them, D1 and D2, comprised a [Ru(bpy)3]2+ photosensitizer and D3 an [Ir(ppy)2bpy]+ photosensitizer. A Ppyr3-substituted propyldithiolate [FeFe] complex was used as catalyst in all systems. The absorption spectroscopic and electrochemical investigations showed that an inner-dyadic electronic coupling is effectively prevented in the dyads due to conjugation blockers within the bridging units used. The photocatalytic investigations exhibited that all dyad containing two-component systems (2CS) showed a significantly worse performance than the corresponding bimolecular three-component systems (3CS). Transient absorption spectroscopy showed that the 2CS behave very similarly to the associated multicomponent systems during photocatalysis. The electron that was intended for the intramolecular transfer from the photosensitizer unit to the catalyst unit within the dyads remains at the photosensitizer for a relatively long time, analogous to the 3CS and despite the covalently bound catalyst. It is therefore assumed that this intramolecular electron transfer is likely to be hindered as a result of the weak electronic coupling caused by the bridge units used. Instead, the system bypasses this through an intermolecular transfer to other dyad molecules in the immediate vicinity. In addition, with the help of emission quenching experiments and electrochemical investigations, it could be clearly concluded that all investigated systems proceed via the reductive quenching mechanism during photocatalysis.
In this thesis, the synthesis and photophysics of a great variety of squaraine dyes are presented. This variety is based on four parent squaraines containing either indolenine or quinoline heterocycles. By a suitable choice of the donor and acceptor unit, the optical properties can already be adapted to the properties desired on the stage of the monomer.
To promote a further derivatisation of these dyes, diverse functional groups are attached to the monomers using transition metal-catalysed C-C coupling reactions. However, this has to be preceded by the synthesis of bromine-functionalised derivatives as a direct halogenation of squaraine dyes is not feasible. Therefore, the halogen function is already introduced in precursor molecules giving rise to a molecular building block system containing bromine-, boronic ester-, and alkyne-functionalised monomer units, which pave the way to a plethora of squaraine oligomers and polymers.
The indolenine homopolymer pSQB-1 as well as the corresponding small molecular weight oligomers dSQB-1 and tSQB were synthesized applying Ni-mediated Yamamoto and Pd-catalysed Suzuki coupling methodologies, respectively. The motivation for this project relied on the fundamental investigations by Völker et al. on pSQB-V. A progressive red-shift of the lowest energy absorption maximum from the dimer to the polymer was observed in CHCl3 compared to the monomer. With increasing number of monomer units, the exciton coupling decreases from the dimer to the polymer. In addition, the shape of the absorption band manifold shows a strong dependence on the solvent, which was also observed by Völker et al. J-type aggregate behavior is found in chlorinated solvents such as CHCl3 and DCM, whereas H-type aggregates are formed in acetone. Temperature-dependent absorption studies in PhCN reveals a reversible equilibrium of diverse polymer conformers, which manifests itself in a gradual change from H-aggregate behavior to a mixture with a more pronounced J-aggregate behavior upon raising the temperature. It isassumed that both characteristic aggregate bands correlate in borderline cases with two polymer structures which can be assigned to a zig-zag and a helical structure. As no experimental evidence for these structures could hitherto be provided by NMR, TD-DFT computations on oligomers (22-mers) can reproduce very closely the characteristic features of the spectra for the two conformational isomers.
The subsequent chapters are motivated by the goal to influence the optical properties through a control of the superstructure and thus of the intramolecular aggregate formation.
On the one hand, bulky groups are implemented in the 3-position of the indolenine scaffold to provoke steric repulsion and thus favoring J-aggregate behavior at the expense of helical arrangements. The resulting homopolymer pDiPhSQB bearing two phenyl groups per indolenine exhibits J-type aggregate behavior with red-shifted absorption maxima in all considered solvents which is explained to be caused by the formation of elongated zig-zag structures. Furthermore, single-crystal X-ray analysis of monomer DiPhSQB-2-Br2 reveals a torsion of the indolenine moieties as a consequence of steric congestion. The twist of the molecular geometry and the resulting loss of planarity leads to a serious deterioration of the fluorescence properties, however a significant bathochromic shift of ca. 1 200 cm-1 of the lowest absorption band was observed compared to parent SQB, which is even larger than the shift for dSQB-1 (ca. 1 000 cm-1).
On the other hand, a partial stiffening of the polymer backbone is attempted to create a bias for elongated polymer chains. In this respect, the synthetic approach is to replace every second biarylaxis with the rigid transoid benzodipyrrolenine unit. Despite a rather low average degree of polymerization < 10, exclusively red-shifted absorption maxima are observed in all solvents used.
In order to complete the picture of intramolecular aggregates through the selective design of H-aggregates, a squaraine-squaraine copolymer was synthesised containing the classic cisoid indolenine as well as the cisoid quinoline building block. Taking advantage of the highly structure directing self-assembly character of the quinoline moiety, the copolymer pSQBC indeed showes a broad, blue-shifted main absorption band in comparison with the monomer unit dSQBC. The shape of the absorption band manifold solely exhibited a minor solvent and temperature dependence indicating a persistent H-aggregate behaviour. Hence, as a proof of concept, it is shown that the optical properties of the polymers (H- and J-aggregate) and the corresponding superstructure can be inherently controlled by an adequate design of monomer precursors.
The last chapter of this work deals, in contrast to all other chapters, with intermolecular aggregates. It is shown that the two star-shaped hexasquarainyl benzenes hSQA-1 and hSQA-2 exhibit a strong propensity for self-organisation. Concentration- and temperature-dependent studies reveal a great driving force for self-assembly in acetone. While the larger hSQA-2 instantaneously forms stable aggregates, the aggregates of hSQA-1 shows a pronounced kinetic stability. Taking advantage of the kinetic persistency of these aggregates, the corresponding kinetic activation parameters for aggregation and deaggregation can be assessed. The absorption spectra of both hexasquarainyl benzenes in the aggregated state reveal some striking differences. While hSQA-1 features an intensive, very narrow and blue-shifted absorption band, two red-shifted bands are observed for hSQA-2, which are closely located at the monomer absorption. The very small bandwidth of hSQA-1 are interpreted to be caused by exchange narrowing and pointed towards highly ordered supramolecular aggregates. The concentration-dependent data of the two hexasquarainyl benzenes can be fitted to the dimer-model with excellent correlation coefficients, yielding binding constants in excess of 10^6 M-1, respectively. Such high binding constants are very surprising, considering the unfavourable bulky 3,3-dimethyl groups of the indolenine units which should rather prevent aggregation. Joint theoretical and NMR spectroscopic methods were applied to unravel the supramolecular aggregate structure of hSQA-1, which is shown to consist of two stacked hexasquarainyl benzenes resembling the picture of two stacked bowls.
In the first part of this thesis, the synthesis of a series of bistriarylamine (bisTAA) compounds was presented. On the one hand, the substitution pattern of the TAA at the benzene bridging unit was varied from meta- to para-position (pX and mX), on the other hand, the energetic position of the bridging unit was tuned by use of two electron-donating or electron-accepting substituents X (with X = OMe, Me, Cl, CN, NO2) in 2,5-position. In case of the meta-series, compounds with X in 4,6-position were synthesized (mX46). The photophysical and electrochemical properties of the neutral compounds were investigated.
The cationic mixed valence (MV) bisTAA compounds could be generated by oxidation. Thermally induced hole transfer (HT) in the groud state was investigated by temperature depending ESR spectroscopy. While the HT rate k and HT barrier ΔG in mX are unaffected by the substituents X, k and ΔG in the pX series increase simultaneously with increasing electron-donating strength of X. This, at first contradictory observation can be explained by an increasingly important solvent dynamic effect and an additional, effective barrier. The optically induced HT was examined by UV/Vis/NIR spectroscopy. The pX-series revealed an increase of the electronic coupling V, and correspondingly a decrease of ΔG, with an increase of the electron donating character of X. For mX, a spectroscopic determination of these parameters was not possible. mX46 showed an intermediate behavior, MV compounds with strong electron-donating X, obtained coupling of similar magnitude as pX, which could be explained by means of DFT calculations, with regard to the molecular orbitals.
In the second part of this work, the synthesis of a series of dyads with triarylamine (TAA) as a donor and naphthalene diimide (NDI) as an acceptor was presented. Again, the substitution pattern of the redox centers at the benzene bridging unit was varied in the form of a meta- or para-position (pXNDI or mXNDI) and the energetic position of the bridging unit was varied by X (with X = OMe, Me, Cl, CN, NO2) attached in the 2,5-position. Additionally, compound mOMe46NDI with methoxy substitution in 4,6-position was synthesized. The photophysical and electrochemical properties of these compounds were investigated. The electron transfer (ET) processes of charge separation (CS) and charge recombination (CR) of these were investigated by means of transient absorption (TA) spectroscopy in toluene. This was not possible for the nitro-compounds p-/mNO2NDI, since they decomposed under irradiation. In addition to that, the CR of pXNDI was not detectable by ns-setup, which is why the focus was given to the mXNDI series (with X = OMe–CN).The CS was examined by fs-TA spectroscopy, where the formation of a CS state could be detected. The rise time of the CS states decreases with increasing electron-withdrawing substituents X. CR was examined with ns-TA spectroscopy and shows a biexponential decay behavior, which is caused by singlet-triplet equilibrium in the CS state. By applying an external magnetic field, the decay behavior was decisively changed and the singlet-triplet splitting could be determined. This finding could also be confirmed by simulating the decay curves.
In both parts of this work, the decisive influence of the benzene bridging unit on the appearing ET processes became obvious. For the HT in the ground state of the MV compound, as well as for the ET in the exited states of the DA compounds, the highest transfer rates were found for the para-series pX and pXNDI, and much smaller rates for the meta-series mX and mXNDI. The meta46-compounds mX46 and mOMeNDI46 showed an intermediate behavior in both parts of this work.
In this work the successful synthesis, the linear and nonlinear spectroscopic properties as well as the electrochemical behaviour of some linear and star-shaped squaraine superchromophores that are based on indolenine derivatives were presented. The attempt to synthesise similar chromophores which contained only benzothiazole squaraines failed unfortunately. However, one trimer that contained mixed benzothiazole indolenine squaraines could be synthesised and investigated as well.
The linear spectroscopic properties, like red-shift and broadening of the absorption, of all superchromophores could be explained by exciton coupling theory. The heterochromophores (SQA)2(SQB)-N, (SQA)(SQB)2-N and (SQA)(SQB)-NH displayed additional to the typical squaraine fluorescence from the lowest excited state some properties that could be assigned to localised states. While the chromophores with N-core showed very small emission quantum yields, the chromophores with the other cores and the linear oligomers display an enhancement compared to the monomers.
Transient absorption spectroscopy experiments of the star-shaped superchromophores showed, that their formally degenerated S1 states are split due to a deviation of the ideal C3 symmetry. This is also the reason for the observation of an absorption band for the highest exciton state, which is derived from the S1-state of the monomers, as its transition-dipole moment would be zero in the symmetrical case.
The linear oligomers and the star-shaped superchromophores with a benzene or triarylamine core showed at least additive, sometimes even weak cooperative, behaviour in the two-photon absorption experiments. Additional to higher two-photon absorption cross sections the chromophores showed a pronounced broadening of the nonlinear absorption, due to symmetry breaking and a higher density of states.
Unfortunately it was not possible to solve the problem of the equilibrium of the cisoid and the transoid structure of donor substituted azulene squaraines, due to either instability of the squaraines or steric hindrance.
Der Schwerpunkt dieser Arbeit lag auf der spektroelektrochemischen Untersuchung von halbleitenden SWNTs. Hierbei wurden erstmalig Absorptions- und Photolumineszenzspektren ein und derselben SWNT-Probe simultan unter elektrochemischer Potentialkontrolle aufgenommen. Hierbei konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Messmethode einen entscheidenden Einfluss auf die erhaltene Bandlücke besitzt und der in der Literatur geprägte Begriff der Elektrochemischen Bandlücke aufgrund einer fehlenden allgemeingültigen Definition problembehaftet ist. So ergeben Photolumineszenzmessungen im Vergleich zu Raman- oder Absorptionsmessungen die kleinste Bandlücke. Dies wurde auf die diffusionskontrollierte Löschung der Exzitonen an Ladungszentren zurückgeführt. Weiterhin wurden die optischen Spektren von SWNTs unter Ladungseinfluss analysiert und die zugrundeliegenden Änderungen der elektronischen Eigenschaften diskutiert.
Neben SWNTs wurden die Übergangsmetalldichalkogenide MoS2 und WS2 spektroelektrochemisch untersucht. Auffallend im Vergleich zu den Messungen an SWNTs war der breite Potentialbereich, über den die Abnahme der exzitonischen Signale zu beobachten war. Dies kann auf die unterschiedliche elektronische Struktur von TMDs und SWNTs und den geringen Anteil von Einzellagen in den TMD-Proben zurückgeführt werden. Weiterhin konnte in den Absorptionsspektren unter Ladungseinfluss ein Signal beobachtet werden, welches auf die Entstehung von Trionen hindeutet.
In einem weiteren Teilprojekt wurde eine elektrochemische Zelle zur Untersuchung von metallischen SWNT-Filmen als Elektrode für die Wasserstoffproduktion entwickelt und getestet. Hierbei gelang es die von Das et al. publizierte Aktivierung von SWNTs mit Schwefelsäure erfolgreich nachzuvollziehen und einen katalytischen Effekt der SWNTs auf die Wasserstoffentwicklung zu beobachten.
Im Rahmen der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde durch einzelmolekülspektroskopischer bzw. -mikroskopischer Methoden in Kombination mit einer mikrofluischen Zel- le unter Potenzialkontrolle die Elektrochemie von einzelnen einwandigen (6,5)- Kohlenstoffnanoröhren untersucht. Hierfür wurde ein Nahinfrarot-Photolumineszenz- Mikroskop aufgebaut und eine speziell an die experimentellen Vorgaben angepasste elektrochemische Zelle entwickelt, insofern als drei Elektroden (Arbeits-, Gegen- und Referenzelektrode) in einen mikrofluidischen Chip integriert wurden. Darüber hinaus war für die Durchführung der Experimente unter Wasser- und Sauerstoffaus- schluss die Konstruktion eines Handschuhkastens notwendig, sowie eine allgemeine Vorbehandlung der Elektrolytlösungen zur Entfernung gelöster Gase und Wasserreste.
Ein weiteres Projekt umfasste den Aufbau einer chemischen Gasphasenabschei- dungsapparatur zur Synthese von Kohlenstoffnanoröhren. Die hierbei durchgeführten Experimente erbrachten Klarheit über den Einfluss der Prozessparameter Druck, Temperatur und Durchflussrate an Edukten.
Aus den PL-Intensitätsänderungen bei Potenzialvariation konnten Reduktions- und Oxidationspotenziale (ERed = 0.15 V; EOx = 1.34 V) einzelner (6,5)-SWNTs gegen- über einer Platin Referenzelektrode und einem daraus resultierenden Redoxpotenzial
von ∆ERedOx = 1.19 V ermittelt werden. Durch diese einzelmolekülspektroskopische
Methode konnte zum einen gewährleistet werden, dass nur dieser spezielle Chira- litätstyp untersucht wurde und zum anderen eine Verfälschung der Resultate durch einen Potenzialabfall wie er typischerweise in CNT-Filmen auftritt aussgeschlossen werden. Eine Kombination der PL-Daten mit der Ramanintensitätsabhängigkeit des (6,5)-SWNT-S2-Übergangs bei Potenzialvariation erlaubte eine genauere Analyse des Löschmechanismus der PL von Kohlenstoffnanoröhren. Mithilfe eines von Her- tel et al. entwickelten diffusionslimitierten Stoßdesaktivierungsmodells konnte eine invers-quadratische Proportionalität zwischen der (6,5)-SWNT-Emission und den spannungsinduzierten Ladungsträgern ausgemacht werden. Auf Grundlage dieses Ergebnisses folgt, dass die über Photolumineszenzänderungen ermittelten Reduktions-und Oxidationswerte nicht mit den Bandkanten der CNTs übereinstimmen müssen, und dass für deren Bestimmung vielmehr auf Raman- bzw. Absorptionsspektroskopi- sche Techniken zurückgegriffen werden muss.
Die einzelmolekülspektroskopische Herangehensweise ermöglichte ferner eine statis- tische Analyse der Verteilung der Reduktions- und Oxidationspotenziale im Vergleich zu den jeweiligen Erwartungswerten. Hierdurch konnte eine Einteilung der Modifika- tionseinflüsse auf das SWNT-Redoxverhalten in zwei Grenzfälle erfolgen. Es wurde angenommen, dass diese als “Dispergiermitteleffekte” und “CNT-Strukturdefekte” be- zeichneten Auswirkungen entweder das Resultat einer heterodispersen Verteilung an DOC auf der CNT-Oberfläche oder eine Folge von Defekten in der CNT-Gitterstruktur waren. In diesem Zusammenhang ergab sich aus der interpartikulären Analyse der Reduktions- und Oxidationswerte eine Korrelation, die einem dominierenden Einfluss der “CNT-Strukturdefekte” zugeordnet werden konnte. Dieser Beobachtung entgegen- gesetzt konnten aber auch über Untersuchungen der Redoxpotenziale innerhalb einer (6,5)-SWNT lokale Bereiche ausgemacht werden, die eine signifikante Abhängigkeit von “Dispergiermitteleffekte” aufwiesen.
Abgesehen von diesen Einflüssen auf den Emissionsverlauf wurde auch eine Be- trachtung der Breite des spannungsgesteuerten Emissionsabfall durchgeführt. Da- raus konnte ermittelt werden, dass diese Ausdehnung eine Konsequenz aus der PL- Löschungseffizienz der Ladungsträger ist und, dass bei einer Verteilung von 0.32 Löschzentren pro Nanometer eine vollständige Abnahme der Photolumineszenzinten- sität induziert wird.
Darüber hinaus wurde im Rahmen dieser Arbeit das redoxchemische Verhalten in- dividueller (6,5)-SWNTs in Wechselwirkung mit Ferrocenmolekülen untersucht. Die erhaltenen Ergebnisse ließen annehmen, dass die sich ausbildende Verbindung nicht-kovalenter Natur ist. Zwei verschiedene Gründe führten zu dieser Erkennt- nis: einerseits ließen sich die Ferrocenmoleküle von der CNT-Oberfläche durch ein Durchspülen des mikrofluidischen Kanals mit einer reinen DMF-Lösung entfernen und andererseits war keine dauerhafte Emissionsminderung durch die Ausbildung kovalenter Bindungen zu beobachten. Aus der potenzialabhängigen PL wurde zudem ein Elektronentransfer der Ferrocenmoleküle in die optisch generierten Löcher des CNT-Valenzbandes festgestellt und über eine anregungsintensitätsabhängige Messung die Zunahme dieses Ladungstransfers bei steigendem Photonenfluss nachgewiesen.
Hinsichtlich der Anwendung von Kohlenstoffnanoröhren zur Elektrolyse bzw. Photo- lyse von Wasser wurde auch die Redoxchemie von (6,5)-SWNTs in diesem Solvens untersucht. Bezüglich der Emissionsintensität konnte gezeigt werden, dass diese im Vergleich zu organischen Lösungsmitteln reduziert vorliegt. Außerdem wurde eine irreversible Reaktion nach anodischer Polarisation über eine dauerhafte Löschung der PL beobachtet. Die Bestimmung der hierfür notwendigen Reaktionsumstände erbrachte, dass Wasser, Exzitonen (erzeugt durch optische Anregung) und spannungs- induzierte Löcher im Valenzband zur Bildung einer [SWNT(Q)]-Spezies führen, welche die irreversible Minderung der CNT-Emission verursacht. Darüber hinaus konnte die Reaktionsgeschwindigkeit über eine Kinetik pseudo-nullter-Ordnung be- schrieben werden, unter der Voraussetzung, dass die soeben genannten Parameter konstant verblieben. Desweiteren zeigte sich in einer ferrocenhaltigen Lösung, dass der Löscheffekt der [SWNT(Q)]-Spezies im anodischen Potenzialbereich teilweise reduziert wird. Es wurde angenommen, dass diese Beobachtung auf eine Oxidation der Löschzentren durch die Fc+-Kationen gründet.
Mit Hilfe der CVD-Apparatur gelang es Kohlenstoffnanoröhren zu synthetisieren, wobei Ethanol als Kohlenstoffquelle und ein Eisen-Kobalt-Zeolith-Gemenge als Ka- talysator diente. Die Analyse der verschiedenen Prozessparameter zeigte, dass bei T = 750 °C das beste Verteilungsverhältnis zwischen den gewünschten (6,5)-SWNTs und anderen CNT-Chiralitäten bzw. dem amorphen Kohlenstoff vorliegt. Hierfür war, dass bei T < 750 °C die Verbrennung unerwünschter amorpher Kohlenstoffreste nur geringfügig stattfindet, und dass bei T > 750 °C die Bildung anderer Chiralitäten mit größerem Durchmesser als die (6,5)-SWNT bevorzugt wurde. Die Variation der Durchflussrate hingegen wirkte sich nur in einer absoluten Zunahme aller Chirali- täten aus. Die Steigerung des (6,5)-SWNT-Anteils für höhere Durchflüsse gelang trotzdem durch die geschickte Auswahl geeigneter Druck- und Temperaturwerte. Die Experimente zur Untersuchung der Druckabhängigkeit wiesen auf eine Relation mit dem Gesetz von Le Chatelier hin, insofern als bei einer Druckverringerung eine Verschiebung der Ethanol-Crackreaktion auf Produktseite stattfand. In diesem Zusam- menhang wurde angenommen, dass die damit verstärkt gebildeten Moleküle Ethan, Ethen und Methan den CNT-Anteil zwar erhöhen, jedoch auch eine Steigerung der amorphen Kohlenstoffkonzentration verursachen. Dementsprechend ergab ein Druck von p = 9 mbar das beste (6,5)-SWNT zu dem amorphen Kohlenstoffverhältnis.
Anhand der Arbeiten in dieser Dissertation sind neue Erkenntnisse zwischen der PL-Sensitivität von (6,5)-SWNTs und deren Ladungszustand erhalten worden. Insbe- sondere die genaue Bestimmung der Korrelation zwischen der Photolumineszenz und den induzierten Ladungsträgern ermöglicht einen gezielteren Einsatz von Kohlenstoff- nanoröhren – so zum Beispiel im Bereich der Sensorik. In diesem Zusammenhang zeigen auch die interpartikulären Analysen der Redoxpotenzialverteilung die genau- en Auswirkungen vom Lösungsmittel und der Defektdichte auf die elektronische Struktur der CNTs auf. Darüber hinaus kann aus der Ursachenbestimmung für die Varianz der literaturbekannten Reduktions- bzw. Oxidationspotenziale fortan die ge- eignete spektroskopische Methode zur Evaluierung der Position von Leitungs- und Valenzband in Kohlenstoffnanoröhren besser eingegrenzt werden. Die spektroelektro- chemischen Analysen von (6,5)-SWNTs im Lösungsmittel Wasser und speziell die Bestimmung der Kinetik für die auftretende Reaktion liefern einen tieferen Einblick in die Wechselwirkung (6,5)-SWNT-H2O. Diese Ergebnisse sind insbesondere bei der Verwendung von Kohlenstoffnanoröhren als Elektrodenmaterial für die photolytische bzw. elektrolytische Spaltung von Wasser in Wasserstoff und Sauerstoff von Bedeu- tung. Neben der Untersuchung der SWNT-Wasser Interaktion unter andoischer und optischer Anregung, die zu einer kovalenten Bindung führte, wurde mit Hilfe der (6,5)- SWNT-Ferrocen Wechselwirkung ein Beispiel für eine nichtkovalente Redoxreaktion dargestellt, womit ein Vergleich dieser beiden Spezies und ihrer unterschiedlichen Auswirkungen auf die elektronische Struktur aufgezeigt werden konnte.
The thesis discusses aspects of the photocatalytic water oxidation reaction. The first chapter deals with a supramolecular macrocycle which contains three ruthenium metal centers. This novel catalyst shows promising catalytic activity and provides insides into the mechanism of the water oxidation reaction. After this part, the focus lies on the light interacting components of the photocatalytic water oxidation. In this regard, the azabenz-annulated perylene derivatives appeared to be a promising dye class. The combination of these chromophores and metal complexes result in metal organic compounds, which have photosensitizer potential.
In this thesis, the photophysics and spin chemistry of donor-photosensitizer-acceptor triads were investigated. While all investigated triads comprised a TAA as an electron donor and a NDI as an electron acceptor, the central photosensitizers (PS) were different chromophores based on the dipyrrin-motif. The purity and identity of all target compounds could be confirmed by NMR spectroscopy, mass spectrometry and elemental analysis.
The first part of the work dealt with dipyrrinato-complexes of cyclometalated heavy transition metals. The successful synthesis of novel triads based on Ir(III), Pt(II) and Pd(II) was presented. The optical and electrochemical properties indicated charge separation (CS), which was confirmed by transient absorption (TA) spectroscopy. TA-spectroscopy also revealed that the process of CS is significantly slower and less efficient for the triads based on Pt(II) and Pd(II) than for the analogous Ir(III) triads. This is mostly due to a much more convoluted reaction pathway, comprising several intermediate states before the formation of the final charge separated state (CSS2). On the other hand, CSS2 exhibits long lifetimes which are dependent on the central metal ion. While the Ir(III) triads show lifetimes of about 0.5 µs in MeCN, the Pt(II) and Pd(II) analogues show lifetimes of 1.5 µs. The magnetic field effect on the charge recombination (CR) kinetics of CSS2 was investigated by magnetic field dependent ns-TA spectroscopy and could be rationalized based on a classical kinetic scheme comprising only one magnetic field dependent rate constant k±. The behavior of k± shows a clear separation of the coherent and incoherent spin interconversion mechanisms. While the coherent spin evolution is due to the isotropic hyperfine coupling with the magnetic nuclei of the radical centers, the incoherent spin relaxation is due to a rotational modulation of the anisotropic hyperfine coupling tensor and is strongly dependent on the viscosity of the solvent. This dependence could be used to measure the nanoviscosity of the oligomeric solvent pTHF, which was found to be distinctly different from its macroviscosity.
The second part of the work dealt with bisdipyrrinato complexes and their bridged porphodimethenato (PDM) analogues. Initially, the suitability of the different chromophores for the use as PS in donor-acceptor substituted triads was tested by a systematic investigation of their steady state and transient properties. While the PDM-complex of Zn(II) and Pd(II) exhibited promising characteristics such as a high exited state lifetime and relatively intense emission, the purely organic parent PDM and the non-bridged bisdipyrrinato-Pd(II) complex were less suitable. The difference between the two Pd(II) complexes could be explained by a structural rearrangement of the non-bridged complex which results in a non-emissive metal centered triplet state with disphenoidal geometry. This rearrangement is prevented by the dimethylmethylene-bridges in the bridged analogue resulting in higher phosphorescence quantum yields and excited state lifetimes.
With the exception of the Zn(II)PDM-complex, the synthesis of novel donor acceptor substituted triads could be realized for all desired central chromophores. They were investigated equivalently to the cyclometalated triads described in the first part. The steady state properties indicate a stronger electronic coupling between the subunits due to the lack of unsaturated bridges between the donor and the central chromophore. Photoinduced CS occurs in all investigated triads. Due to the low exited state lifetimes of the central chromophores, CSS is formed less efficiently for the triads based on the unbridged Pd(II)-complex as well as the purely organic PDM. In the triad based on the bridged Pd(II) complex, the CR of CSS2 is faster than its formation resulting in low intermediate concentrations. For its elongated analogue, this is not the case and CSS2 can be observed clearly. Although the spin-chemistry of the triads based on bisdipyrrinato-Pd(II) and porphodimethenato-Pd(II) is less well understood, first interpretations of the magnetic field dependent decay kinetics gave results approximately equivalent to those obtained for the cyclometalated triads. Furthermore, the MFE was shown to be useful for the investigation of the quantum yield of CS and the identity of the observed CSSs.
In both parts of this work, the influence of the central photosensitizer on the photophysics and the spin chemistry of the triads could be shown. While the process of CS is directly dependent on the PS, the PS usually is not directly involved in the final CSSs. None the less, it can still indirectly affect the CR and spin chemistry of the CSS since it influences the electronic coupling between donor and acceptor, as well as the geometry of the triads.