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In light of the rapidly increasing global demand of energy and the negative effects of climate change, innovative solutions that allow an efficient transition to a carbon-neutral economy are urgently needed. In this context, artificial photosynthesis is emerging as a promising technology to enable the storage of the fluctuating energy of sunlight in chemical bonds of transportable “solar fuels”. Thus, in recent years much efforts have been devoted to the development of robust water oxidation catalysts (WOCs) leading to the discovery of the highly reactive Ru(bda) (bda: 2,2’-bipyridine-6,6’-dicarboxylic acid) catalyst family. The aim of this thesis was the study of chemical and photocatalytic water oxidation with functionalized Ruthenium macrocycles to explore the impact of substituents on molecular properties and catalytic activities of trinuclear macrocyclic Ru(bda) catalysts. A further objective of this thesis comprises the elucidation of factors that influence the light-driven water oxidation process with this novel class of supramolecular WOCs.
In this thesis, the synthesis and photophysics of a great variety of squaraine dyes are presented. This variety is based on four parent squaraines containing either indolenine or quinoline heterocycles. By a suitable choice of the donor and acceptor unit, the optical properties can already be adapted to the properties desired on the stage of the monomer.
To promote a further derivatisation of these dyes, diverse functional groups are attached to the monomers using transition metal-catalysed C-C coupling reactions. However, this has to be preceded by the synthesis of bromine-functionalised derivatives as a direct halogenation of squaraine dyes is not feasible. Therefore, the halogen function is already introduced in precursor molecules giving rise to a molecular building block system containing bromine-, boronic ester-, and alkyne-functionalised monomer units, which pave the way to a plethora of squaraine oligomers and polymers.
The indolenine homopolymer pSQB-1 as well as the corresponding small molecular weight oligomers dSQB-1 and tSQB were synthesized applying Ni-mediated Yamamoto and Pd-catalysed Suzuki coupling methodologies, respectively. The motivation for this project relied on the fundamental investigations by Völker et al. on pSQB-V. A progressive red-shift of the lowest energy absorption maximum from the dimer to the polymer was observed in CHCl3 compared to the monomer. With increasing number of monomer units, the exciton coupling decreases from the dimer to the polymer. In addition, the shape of the absorption band manifold shows a strong dependence on the solvent, which was also observed by Völker et al. J-type aggregate behavior is found in chlorinated solvents such as CHCl3 and DCM, whereas H-type aggregates are formed in acetone. Temperature-dependent absorption studies in PhCN reveals a reversible equilibrium of diverse polymer conformers, which manifests itself in a gradual change from H-aggregate behavior to a mixture with a more pronounced J-aggregate behavior upon raising the temperature. It isassumed that both characteristic aggregate bands correlate in borderline cases with two polymer structures which can be assigned to a zig-zag and a helical structure. As no experimental evidence for these structures could hitherto be provided by NMR, TD-DFT computations on oligomers (22-mers) can reproduce very closely the characteristic features of the spectra for the two conformational isomers.
The subsequent chapters are motivated by the goal to influence the optical properties through a control of the superstructure and thus of the intramolecular aggregate formation.
On the one hand, bulky groups are implemented in the 3-position of the indolenine scaffold to provoke steric repulsion and thus favoring J-aggregate behavior at the expense of helical arrangements. The resulting homopolymer pDiPhSQB bearing two phenyl groups per indolenine exhibits J-type aggregate behavior with red-shifted absorption maxima in all considered solvents which is explained to be caused by the formation of elongated zig-zag structures. Furthermore, single-crystal X-ray analysis of monomer DiPhSQB-2-Br2 reveals a torsion of the indolenine moieties as a consequence of steric congestion. The twist of the molecular geometry and the resulting loss of planarity leads to a serious deterioration of the fluorescence properties, however a significant bathochromic shift of ca. 1 200 cm-1 of the lowest absorption band was observed compared to parent SQB, which is even larger than the shift for dSQB-1 (ca. 1 000 cm-1).
On the other hand, a partial stiffening of the polymer backbone is attempted to create a bias for elongated polymer chains. In this respect, the synthetic approach is to replace every second biarylaxis with the rigid transoid benzodipyrrolenine unit. Despite a rather low average degree of polymerization < 10, exclusively red-shifted absorption maxima are observed in all solvents used.
In order to complete the picture of intramolecular aggregates through the selective design of H-aggregates, a squaraine-squaraine copolymer was synthesised containing the classic cisoid indolenine as well as the cisoid quinoline building block. Taking advantage of the highly structure directing self-assembly character of the quinoline moiety, the copolymer pSQBC indeed showes a broad, blue-shifted main absorption band in comparison with the monomer unit dSQBC. The shape of the absorption band manifold solely exhibited a minor solvent and temperature dependence indicating a persistent H-aggregate behaviour. Hence, as a proof of concept, it is shown that the optical properties of the polymers (H- and J-aggregate) and the corresponding superstructure can be inherently controlled by an adequate design of monomer precursors.
The last chapter of this work deals, in contrast to all other chapters, with intermolecular aggregates. It is shown that the two star-shaped hexasquarainyl benzenes hSQA-1 and hSQA-2 exhibit a strong propensity for self-organisation. Concentration- and temperature-dependent studies reveal a great driving force for self-assembly in acetone. While the larger hSQA-2 instantaneously forms stable aggregates, the aggregates of hSQA-1 shows a pronounced kinetic stability. Taking advantage of the kinetic persistency of these aggregates, the corresponding kinetic activation parameters for aggregation and deaggregation can be assessed. The absorption spectra of both hexasquarainyl benzenes in the aggregated state reveal some striking differences. While hSQA-1 features an intensive, very narrow and blue-shifted absorption band, two red-shifted bands are observed for hSQA-2, which are closely located at the monomer absorption. The very small bandwidth of hSQA-1 are interpreted to be caused by exchange narrowing and pointed towards highly ordered supramolecular aggregates. The concentration-dependent data of the two hexasquarainyl benzenes can be fitted to the dimer-model with excellent correlation coefficients, yielding binding constants in excess of 10^6 M-1, respectively. Such high binding constants are very surprising, considering the unfavourable bulky 3,3-dimethyl groups of the indolenine units which should rather prevent aggregation. Joint theoretical and NMR spectroscopic methods were applied to unravel the supramolecular aggregate structure of hSQA-1, which is shown to consist of two stacked hexasquarainyl benzenes resembling the picture of two stacked bowls.
The present thesis demonstrates how different thermodynamic aspects of self-assembly and stimuli-responsive properties in water can be encoded on the structure of π-amphiphiles, consisting of perylene or naphthalene bisimide cores. Initially, quantitative thermodynamic insights into the entropically-driven self-assembly was studied for a series of naphthalene bisimides with UV/Vis and ITC measurements, which demonstrated that their thermodynamic profile of aggregation is heavily influenced by the OEG side chains. Subsequently, a control over the bifurcated thermal response of entropically driven and commonly observed enthalpically driven self-assembly was achieved by the modulation of glycol chain orientation. Finally, Lower Critical Solution Temperature (LCST) phenomenon observed for these dyes was investigated as a precise control of this behavior is quintessential for self-assembly studies as well as to generate ‘smart’ materials. It could be shown that the onset of phase separation for these molecules can be encoded in their imide substituents, and they are primarily determined by the supramolecular packing, rather than the hydrophobicity of individual monomers.
The aim of the first part of this thesis was to investigate (R,R)-PBI as a model system for polymorphism at its origin by a supramolecular approach. The pathway complexity of (R,R)-PBI was fine-tuned by experimental parameters such as solvent, temperature and concentration to make several supramolecular polymorphs accessible. Mechanistic and quantum chemical studies on the kinetics and thermodynamics of the supramolecular polymerization of (R,R)-PBI were conducted to shed light on the initial stages of polymorphism. The second part of this work deals with mechanistic investigations on the supramolecular polymerization of the racemic mixture of (R,R)- and (S,S)-PBI with regard to homochiral and heterochiral aggregation leading to conglomerates and a racemic supramolecular polymer, respectively.
Die Liste der interessanten nachzuweisenden Analyte ist lang. Deswegen besteht ein großer Bedarf zur Entwicklung neuer fluoreszierender und kolorimetrischer Chemosensoren. Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit war daher die Synthese und Charakterisierung neuer optischer bzw. fluoreszierender und kolorimetrischer Chemosensoren mit dem Fokus auf die beiden Substanzklassen der Naphthalinbisimide und Perylenbisimide.
Der erste Arbeitsschwerpunkt befasste sich mit wasserlöslichen Naphthalinbisimiden und ist in drei Unterkapitel aufgeteilt (Kapitel III – 1.1.-1.3., Abbildung 79). Im ersten Unterkapitel (Kapitel III – 1.1.) wurden die Synthesen und optischen Eigenschaften der am Kern Amino-substituierten NBIs 60a-h, mit Dicarbonsäureresten in Imid-Position und 61a-h, mit 2-Dimethylaminoethyl-Gruppen, in polaren Lösungsmitteln beschrieben. Die systematische Anbringung verschiedener Amino-Substituenten mit steigendem elektronenziehendem Charakter der Aminoreste diente der mechanistischen Aufklärung der optischen Eigenschaften. Eine vollständige Untersuchung der optischen Eigenschaften erfolgte in wässriger Pufferlösung bei pH 2.1 sowie in Methanol und Acetonitril. Der Einfluss der Imid-Substituenten auf die optischen Eigenschaften war wie zu erwarten gering. Die verschiedenen Kern-Substituenten verursachten hingegen eine hypsochrome Verschiebung der Absorptions- und Fluoreszenzmaxima mit steigendem elektronenziehendem Charakter der an der Aminogruppe angebrachten Reste. Ein unerwarteter Trend konnte im Fall der Fluoreszenzquantenausbeute beobachtet werden. In den protischen Lösungsmitteln Wasser und Methanol wurde eine lineare Abhängigkeit gegenüber der Hammett-σmeta-Konstante ermittelt. Mit steigendem elektronenziehendem Charakter der Kern-Amino-Substituenten erfuhr die Quantenausbeute einen Anstieg auf bis zu 39% in Wasser für NBI 60h, 61h und 45% in Methanol für 60h. Die Tatsache, dass in Acetonitril keine solche Abhängigkeit gegenüber der Hammett-Konstante beobachtet werden konnte legte eine intermolekulare Wasserstoffbrücken-Bindung im angeregten Zustand als konkurrierenden Prozess zur Fluoreszenz nahe. Dieser Prozess tritt zwischen den Lösungsmittel-Molekülen und der Akzeptorgruppe (Carbonyl-Sauerstoff) der NBIs, welcher einen strahlungslosen Relaxationsprozess bzw. Fluoreszenzlöschung zur Folge hat, auf. Der Einfluss dieses Prozesses lässt sich durch die Stärke des elektronenziehenden Amino-Substituentens steuern. Die NBIs 60a-h zeigten zudem in potentiometrischen Titrationen in Wasser eine pH-Unabhängigkeit der optischen Eigenschaften bezüglich des Imid-Substituentens. Dies macht die NBIs mit Dicarbonsäureresten für die Anwendung in biologischen Systemen im neutralen pH-Milieu oder als chemische Sensoren besonders geeignet.
Aufgrund dieser interessanten Befunde wurde im zweiten Unterkapitel (Kapitel III – 1.2.) das dihalogenierte NBI 58 hinsichtlich der Sensoreigenschaften gegenüber primären, sekundären und tertiären Amin- bzw. Diamindampf sowie zur Frischekontrolle von Fleisch untersucht. Die Absorptions- und Fluoreszenz-spektroskopische Untersuchung des Dünnschichtfilms von NBI 58 zeigte die erfolgreiche, selektive Detektion von primären Aminen und Diaminen bzw. biogenen Aminen. Zum einen konnte mit bloßen Auge ein Farbumschlag von gelb nach rot und zum anderen Änderungen in den Absorptionsspektren wie die Entstehung einer neuen bathochrom verschobenen Bande im Dünnschichtfilm beobachtet werden. Die Erhöhung der Fluoreszenz wie auch die NMR-spektroskopische Untersuchung konnte hingegen ausschließlich in Lösung detektiert werden. Hiermit konnte die kovalente Wechselwirkung der Amin-Moleküle mit dem NBI 58 nachgewiesen werden. Trotz der erfolgreichen Detektion biogener Amindämpfe erwies sich NBI 58 aufgrund der zu geringen Reaktivität als ungeeigneter chemischer Sensor zur Frischekontrolle von Fleisch.
Das dritte und letzte Unterkapitel (Kapitel III – 1.3.) dieses Abschnittes bestand in der Synthese monochlor-monoamino-substituierter NBIs am Kern (65a,b und 66) und der Wechselwirkungen dieser Farbstoffe mit DNS/RNS. Die NBIs 65a,b und 66 wiesen in der Imidstellung 3-Trimethylammoniumpropyl auf, um die Wasserlöslichkeit zu gewährleisten und die elektrostatische Wechselwirkung mit dem negativ geladenen Phosphatrückgrad der DNS/RNS zu bewirken. Am Kern wurden die Aminosäuren (S)-2,3-Diaminopropionsäure (L-Dap) (65a) und (S)-2,6-Diaminohexansäure (L-Lys) (65b) sowie 2-Trimethylammoniumethylamin (66) eingefügt. Die Untersuchungen mit Hilfe von thermischen Denaturierungsstudien zeigten mit allen NBIs eine deutliche Schmelzpunkterhöhung der DNS/RNS (ΔTm-Werte zwischen 17 und 35 °C), was die Bildung von NBI/Polynukleotid-Komplexen nahelegte. Diese Komplex-Bildung konnte erneut aufgrund enormer Fluoreszenzlöschung in fluorimetrischen Titrationsstudien bestätigt werden. Hier wurden Bindungskonstanten zwischen logK = 5.9 und 7.2 M-1 ermittelt, wobei NBI 65a und poly(dG-dC)2 der stärksten Bindungsaffinität und NBI 65a und poly(dA-dT)2 der schwächste zugeordnet werden konnte. Für NBI 66 wurde die zweithöchste Bindungsaffinität zu Polynukleotid ct-DNS (logK = 7.08 M-1) beobachtet, während dieser Farbstoff sowie 65a,b nur geringe Bindungskonstanten mit dem Polynukleotid polyA-polyU zeigten. Mit Hilfe der CD-spektroskopischen Messungen wurde der Bindungsmodus und die Unterschiede in den Bindungseigenschaften der Farbstoffe mit DNS/RNS ermittelt. Der Großteil aller NBI-Verbindungen interkalierte in einer parallelen Anordnung zwischen die Basenpaare der Polynukleotide. Für NBI 65a und poly(dG-dC)2 ließ sich jedoch eine perpendikulare Anordnung zu den Basenpaaren beobachten. ITC-Titrationsstudien komplettierten letztendlich die Untersuchungen zwischen NBIs und Polynukleotiden. Neben Interkalation als Bindungsmodus konnte zusätzlich aufgrund der relativ hohen Entropiewerte eine Wechselwirkung zwischen den Substituenten am Kern und den Phosphatgruppen in der kleinen Furche festgestellt werden. Zusammengefasst sind die sterischen Hinderungen der Amino-Substituenten und die Furcheneigenschaften von ds-DNS/RNS entscheidend.
Der zweite Arbeitsschwerpunkt ist ebenfalls in drei Unterkapitel (Kapitel III – 2.1.-2.3.) aufgeteilt und befasste sich mit der Synthese und den Sensoreigenschaften kernfunktionalisierter Perylenbisimide (Abbildung 80). Im ersten Abschnitt (Kapitel III – 2.1) wurde die Synthese und die optischen Eigenschaften in Lösung der am Kern einfach und zweifach Kronenether-funktionalisierten PBIs 77a,b und 71a,b untersucht. In Imidstellung waren alle PBIs mit 2-Trimethylammoniumethyl-Resten funktionalisiert, um eine Löslichkeit in polaren Lösungsmitteln zu gewährleisten. Die Buchtpositionen wurden jeweils ein- bzw. zweifach mit den Kronenether-Einheiten 2-Hydroxymethyl-15-Krone-5 und 2-Hydroxymethyl-18-Krone-6 substituiert. Die anschließende Untersuchung der optischen Eigenschaften der PBIs zeigten bei einer Konzentration von 10-5 M in Acetonitril den monomeren Zustand und in Wasser die Ausbildung von H-Aggregaten. Die Fluoreszenzquantenausbeuten erfuhren in Acetonitril mit steigender Kronenether-Ringgröße eine Zunahme von 73% auf 81% für die PBIs 71a,b und eine vernachlässigbare geringe Zunahme von 49% auf 51% für die PBIs 77a,b. Die Abnahme der Quantenausbeute vom zweifach funktionalisierten zum einfach funktionalisierten PBI um ca. 30% ließ sich durch die stärker ausgeprägten strahlungslosen Relaxationsprozesse dieses flexibleren Moleküls im angeregten Zustand erklären.
Im zweiten Unterkapitel (Kapitel III – 2.2.) wurden die Selbstassemblierungseigenschaften der synthetisierten PBIs 71a,b und 77a,b in Gegenwart verschiedener Metallionen (Na+, K+, Rb+, Mg2+, Ca2+ und Ba2+) untersucht. Hier konnte eine Abhängigkeit von der Größe des Kronenether-Rezeptors sowie von der Art der Metallionen gezeigt werden. Die Absorptions- und Fluoreszenz-spektroskopischen Studien der zweifach funktionalisierten PBIs 71a und 71b bei einer PBI-Konzentration von c = 10-5 M zeigten ausschließlich für das 15-Krone-5-Derivat 71a und Ba2+ eine erfolgreiche Ausbildung von PBI-Stapeln mit H-artiger exzitonischer Kopplung. Aufgrund dessen erfuhr das Absorptionsmaximum eine stetige Abnahme einhergehend mit einer hypsochromen Verschiebung und die Fluoreszenz eine vollständige Löschung. Zudem konnte eine 1:1-Stöchiometrie der PBI-Stapeln ermittelt werden. Die Anpassung der spektroskopischen Änderungen an die Hill-Gleichung bestätigte letztendlich die Bildung eines [2+2]-Sandwich- bzw. Dimer-Komplexes in einem positiv kooperativen Bindungsprozess, in dem mittels ITC eine enorme Stabilisierung der Ba2+-Komplexierung aufgrund der π-π-Wechselwirkung zwischen zwei PBI-Molekülen, beobachtet wurde. Die Durchführung der Titrationsexperimente bei einer höheren PBI-Konzentration (c = 10-4 M) zusammen mit DOSY-Experimenten versicherten auch in diesem Fall die Formation diskreter Dimerkomplexe. Das einfach funktionalisierte PBI 77a zeigte in der Anwesenheit von Ba2+ ähnliche optische Änderungen. Die nachfolgenden Untersuchungen bzw. Interpretationen bestätigten die Bildung eines [1+2]-Dimerkomplexes mit H-artiger exzitonischer Kopplung, welches aufgrund der flexibleren Komplexstruktur keine Stabilisierung der Ba2+-Komplexierung erfuhr.
Neben der Metallionen-Komplexierung war PBI 71b auch in der Lage, in einer 1:2-Stöchiometrie aromatische Aminosäuren und Dipeptide zu erkennen (Kapitel III – 2.3.), da hier sowohl die Ammoniumgruppen der Aminosäuren und Dipeptide mit den Kronenethereinheiten als auch die aromatischen Einheiten mit dem PBI-Kern wechselwirken können. Fluoreszenz-Titrationsexperimente zeigten, dass die Aminosäuren L-Tryptophan und L-Tyrosin, welche elektronenreiche aromatische Gruppen aufweisen, und Dipeptide, die diese Aminosäuren enthalten, die Fluoreszenz des PBIs stark löschen. Die Bindungskonstanten der Wirt-Gast-Komplexierung in Acetonitril konnten aufgrund eines statischen Löschungsprozesses aus den Fluoreszenztitrationsdaten bestimmt werden. Hier wurde beobachtet, dass die Bindungsstärke von der Größe und der elektronischen Natur der aromatischen Einheiten sowie von dem Abstand zwischen der Ammoniumgruppe und der aromatischen Einheit in Aminosäuren und Dipeptiden abhängt. Die stärkste Bindung konnte zwischen Ala-Trp und PBI 71b mit einem Wert von 3.1 x 105 M-1 beobachtet werden. NMR-Studien bestätigten ebenfalls die Wirt-Gast-Komplexierung, ließen jedoch offen, ob es zu der Bildung von zwei Diastereomeren aufgrund der eingeschränkten Umwandlung der Atrop-Enantiomere (P und M) des PBI 71b kommt oder zu der Bildung von vier Diastereomeren infolge des Chiralitätszentrums im Kronenether.
Zusammenfassend wurden in dieser Arbeit Naphthalinbisimde und Perylenbisimide hinsichtlich ihrer Eignung als optische Chemosensoren untersucht. Die NBI-Derivate agierten aufgrund ihrer interessanten optischen Eigenschaften als chemische Sensoren selektiv für primären Amindampf und für die DNS/RNS-Wechselwirkung. Im Fall der PBI-Verbindungen wurden hervorragende fluorometrische Chemosensoren ermittelt, die Ba2+-Ionen und elektronenreiche aromatische Aminosäuren und Dipeptide in einer deutlichen Fluoreszenzlöschung detektieren können.
The thesis discusses aspects of the photocatalytic water oxidation reaction. The first chapter deals with a supramolecular macrocycle which contains three ruthenium metal centers. This novel catalyst shows promising catalytic activity and provides insides into the mechanism of the water oxidation reaction. After this part, the focus lies on the light interacting components of the photocatalytic water oxidation. In this regard, the azabenz-annulated perylene derivatives appeared to be a promising dye class. The combination of these chromophores and metal complexes result in metal organic compounds, which have photosensitizer potential.
Supramolecular Block Copolymers by Seeded Living Supramolecular Polymerization of Perylene Bisimides
(2019)
The research on supramolecular polymerization has undergone a rapid development in the last two decades, particularly since supramolecular polymers exhibit a broad variety of functionalities and applications in organic electronics, biological science or as functional materials (Chapter 2.1). Although former studies have focused on investigation of the thermodynamics of supramolecular polymerization (Chapter 2.2), the academic interest in the recent years shifted towards gaining insight into kinetically controlled self-assembly and pathway complexity to generate novel out-of-equilibrium architectures with interesting nanostructures and features (Chapter 2.3). Along this path, the concepts of seeded and living supramolecular polymerization were recently developed to enable the formation of supramolecular polymers with controlled length and low polydispersity under precise kinetic control (Chapter 2.4). Besides that, novel strategies were developed to achieve supramolecular copolymerization resulting in complex multicomponent nanostructures with different structural motives. The classification of these supramolecular copolymers on the basis of literature examples and an overview of previously reported principles to create such supramolecular architectures are provided in Chapter 2.5.
The aim of the thesis was the non-covalent synthesis of highly desirable supramolecular block copolymers by the approach of living seeded supramolecular polymerization and to study the impact of the molecular shape of the monomeric building blocks on the supramolecular copolymerization. Based on the structure of the previously investigated PBI organogelator H-PBI a series of novel PBIs, bearing identical hydrogen-bonding amide side-groups in imide-position and various kind or number of substituents in bay-position, was synthesized and analyzed within this thesis. The new PBIs were successfully obtained in three steps starting from the respective bromo-substituted perylene-3,4:9,10-tetracarboxylic acid tetrabutylesters or from the N,N’-dicyclohexyl-1,7-dibromoperylene-3,4:9,10-tetracarboxylic acid bisimide. All target compounds were obtained in the final step by imidization reactions of the respective perylene tetracarboxylic acid bisanhydride precursors with N-(2-aminoethyl)-3,4,5-tris(dodecyloxy)-benzamide and were fully characterized by 1H and 13C NMR spectroscopy as well as high resolution mass spectrometry.
The variation of bay-substituents strongly changes the optical properties of the monomeric PBIs which were investigated by UV/vis and fluorescence spectroscopy. The increase of the number of the methoxy-substituents provokes, for example, a red-shift of the absorption maxima concomitant with a decrease of extinction coefficients and leads to a drastic increase of the fluorescence quantum yields. Furthermore, the molecular geometry of the PBIs is also affected by variations of the bay-substituents. Thus, increasing the steric demand of the bay-substituents leads to an enlargement of the twist angles of the PBI cores as revealed by DFT calculations.
Especially the 1,7-dimethoxy bay-substituted MeO-PBI proved to be very well-suited for the studies envisioned within this thesis. The self-assembly of this PBI derivative was analyzed in detail by UV/vis, fluorescence and FT-IR spectroscopy as well as atomic force microscopy (Chapter 3). These studies revealed that MeO-PBI forms in a solvent mixture of methylcyclohexane and toluene (2:1, v/v) kinetically trapped off-pathway H-aggregated nanoparticles upon fast cooling of a monomeric solution from 90 to 20 °C. However, upon slow cooling of the monomer solution fluorescent J-type nanofibers are formed by π π interactions and intermolecular hydrogen-bonding.
The kinetically metastable off-pathway H-aggregates can be transformed into the thermodynamically more favored J-type aggregates by addition of seeds, which are produced by ultrasonication of the polymeric nanofibers. Interestingly, the living character of this seed-induced supramolecular polymerization process was proven by a newly designed multicycle polymerization experimental protocol. This living polymerization experiment clearly proves, that the polymerization can only occur at the “active” ends of the polymeric seed and that almost no recombination or chain termination processes are present. Hence, the approach of living supramolecular polymerization enables the formation of supramolecular polymers with controlled length and narrow polydispersity.
In Chapter 4 the copolymerization of MeO-PBI with the structurally similar 1,7-dichloro (Cl-PBI) and 1,7-dimethylthio (MeS-PBI) bay-substituted PBIs is studied in detail. Both PBIs form analogous to MeO-PBI kinetically trapped off-pathway aggregates, which can be converted into the thermodynamically stable supramolecular polymers by seed-induced living supramolecular polymerization under precise kinetic control. However, the stability of the kinetically trapped aggregates of Cl-PBI and MeS-PBI is distinctly reduced compared to that of MeO-PBI, because the π-π-interactions of the kinetically metastable aggregates are hampered through the increased twisting of the PBI-cores of the former PBIs. UV/vis studies revealed that the two-component seeded copolymerization of the kinetically trapped state of MeO-PBI with seeds of Cl-PBI leads to the formation of unprecedented supramolecular block copolymers with A-B-A pattern by a living supramolecular polymerization process at the termini of the seeds. Remarkably, the resulting A-B-A block pattern of the obtained copolymers was clearly confirmed by atomic force microscopy studies as the respective blocks formed by the individual monomeric units could be distinguished by the pitches of the helical nanofibers.
Moreover, detailed UV/vis and AFM studies have shown that by inverted two-component seed-induced polymerization, e.g., upon addition of seeds of MeO-PBI to the kinetically trapped aggregates of Cl-PBI, triblock supramolecular copolymers with B-A-B pattern can be generated. The switching of the block pattern could only be achieved because of the perfectly matching conditions for the copolymerization process and the tailored molecular geometry of the individual building blocks of both PBIs. These studies have demonstrated for the first time, that the block pattern of a supramolecular copolymer can be modulated by the experimental protocol through the approach of living supramolecular polymerization. Furthermore, by UV/vis analysis of the living copolymerization of MeO-PBI and MeS-PBI similar results were obtained showing also the formation of both A-B-A and B-A-B type supramolecular block copolymers. Although for these two PBIs the individual blocks could not be identified by AFM because the helical nanofibers of both PBIs exhibit identical helical pitches, these studies revealed for the first time that the approach of seeded living polymerization is not limited to a special pair of monomeric building blocks.
In the last part of the thesis (Chapter 5) a systematic study on the two-component living copolymerization of PBIs with various sterical demanding bay-substituents is provided. Thus, a series of PBIs containing identical hydrogen-bonding amide groups in imide position but variable number (1-MeO-PBI, MeO-PBI, 1,6,7-MeO-PBI, 1,6,7,12-MeO-PBI) or size (EtO-PBI, iPrO-PBI) of alkoxy bay-substituents was investigated. The molecular geometry of the monomeric building blocks has a strong impact on the thermodynamically and even more pronounced on the kinetically controlled aggregation in solvent mixtures of MCH and Tol. While the mono- and dialkoxy-substituted PBIs form kinetically metastable species, the self-assembly of the tri- and tetramethoxy-substituted PBIs (1,6,7-MeO-PBI and 1,6,7,12-MeO-PBI) is completely thermodynamically controlled. The two 1,7-alkoxy substituted PBIs (EtO-PBI, iPrO-PBI) form very similar to MeO-PBI kinetically off-pathway H-aggregates and thermodynamically more favored J-type aggregates. However, the stability of the kinetically metastable state is drastically lower and the conversion into the thermodynamically favored state much faster than for MeO-PBI. In contrast, the monomethoxy-substituted PBI derivative (1-MeO-PBI) forms a kinetically trapped species by intramolecular hydrogen-bonding of the monomers, which can be transformed into the thermodynamically favored nanofibers by seeded polymerization.
Importantly, the two-component seeded copolymerization of the kinetically trapped MeO PBI with seeds of other PBIs of the present series was studied by UV/vis and AFM revealing that the formation of supramolecular block copolymers is only possible for appropriate combinations of PBI building blocks. Thus, the seeded polymerization of the trapped state of the moderately core-twisted MeO-PBI with the, according to DFT-calculations, structurally similar PBIs (EtO-PBI and iPrO-PBI) leads to the formation of A-B-A block copolymers, like in the seeded copolymerization of MeO-PBItrapped with seeds of Cl-PBI and MeS-PBI already described in Chapter 4. However, by addition of seeds of the almost planar PBIs (H-PBI and 1-MeO-PBI) or seeds of the strongly core-twisted PBIs (1,6,7-MeO-PBI and 1,6,7,12-MeO-PBI) to the kinetically trapped state of MeO-PBI no block copolymers can be obtained. The mismatching geometry of these molecular building blocks strongly hampers both the intermolecular hydrogen-bonding and the π-π-interactions between the two different PBIs and consequently prevents the copolymerization process.
Furthermore, the studies of the two-component seeded copolymerization of the kinetically trapped species of 1-MeO-PBI with seeds of the other PBIs also corroborated that a precise shape complementarity is crucial to generate supramolecular block copolymers. Thus, by addition of seeds of H-PBI to the kinetically trapped monomers of 1-MeO-PBI supramolecular block copolymers were generated. Both PBIs exhibit an almost planar PBI core according to DFT-calculations leading to strong non-covalent interactions between these PBIs. This perfectly matching geometry of both PBIs also enables the inverted seeded copolymerization of the kinetically trapped monomers of H-PBI with 1-MeO-PBIseed concomitant with a switching of the block pattern of the supramolecular copolymer from A-B-A to B-A-B type. In contrast, the seeding with the moderately twisted (MeO-PBI, EtO-PBI and iPrO-PBI) and the strongly twisted PBIs (1,6,7-MeO-PBI and 1,6,7,12 MeO-PBI) has no effect on the kinetically trapped state of 1-MeO-PBI, because the copolymerization of these PBIs is prevented by the mismatching geometry of the molecular building blocks.
In conclusion, the supramolecular polymerization and two-component seeded copolymerization of a series of PBI monomers was investigated within this thesis. The studies revealed that the thermodynamically and kinetically controlled self-assembly can be strongly modified by subtle changes of the monomeric building blocks. Moreover, the results have shown that living supramolecular polymerization is an exceedingly powerful method to generate unprecedented supramolecular polymeric nanostructures with controlled block pattern and length distribution. The formation of supramolecular block copolymers can only be achieved under precise kinetic control of the polymerization process and is strongly governed by the shape complementarity already imparted in the individual components. Thus, these insightful studies might enable a more rational design of monomeric building blocks for the non-covalent synthesis of highly complex supramolecular architectures with interesting properties for possible future applications, e.g., as novel functional materials.
The catalytic splitting of water into its elements is an important reaction to establish hydrogen as a solar fuel. The bottle-neck of this process is considered to be the oxidative half reaction generating oxygen, and good catalysts are required to handle the complicated redox chemistry involved. As can be learned from nature, the incorporation of the catalytically active species into an appropriate matrix can help to improve the overall performance. Thus, the aim of the present thesis was to establish novel supramolecular approaches to improve water oxidation catalysis using the catalytically active {Ru(bda)} fragment as key motive (bda = 2,2'-bipyridine-6,6'-dicarboxylate).
First, the synthesis of ruthenium catalysts gathering three {Ru(bda)} water oxidation subunits in a macrocyclic fashion is described. By using bridging bipyridine ligands of different lengths, metallosupramolecular macrocycles with distinct sizes have been obtained. Interestingly, an intermediate ring size has been proven to be optimal for the catalytic water oxidation. Detailed kinetic, spectroscopic, and theoretical studies helped to identify the reaction mechanism and to rationalize the different catalytic activities. Furthermore, solubilizing side chains have been introduced for the most active derivative to achieve full water solubility.
Secondly, the {Ru(bda)} fragment was embedded into supramolecular aggregates to generate more stable catalytic systems compared to a homogeneous reference complex. Therefore, the catalyst fragment was equipped with axial perylene bisimide (PBI) ligands, which facilitate self-assembly. Moreover, the influence of the different accessible aggregate morphologies on the catalytic performance has been investigated.
The thesis describes the development of new synthetic strategies towards planar nanometer-sized and electron-deficient polycyclic aromatic dicarboximides, which are rather unexplored compared with the large variety of electron-rich polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and nanographenes. Thus, new polycyclic aromatic systems containing a different number of dicarboximide groups were designed since this class of compounds has revealed its significance in the past due to a range of desirable molecular properties and its high thermal and photochemical stability. The synthetic concept towards these systems includes different C–C coupling techniques that were combined within coupling cascade reactions. Therefore, this thesis provides new insights into the reactivity of aromatic substrates and elucidates mechanistic aspects of C–C coupling cascade reactions to facilitate the precise design of new and desirable materials based on polycyclic aromatic dicarboximides. Furthermore, structure-property relationships as well as the optical and electrochemical properties were investigated by UV/Vis absorption and fluorescence spectroscopy and cyclic or square wave voltammetry. Insights into the molecular structures in the solid state were obtained by single-crystal X-ray analysis. In subsequent studies, highly electron-deficient perylene bisimides and their reduced species have been investigated in detail. Thus, core-functionalized perylene bisimides were synthesized and UV/Vis absorption spectroscopy, spectroelectrochemistry and cyclic or square wave voltammetry were used to determine their optical properties and the stability of the individual reduced species.
The present thesis describes the development of a strategy to create discrete finite-sized supramolecular stacks of merocyanine dyes. Thus, bichromophoric stacks of two identical or different chromophores could be realized by folding of bis(merocyanine) dyes and their optical properties were discussed in terms of exciton theory. Quantum chemical calculations revealed strong exciton coupling between the chromophores within the homo- and hetero-π-stacks and the increase of the J-band of the hetero-dimers with increasing energy difference between the excited states of the chromophores could be attributed not only to the different magnitudes of transition dipole moments of the chromophores but also to the increased localization of the excitation in the respective exciton state. Furthermore, careful selection of the length of the spacer unit that defines the interplanar distance between the tethered chromophores directed the self-assembly of the respective bis(merocyanines) into dimers, trimers and tetramers comprising large, structurally precise π-stacks of four, six or eight merocyanine chromophores. It could be demonstrated that the structure of such large supramolecular architectures can be adequately elucidated by commonly accessible analysis tools, in particular NMR techniques in combination with UV/vis measurements and mass spectrometry. Supported by TDDFT calculations, the absorption spectra of the herein investigated aggregates could be explained and a relationship between the absorption properties and the number of stacking chromophores could be established based on exciton theory.