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Die vorliegende Arbeit demonstriert an Hand von verschiedenen Modellsystemen wie detailliert sich die grundlegenden Eigenschaften molekularer Adsorbate mit der winkelaufgelösten Photoemission erkunden lassen. Die von Peter Puschnig et al. vorgestellte Verknüpfung zwischen Photoemissionsintensität und den Molekülorbitalen im Grundzustand mittels einer Fouriertransformation war dabei entscheidend, um die verschiedenen physikalischen Effekte einordnen und verstehen zu können. Während für Coronen oder HBC die Orbitale im Grundzustand sehr gut zum Experiment passen, lassen sich für PTCDA und NTCDA einige Abweichungen von der DFT-Rechnung auf Basis der (semi-)lokalen GGA- oder LDA-Funktionale erkennen, die sich bei Messungen mit s-Polarisation hervorheben lassen. Diese können auf den Einfluss des Endzustandes in der Photoemission zurückgeführt werden. Im Rahmen der Dysonorbitale lassen sich die dafür verantwortlichen Relaxationseffekte zwischen dem N-Elektronensystem des Moleküls im Grundzustand und dem (N-1)-Elektronensystem des zurückbleibenden Kations explizit beschreiben. Die Berechnung des Photoemissionssignals mittels Fouriertransformation des Grundzustandes kann darüber hinaus weitere physikalische Effekte nicht korrekt berücksichtigen. Erste Anzeichen hierfür konnten am PTCDA-HOMO bei einer Photonenenergie von 27 eV und s-Polarisation detektiert werden. Darüber hinaus kann die Näherung des Photoelektronenendzustands als ebene Welle den beobachteten zirkularen Dichroismus am HOMO und LUMO von PTCDA nicht erklären. Erst in der Erweiterung durch eine Partialwellenzerlegung des Photoelektronenendzustands tritt ein dichroisches Signal in der theoretischen Beschreibung auf. Für das delokalisierte pi-Elektronensystem von PTCDA ist aber selbst diese Verfeinerung noch nicht ausreichend, um das Experiment korrekt beschreiben und weitere Eigenschaften vorhersagen zu können. Qualitativ lassen sich die Veränderungen im CDAD bei der Transformation um 90° für HOMO und LUMO mit einem gruppentheoretischen Ansatz verstehen. Damit ist es möglich, den molekularen Zuständen ihre irreduzible Darstellung zuzuweisen, worüber sich für PTCDA die Verteilung der quantenmechanischen Phase rekonstruieren lässt. Dies ist deshalb äußerst bemerkenswert, da üblicherweise in physikalischen Experimenten nur die Intensität und keine Informationen über die Phase messbar sind. Damit können die Photoemissionsmessungen im k||-Raum vollständig in den Realraum transformiert werden, wodurch die laterale Ortsinformation über die höchsten besetzen Molekülorbitale von PTCDA zugänglich wird. Neben der Bestimmung der molekularen Orbitale, deren Struktur von der Anordnung der Atome im Molekül dominiert wird, enthält die winkelaufgelöste Photoemission Informationen über die Adsorbat-Substrat-Wechselwirkung. Für hoch geordnete Monolagen ist es möglich, die verschiedenen Verbreiterungsmechanismen zu trennen und zu analysieren. Bei den untersuchten Systemen sind die Verbreiterungen aufgrund von unterschiedlichen Adsorptionsplätzen oder Probeninhomogenitäten ebenso wie die experimentelle Auflösung der 2D-Analysatoren vernachlässigbar gegenüber Lebensdauereffekten und evtl. Verbreiterung aufgrund von Dispersionseffekten. Bereits bei den äußerst schwach wechselwirkenden Systemen Coronen auf Ag(111) und Au(111) unterscheiden sich die beiden Systeme in ihrer Lorentzverbreiterung beim HOMO. In erster Näherung lässt sich dies auf eine Lebensdauer des entstandenen Photolochs zurückführen, welches je nach Stärke der Substratkopplung unterschiedlich schnell mit Substratelektronen aufgefüllt werden kann. Die Lorentzbreite als Indikator für die Wechselwirkung bzw. Hybridisierungsstärke zeigt für die Systeme mit Ladungstransfer vom Substrat in das Molekül eine sehr viel größere Verbreiterung. Zum Beispiel beträgt die Lorentzbreite des LUMO für NTCDA/Ag(110) FWHM=427 meV, und somit eine mehr als fünfmal so große Verbreiterung als für das HOMO von Coronen/Au(111). Diese starke Verbreiterung geht im Fall von NTCDA/Ag(110) wie auch bei den untersuchten Systemen NTCDA/Cu(100) und PTCDA/Ag(110) einher mit einem Ladungstransfer vom Substrat ins Molekül, sowie mit der Ausbildung eines zusätzlichen charakteristischen Signals in der Winkelverteilung des LUMO, dem Hybridisierungszustand bei kx,y=0Å-1. Die Intensität dieses Zustands korreliert bei den Systemen NTCDA auf Cu(100) bzw. auf Ag(110) jeweils mit der Lorentzbreite des LUMO-Zustands. Die Hybridisierung zwischen Molekül und Substrat hat noch weitere Auswirkungen auf die beobachtbaren physikalischen Eigenschaften. So führt die starke Hybridisierung mit dem Substrat wiederum dazu, dass sich die intermolekulare Dispersion für die Elektronen im LUMO-Zustand deutlich verstärkt. Der direkte Überlapp der Wellenfunktionen ist im System PTCDA/Ag(110) laut DFT-Rechnungen relativ klein und führt lediglich zu einer Bandbreite von 60 meV. Durch die Hybridisierung mit den delokalisierten Substratbändern erhöht sich der Grad der Delokalisierung im LUMO-Zustand, d.h. die Bandbreite steigt auf 230 meV, wie das Experiment bestätigt. Im Gegensatz zu früheren STM/STS-basierten Messungen [Temirov2006] kann mit der Kombination aus DFT-Rechnung und ARPES-Experiment eindeutig nachgewiesen werden, dass das Substrat im Fall von PTCDA/Ag(110) die Bandbreite verstärken kann, sodass sich die effektive Masse der Lochladungsträger von meff=3,9me auf meff=1,1me reduziert. Im Blick auf die eingangs gestellte Frage, ob sich molekulare Adsorbate eher wie isolierte Moleküle oder als periodische Festkörper beschreiben lassen, kommt diese Arbeit auf ein differenziertes Ergebnis. In den Impulsverteilungen, die sich aus der Form der molekularen Wellenfunktionen ableiten lassen, spiegelt sich eindeutig der isolierte molekulare Charakter wieder. Dagegen zeigt sich in der Energiedispersion E(k||) ein delokalisierter, blochartiger Charakter, und es konnte demonstriert werden, dass es zu einem Vermischen von Metall- und Molekülwellenfunktionen kommt. Molekulare Adsorbate sind also beides, isolierte Moleküle und zweidimensionale Kristalle mit delokalisierten Zuständen.
Breaking inversion symmetry in crystalline solids enables the formation of spin-polarized electronic states by spin-orbit coupling without the need for magnetism. A variety of interesting physical phenomena related to this effect have been intensively investigated in recent years, including the Rashba effect, topological insulators and Weyl semimetals. In this work, the interplay of inversion symmetry breaking and spin-orbit coupling and, in particular their general influence on the character of electronic states, i.e., on the spin and orbital degrees of freedom, is investigated experimentally. Two different types of suitable model systems are studied: two-dimensional surface states for which the Rashba effect arises from the inherently broken inversion symmetry at the surface, and a Weyl semimetal, for which inversion symmetry is broken in the three-dimensional crystal structure. Angle-resolved photoelectron spectroscopy provides momentum-resolved access to the spin polarization and the orbital composition of electronic states by means of photoelectron spin detection and dichroism with polarized light. The experimental results shown in this work are also complemented and supported by ab-initio density functional theory calculations and simple model considerations.
Altogether, it is shown that the breaking of inversion symmetry has a decisive influence on the Bloch wave function, namely, the formation of an orbital angular momentum. This mechanism is, in turn, of fundamental importance both for the physics of the surface Rashba effect and the topology of the Weyl semimetal TaAs.
Photoelectron spectroscopy proves as a versatile tool for investigating various aspects of the electronic structure in strongly correlated electron systems. Influencing the manifestation of strong correlation in Ce-based surface alloys is the main task of this work. It is shown, that the manifestation of the Kondo ground state is influenced by a multitude of parameters such as the choice of the metal binding partner in binary Ce compounds, the surface alloy layer thickness and accompanying variations in the lattice structure as well as the interfaces to substrate or vacuum. Gaining access to these parameters allows to directly influence essential state variables, such as the f level occupancy nf or the Kondo temperature TK.
The center of this work are the intermetallic thin films of CePt5/Pt(111) and CeAgx/Ag(111). By utilizing different excitation energies, photoemission spectroscopy provides access to characteristic features of Kondo physics in the valence band, such as the Kondo resonance and its spin-orbit partner at the Fermi level, as well as the multiplet structure of the Ce 3d core levels. In this work both approaches are applied to CePt5/Pt(111) to determine nf and TK for a variety of surface alloy layer thicknesses. A temperature dependent study of the Ce 3d core levels allows to determine the systems TK for the different layer thicknesses. This leads to TK ≈200–270K in the thin layer thickness regime and TK >280K for larger layer thicknesses. These results are confirmed by fitting the Ce 3d multiplet based on the Gunnarsson-Schönhammer formalism for core level spectroscopy and additionally by valence band photoemission spectra of the respective Kondo resonances. The influence of varying layer thickness on the manifestation of strong correlation is subsequently studied for the surface alloy CeAgx/Ag(111). Furthermore, the heavy element Bi is added, to investigate the effects of strong spin-orbit coupling on the electronic structure of the surface alloy.
In this dissertation the electronic and high-energy optical properties of thin nanoscale
films of the magnetic topological insulator (MTI) (V,Cr)y(BixSb1-x)2-yTe3 are studied
by means of X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and electron energy-loss
spectroscopy (EELS). Magnetic topological insulators are presently of broad interest
as the combination of ferromagnetism and spin-orbit coupling in these materials
leads to a new topological phase, the quantum anomalous Hall state (QAHS), with
dissipation less conduction channels. Determining and controlling the physical
properties of these complex materials is therefore desirable for a fundamental understanding
of the QAHS and for their possible application in spintronics. EELS can
directly probe the electron energy-loss function of a material from which one can
obtain the complex dynamic dielectric function by means of the Kramers-Kronig
transformation and the Drude-Lindhard model of plasmon oscillations.
The XPS core-level spectra in (V,Cr)y(BixSb1-x)2-yTe3 are analyzed in detail with
regards to inelastic background contributions. It is shown that the spectra can be
accurately described based on the electron energy-loss function obtained from an
independent EELS measurement. This allows for a comprehensive and quantitative
analysis of the XPS data, which will facilitate future core-level spectroscopy studies
in this class of topological materials. From the EELS data, furthermore, the bulk and
surface optical properties were estimated, and compared to ab initio calculations
based on density functional theory (DFT) performed in the GW approximation
for Sb2Te3. The experimental results show a good agreement with the calculated
complex dielectric function and the calculated energy-loss function. The positions of
the main plasmon modes reported here are expected to be generally similar in other
materials in this class of nanoscale TI films. Hence, the present work introduces
EELS as a powerful method to access the high-energy optical properties of TI
thin films. Based on the presented results it will be interesting to explore more
systematically the effects of stoichiometry, magnetic doping, film thickness and
surface morphology on the electron-loss function, potentially leading to a better
understanding of the complex interplay of structural, electronic, magnetic and
optical properties in MTI nanostructures.
Transition metal oxides (TMO) represent a highly interesting material class as
they exhibit a variety of different emergent phenomena including multiferroicity and
superconductivity. These effects result from a significant interplay of charge, spin
and orbital degrees of freedom within the correlated d-electrons. Oxygen vacancies
(OV) at the surface of certain d0 TMO release free charge carriers and prompt the
formation of a two-dimensional electron gas (2DEG). Barium titanate (BaTiO3) is a
prototypical and promising d0 TMO. It displays ferroelectricity at room temperature
and features several structural phase transitions, from cubic over tetragonal (at
room temperature) and orthorhombic to rhombohedral. The spontaneous electric
polarization in BaTiO3 can be used to manipulate the physical properties of adjacent
materials, e.g. in thin films. Although the macroscopic properties of BaTiO3 are studied
in great detail, the microscopic electronic structure at the surface and interface of
BaTiO3 is not sufficiently understood yet due to the complex interplay of correlation
within the d states, oxygen vacancies at the surface, ferroelectricity in the bulk and
the structural phase transitions in BaTiO3.
This thesis investigates the electronic structure of different BaTiO3 systems by
means of angle-resolved photoelectron spectroscopy (ARPES). The valence band of
BaTiO3 single crystals is systematically characterized and compared to theoretical
band structure calculations. A finite p-d hybridization of titanium and oxygen states
was inferred at the high binding energy side of the valence band. In BaTiO3 thin films,
the occurrence of spectral weight near the Fermi level could be linked to a certain
amount of OV at the surface which effectively dopes the host system. By a systematic
study of the metallic surface states as a function of temperature and partial oxygen
pressure, a model was established which reflects the depletion and accumulation of
charge carriers at the surface of BaTiO3. An instability at T ~ 285K assumes a volatile
behavior of these surface states.
The ferroelectricity in BaTiO3 allows a control of the electronic structure at the interface
of BaTiO3-based heterostructures. Therefore, the interface electronic structure
of Bi/BaTiO3 was studied with respect to the strongly spin-orit coupled states in Bi by
also including a thickness dependent characterization. The ARPES results, indeed,
confirm the presence of Rashba spin-split electronic states in the bulk band gap of the ferroelectric substrate. By varying the film thickness in Bi/BaTiO3, it was able to modify
the energy position and the Fermi vector of the spin-split states. This observation
is associated with the appearance of an interface state which was observed for very
low film thickness. Both spectral findings suggest a significant coupling between the
Bi films and BaTiO3.
Novel appraches to the molecular beam epitaxy of core-shell nanowires in the group II telluride material system were explored in this work. Significant advances in growth spurred the development of a flexible and reliable platform for a charge transport characterization of the topological insulator HgTe in a tubular nanowire geometry. The transport results presented provide an important basis for the design of future studies that strive for the experimental realization of topological charge transport in the quantum wire limit.
This thesis examines the electronic properties of two materials that promise the realization and observation of novel exotic quantum phenomena. For this purpose, angle-resolved photoemission forms the experimental basis for the investigation of the electronic properties. Furthermore, the magnetic order is investigated utilizing X-ray dichroism measurements.
First, the bulk and surface electronic structure of epitaxially grown HgTe in its three-dimensional topological insulator phase is investigated. In this study, synchrotron radiation is used to address the three-dimensional band structure and orbital composition of the bulk states by employing photon-energy-dependent and polarization-dependent measurements, respectively. In addition, the topological surface state is examined on in situ grown samples using a laboratory photon source. The resulting data provide a means to experimentally localize the bulk band inversion in momentum space and to evidence the momentum-dependent change in the orbital character of the inverted bulk states.
Furthermore, a rather new series of van der Waals compounds, (MnBi\(_2\)Te\(_4\))(Bi\(_2\)Te\(_3\))\(_n\), is investigated. First, the magnetic properties of the first two members of the series, MnBi\(_2\)Te\(_4\) and MnBi\(_4\)Te\(_7\), are studied via X-ray absorption-based techniques. The topological surface state on the two terminations of MnBi\(_4\)Te\(_7\) is analyzed using circular dichroic, photon-energy-dependent, and spin-resolved photoemission. The topological state on the (MnBi\(_2\)Te\(_4\))-layer termination shows a free-standing Dirac cone with its Dirac point located in the bulk band gap. In contrast, on the (Bi\(_2\)Te\(_3\))-layer termination the surface state hybridizes with the bulk valences states, forming a spectral weight gap, and exhibits a Dirac point that is buried within the bulk continuum. Lastly, the lack of unambiguous evidence in the literature showing a temperature-dependent mass gap opening in these magnetic topological insulators is discussed through MnBi\(_2\)Te\(_4\).
A plethora of novel material concepts are currently being investigated in the condensed matter research community. Some of them hold promise to shape our everyday world in a way that silicon-based semiconductor materials and the related development of semiconductor devices have done in the past. In this regard, the last decades have witnessed an explosion of studies concerned with so called ‘’quantum materials’’ with emerging novel functionalities. These could eventually lead to new generations of electronic and/or spintronic devices. One particular material class, the so called topological materials, play a central role. As far as their technological applicability is concerned, however, they are still facing outstanding challenges to date.
Predicted for the first time in 2005 and experimentally verified in 2007, two-dimensional topological insulators (2D TIs) (a.k.a. quantum spin Hall insulators) exhibit the outstanding property of hosting spin-polarized metallic states along the boundaries of the insulating 2D bulk material, which are protected from elastic single-particle backscattering and give rise to the quantum spin Hall effect (QSHE). Owing to these peculiar properties the QSHE holds promise for dissipationless charge and/or spin transport. However, also in today’s best 2D TIs the observation of the QSHE is still limited to cryogenic temperatures of maximum 100 K. Here, the discovery of bismuthene on SiC(0001) has marked a milestone towards a possible realization of the QSHE at or beyond room-temperature owing to the massively increased electronic bulk energy gap on the order of 1 eV. This thesis is devoted to and motivated by the goal of advancing its synthesis and to build a deeper understanding of its one-particle and two-particle electronic properties that goes beyond prior work.
Regarding the aspect of material synthesis, an improved growth procedure for bismuthene is elaborated that increases the domain size of the material considerably (by a factor of ≈ 3.2 - 6.5 compared to prior work). The improved film quality is an important step towards any future device application of bismuthene, but also facilitates all further basic studies of this material.
Moreover, the deposition of magnetic transition metals (Mn and Co) on bismuthene is investigated. Thereby, the formation of ordered magnetic Bi-Mn/Co alloys is realized, their structure is resolved with scanning tunneling microscopy (STM), and their pristine electronic properties are resolved with scanning tunneling spectroscopy (STS) and photoemission spectroscopy (PES). It is proposed that these ordered magnetic Bi-Mn/Co-alloys offer the potential to study the interplay between magnetism and topology in bismuthene in the future.
In this thesis, a wide variety of spectroscopic techniques are employed that aim to build an understanding of the single-particle, as well as two-particle level of description of bismuthene's electronic structure. The techniques involve STS and angle-resolved PES (ARPES) on the one hand, but also optical spectroscopy and time-resolved ARPES (trARPES), on the other hand. Moreover, these experiments are accompanied by advanced numerical modelling in form of GW and Bethe-Salpeter equation calculations provided by our theoretical colleagues. Notably, by merging many experimental and theoretical techniques, this work sets a benchmark for electronic structure investigations of 2D materials in general.
Based on the STS studies, electronic quasi-particle interferences in quasi-1D line defects in bismuthene that are reminiscent of Fabry-Pérot states are discovered. It is shown that they point to a hybridization of two pairs of helical boundary modes across the line defect, which is accompanied by a (partial) lifting of their topological protection against elastic single-particle backscattering.
Optical spectroscopy is used to reveal bismuthene's two-particle elecronic structure. Despite its monolayer thickness, a strong optical (two-particle) response due to enhanced electron-hole Coulomb interactions is observed. The presented combined experimental and theoretical approach (including GW and Bethe-Salpeter equation calculations) allows to conclude that two prominent optical transitions can be associated with excitonic transitions derived from the Rashba-split valence bands of bismuthene. On a broader scope this discovery might promote further experiments to elucidate links of excitonic and topological physics.
Finally, the excited conduction band states of bismuthene are mapped in energy and momentum space employing trARPES on bismuthene for the first time. The direct and indirect band gaps are succesfully extracted and the effect of excited charge carrier induced gap-renormalization is observed. In addition, an exceptionally fast excited charge carrier relaxation is identified which is explained by the presence of a quasi-metallic density of states from coupled topological boundary states of domain boundaries.
This thesis is aimed at establishing modalities of time-resolved photoelectron spectroscopy (tr-PES) conducted at a free-electron laser (FEL) source and at a high harmonic generation (HHG) source for imaging the motion of atoms, charge and energy at photoexcited hybrid organic/inorganic interfaces. Transfer of charge and energy across interfaces lies at the heart of surface science and device physics and involves a complex interplay between the motion of electrons and atoms. At hybrid organic/inorganic interfaces involving planar molecules, such as pentacene and copper(II)-phthalocyanine (CuPc), atomic motions in out-of-plane direction are particularly apparent. Such hybrid interfaces are of importance to, e.g., next-generation functional devices, smart catalytic surfaces and molecular machines. In this work, two hybrid interfaces – pentacene atop Ag(110) and copper(II)-phthalocyanine (CuPc) atop titanium disulfide (1T-TiSe2) – are characterized by means of modalities of tr-PES. The experiments were conducted at a HHG source and at the FEL source FLASH at Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron DESY (Hamburg, Germany). Both sources provide photon pulses with temporal widths of ∼ 100 fs and thus allow for resolving the non-equilibrium dynamics at hybrid interfaces involving both electronic and atomic motion on their intrinsic time scales. While the photon energy at this HHG source is limited to the UV-range, photon energies can be tuned from the UV-range to the soft x-ray-range at FLASH. With this increased energy range, not only macroscopic electronic information can be accessed from the sample’s valence and conduction states, but also site-specific structural and chemical information encoded in the core-level signatures becomes accessible. Here, the combined information from the valence band and core-level dynamics is obtained by performing time- and angle-resolved photoelectron spectroscopy (tr-ARPES) in the UV-range and subsequently performing time-resolved x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (tr-XPS) and time-resolved photoelectron diffraction (tr-XPD) in the soft x-ray regime in the same experimental setup. The sample’s bandstructure in energy-momentum space and time is captured by a time-of-flight momentum microscope with femtosecond temporal and sub-Ångström spatial resolutions. In the investigated systems, out-of-equilibrium dynamics are traced that are connected to the transfer of charge and energy across the hybrid interfaces. While energetic shifts and complementary population dynamics are observed for molecular and substrate states, the shapes of involved molecular orbitals change in energy-momentum space on a subpicosecond time scale. In combination with theory support, these changes are attributed to iiiatomic reorganizations at the interface and transient molecular structures are reconstructed with sub-Ångström precision. Unique to the material combination of CuPc/TiSe2, a structural rearrangement on the macroscopic scale is traced simultaneously: ∼ 60 % of the molecules undergo a concerted, unidirectional in-plane rotation. This surprising observation and its origin are detailed in this thesis and connected to a particularly efficient charge transfer across the CuPc/TiSe2 interface, resulting in a charging of ∼ 45 % of CuPc molecules.