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The contribution of botanical gardens to out-of-school education should be larger than it is currently in Germany. In the curricula of all school types botany plays only a minor role, although plants form the base for all animal life on earth. To increase the attractiveness of botanical gardens for teachers, offers and programs should be created and conducted in didactically sensible manners and allow students an emotional approach towards the topics through trial and experiments. Therefore it is insufficient to conduct guided tours, which are still most common. Student-centered methods, like learning at workstations, or experimental courses, can lead to an improved retention of the contents learned at the out-of-school learning setting. There are, however, methodological differences even within learning at workstations.
In the first part of my study I compared a student- (S) and a teacher-centered (T) type of learning at workstations (chapter III). My intention was to find out, which of both methods results in more positive emotions at the out-of-school learning location and a higher sustainable knowledge increase. Like in all three parts of my study, 8th grade students from so-called “Mittelschulen” and “Realschulen” from Lower Franconia participated in the programs. I evaluated them by using multiple-choice tests assessing the students' knowledge regarding the topic 'plants and water' (see Appendix), following a before-after / control-impact study design. The students' emotions were assessed using the intrinsic motivation inventory directly after the garden visit. Using generalized linear mixed models, I did not find a significant difference between either of the two approaches. A reason for this could be that the students could be practically active in both methods, which made them fairly similar. Given that there was a significant knowledge increase in both methods, and the effort to develop the teacher-centered learning at workstations was much lower, I would suggest to follow that method for educational work in botanical gardens.
Students already have many predefined concepts regarding many topics, especially when these are important in everyday life. These concepts do often not match the scientific state-of-the-art. Still, students bring their so-called 'alternative conceptions' into visits to the botanical garden. According to theory, confronting them with their own conceptions in the light of scientific facts, should foster updating their concepts with scientifically correct additions. To investigate this method regarding my topic 'plants and water', I developed an intervention with experiments on the lotus effect, which also plays a role in everyday life (chapter IV). Topics like the surface tension of the water, which is also found in 6th grade curricula in German schools, were included. Prior to the intervention, I assessed the students' conceptions using questionnaires and used the three most frequent alternative conceptions to develop a multiple-choice test, which was also used in a before-after / control-impact design. A group of students was also confronted with their conceptions during an introductory talk (AC), whereas another was not (NAC). This was conducted in a way, that likely led to dissatisfaction of the students with their own concepts. The analysis of the questionnaires with the Mann-Whitney U test showed, however, no difference between the two groups directly following the treatment. Over longer time, however, the NAC group retained significantly more knowledge. Probably the students confronted with the alternative conceptions remembered the illustrations of these more easily than the scientifically correct view. For some botanical topics it is certainly helpful to include this conceptual change approach, but apparently not for the lotus effect. In this case it is most sensible to focus on the surface structure of water-repellent leaves and fruits, as we describe it in a publication in 'Unterricht Biologie'. For the practical work in botanical gardens I would suggest to rather assess the students' concepts and assumptions in the beginning of an intervention in a botanical garden, especially with respect to feasibility.
In the third part of my study I concentrate on the application of concept maps (chapter V). This method of cross-linking old and newly acquired knowledge is effective, but not very common in Germany, neither in schools, nor in botanical gardens. One group of students followed exclusively a teacher-centered learning at workstations regarding 'plants and water' (NCM), a second group created concept maps directly after the treatment and a second directly before the retention test (CM). The first map was intended to be a means of consolidation, whereas the late map was rather focused on recapitulation of what was learned about six weeks ago. To evaluate that I used the same multiple-choice tests as I did for the first part. The CM group showed a significantly higher knowledge increase, over short and long time-scales, although these students did significantly worse in the pretest than those of the NCM group. Regarding genders, female students profited especially from the first concept map (consolidation), males rather from the second (recapitulation). From the results one can conclude that prominently weaker students benefit from this method. Additionally the gender-related results show that using concept maps multiple times can be beneficial for different types of learners.
In every study there also was a control group (C), which only had to fill out the questionnaires at the same time as the participating students, to account for external factors (like media, etc.).
Especially learning at workstations and concept maps are very appropriate to be conducted at the out-of-school learning location botanical garden and are likely to strongly increase learning success. It is beneficial to mix several methods to achieve the best results in different types of learners. Additionally, when methods in school are mixed with those of out-of-school learning, the education gets more open, practical and colorful. That all resulted in a substantial long-term knowledge gain of all participating students.
To foster sustainable environmentally friendly behavior in children it is important to provide an effective form of environmental education. In this context we studied three important factors: Attitude towards nature, environmental knowledge and advanced expert knowledge.
Concerning attitude towards nature our first question was: “Is it possible to affect primary school children’s environmental values during a one-day visit at a wildlife park?”
As a control, the program was also conducted in schools, leading to two different learning settings- wildlife park and school.
Regarding environmental knowledge, in our second question we wanted to know, if our modified teaching approach “guided learning at workstations” (G) combining instructional and constructivist elements would lead to good cognitive learning results of primary school children. Additionally, we compared it to a stronger teacher-centered (T) as well as to a stronger student-centered (S) approach.
The third question we asked was “Is it possible to convey fascinating expert knowledge on a more advanced subject to primary school children using conceptual change theory?” After gathering primary school children’s preconceptions, we defined different groups due to the heterogeneity of their pre-existing conceptions and the change in conceptions. Based on this research we designed a program along with an instrument to measure the impact of the conceptual change teaching method.
After years of building a strong cooperation between the section Didactics of Biology at the Julius-Maximilians University Würzburg, the nearby schools and the wildlife park “Wild-Park Klaushof” near Bad Kissingen in northern Bavaria it was time to evaluate the environmental education programs prepared and applied by undergraduate university students. As a model species we chose the European wildcat (Felis silvestris silvestris) which represents endangered wildlife in Europe and the need for human interaction for the sake of preserving a species by restoring or recreating the habitat conditions needed while maintaining current infrastructure. Drawing from our own as well as teachers’ and university students’ experiences, we built, implemented and evaluated a hands-on program following several workstations between the wildcat enclosure and the wildlife park’s green classroom.
The content of our intervention was presented as a problem-oriented lesson, where children were confronted with the need for human interaction in order to preserve the European wildcat. Not only on a theoretical basis, but very specific to their hometowns they were told where and when nature conservation groups met or where to donate money.
692 Bavarian third grade primary school children in 35 classes participated in the one-day intervention that took place between the months of april, 2014 and november, 2015 in the wildlife park or in their respective classrooms. The ages varied between 8 and 11 years with the mean age being 8.88 ± 0.56 years old. 48.6 % of them were boys, 51.4 % were girls.
(1) To measure primary school children’s environmental attitudes a questionnaire on two major environmental values- preservation and utilization of nature- was administered in a pre, post- and retention test design. It was possible to affect primary school children’s environmental preservation values during our one-day program. This result could be found not only at the wildlife park but unexpectedly also in school, where we educated classes for control purposes. We also found this impact consistent in all used teaching approaches and were surprised to see the preservation values change in a way we did not expect from higher tendency towards preservation of nature to a lower one.
We presume that children of this age group reflected on the contents of our intervention. This had an influence on their own values towards preservation which led to a more realistic marking behavior in the questionnaire. We therefore conclude that it is possible to affect primary school children’s environmental values with a one-day program on environmental content.
(2) We were interested in conveying environmental knowledge about the European wildcat; its morphology, ecology and behavior. We designed and applied a knowledge questionnaire also in a pre-, post- and retention test design, to find out, whether different forms of instruction made a difference in learning success of primary school children.
We used two approaches with a teacher in the role of a didactic leader- our modified guided approach (G) as well as a stronger teacher-centered one (T) with a higher focus on instruction. The third approach was presented as a strong student-centered learning at workstations (S) without a didactic leader we also called “free learning at workstations”.
Overall, all children’s knowledge scores changed significantly from pre- to post-test and from pre- to retention test, indicating learning success. Differences could only be found between the posttest values of both approaches with a didactic leader (G, T) in comparison to the strong student-centered (S) form.
It appears that these primary school children gained knowledge at the out of school learning setting regardless of the used teaching approach.
On the subject of short-term differences, we discuss, that the difference in learning success might have been consistent from post to retention test if a consolidation phase had been added in the days following the program as should be common practice after a visit to an out-of- school learning setting but was not part of our intervention.
When comparing both approaches with a didactic leader (G, T), we prefer our modified guided learning at workstations (G) since constructivist phases can be implemented without losses concerning learning success. Moreover, the (at least temporary) presence of a teacher in the role of a didactic leader ensures maintained discipline and counteracts off-task behavior.
To make sure, different emotional states did not factor in our program, we measured children’s situational emotions directly after the morning intervention using a short scale that evaluated interest, wellbeing and boredom. We found, that these emotions remained consistent over both learning settings as well as different forms of instruction. While interest and wellbeing remained constantly high, boredom values remained low.
We take this as a sign of high quality designing and conducting the intervention.
(3) In the afternoon of the one-day intervention, children were given the opportunity to investigate the wildcat further, this time using the conceptual change theory in combination with a more complex and fascinating content: cats’ vision in dusk and dawn.
Children were confronted with their preconceptions which had been sampled prior to the study and turned into three distinctive topics reflected in a special questionnaire.
In a pre-, post and retention test design we included the most common alternative conceptions, the scientifically correct conceptions as well as other preconceptions.
We gathered a high heterogeneity of preconceptions and defined three groups based on conceptual change literature: “Conceptual change”, “Synthetic Models” and “Conceptual Growth”. In addition to these we identified two more groups after our data analysis: “Knowledge” and “Non-addressed Concepts”.
We found that instruction according to the conceptual change theory did not work with primary school children in our intervention. The conceptual change from the addressed alternative conceptions as well as from other preconceptions towards the scientifically correct conceptions was successfully achieved only on occasion.
In our case and depending on the topic only one third to one fourth of the children actually held the addressed conception while the rest was not targeted by the instruction. Moreover, we conclude children holding other conceptions were rather confused than educated by the confrontation. We assume that children of this age group may be overchallenged by the conceptual change method.