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The culture of human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) at large-scale becomes feasible with the aid of scalable suspension setups in continuously stirred tank reactors (CSTRs). Suspension cul- tures of hiPSCs are characterized by the self-aggregation of single cells into macroscopic cell aggre- gates that increase in size over time. The development of these free-floating aggregates is dependent on the culture vessel and thus represents a novel process parameter that is of particular interest for hiPSC suspension culture scaling. Further, aggregates surpassing a critical size are prone to spon- taneous differentiation or cell viability loss. In this regard, and, for the first time, a hiPSC-specific suspension culture unit was developed that utilizes in situ microscope imaging to monitor and to characterize hiPSC aggregation in one specific CSTR setup to a statistically significant degree while omitting the need for error-prone and time-intensive sampling. For this purpose, a small-scale CSTR system was designed and fabricated by fused deposition modeling (FDM) using an in-house 3D- printer. To provide a suitable cell culture environment for the CSTR system and in situ microscope, a custom-built incubator was constructed to accommodate all culture vessels and process control devices. Prior to manufacture, the CSTR design was characterized in silico for standard engineering parameters such as the specific power input, mixing time, and shear stress using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations. The established computational model was successfully validated by comparing CFD-derived mixing time data to manual measurements. Proof for system functionality was provided in the context of long-term expansion (4 passages) of hiPSCs. Thereby, hiPSC aggregate size development was successfully tracked by in situ imaging of CSTR suspensions and subsequent automated image processing. Further, the suitability of the developed hiPSC culture unit was proven by demonstrating the preservation of CSTR-cultured hiPSC pluripotency on RNA level by qRT-PCR and PluriTest, and on protein level by flow cytometry.
Adoptive cellular immunotherapy with chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells is highly effective in haematological malignancies. This success, however, has not been achieved in solid tumours so far. In contrast to hematologic malignancies, solid tumours include a hostile tumour microenvironment (TME), that poses additional challenges for curative effects and consistent therapeutic outcome. These challenges manifest in physical and immunological barriers that dampen efficacy of the CAR T cells. Preclinical testing of novel cellular immunotherapies is performed mainly in 2D cell culture and animal experiments. While 2D cell culture is an easy technique for efficacy analysis, animal studies reveal information about toxicity in vivo. However, 2D cell culture cannot fully reflect the complexity observed in vivo, because cells are cultured without anchorage to a matrix and only short-term periods are feasible. Animal studies provide a more complex tissue environment, but xenografts often lack human stroma and tumour inoculation occurs mostly ectopically. This emphasises the need for standardisable and scalable tumour models with incorporated TME-aspects, which enable preclinical testing with enhanced predictive value for the clinical outcome of immunotherapies. Therefore, microphysiologic 3D tumour models based on the biological SISmuc (Small Intestinal mucosa and Submucosa) matrix with preserved basement membrane were engaged and improved in this work to serve as a modular and versatile tumour model for efficacy testing of CAR T cells. In order to reflect a variety of cancer entities, TME-aspects, long-term stability and to enhance the read-out options they were further adapted to achieve scalable and standardisable defined microphysiologic 3D tumour models. In this work, novel culture modalities (semi-static, sandwich-culture) were characterised and established that led to an increased and organised tissue generation and long-term stability. Application of the SISmuc matrix was extended to sarcoma and melanoma models and serial bioluminescence intensity (BLI)-based in vivo imaging analysis was established in the microphysiologic 3D tumour models, which represents a time-efficient read-out method for quality evaluation of the models and treatment efficacy analysis, that is independent of the cell phenotype. Isolation of cancer-associated-fibroblasts (CAFs) from lung (tumour) tissue was demonstrated and CAF-implementation further led to stromal-enriched microphysiologic 3D tumour models with in vivo-comparable tissue-like architecture. Presence of CAFs was confirmed by CAF-associated markers (FAP, α-SMA, MMP-2/-9) and cytokines correlated with CAF phenotype, angiogenesis, invasion and immunomodulation. Additionally, an endothelial cell barrier was implemented for static and dynamic culture in a novel bioreactor set-up, which is of particular interest for the analysis of immune cell diapedesis. Studies in microphysiologic 3D Ewing’s sarcoma models indicated that sarcoma cells could be sensitised for GD2-targeting CAR T cells. After enhancing the scale of assessment of the microphysiologic 3D tumour models and improving them for CAR T cell testing, the tumour models were used to analyse their sensitivity towards differently designed receptor tyrosine kinase-like orphan receptor 1 (ROR1) CAR T cells and to study the effects of the incorporated TME-aspects on the CAR T cell treatment respectively. ROR1 has been described as a suitable target for several malignancies including triple negative breast cancer (TNBC), as well as lung cancer. Therefore, microphysiologic 3D TNBC and lung cancer models were established. Analysis of ROR1 CAR T cells that differed in costimulation, spacer length and targeting domain, revealed, that the microphysiologic 3D tumour models are highly sensitive and can distinguish optimal from sub-optimal CAR design. Here, higher affinity of the targeting domain induced stronger anti-tumour efficacy and anti-tumour function depended on spacer length, respectively. Long-term treatment for 14 days with ROR1 CAR T cells was demonstrated in dynamic microphysiologic 3D lung tumour models, which did not result in complete tumour cell removal, whereas direct injection of CAR T cells into TNBC and lung tumour models represented an alternative route of application in addition to administration via the medium flow, as it induced strong anti-tumour response. Influence of the incorporated TME-aspects on ROR1 CAR T cell therapy represented by CAF-incorporation and/or TGF-β supplementation was analysed. Presence of TGF-β revealed that the specific TGF-β receptor inhibitor SD-208 improves ROR1 CAR T cell function, because it effectively abrogated immunosuppressive effects of TGF-β in TNBC models. Implementation of CAFs should provide a physical and immunological barrier towards ROR1 CAR T cells, which, however, was not confirmed, as ROR1 CAR T cell function was retained in the presence of CAFs in stromal-enriched microphysiologic 3D lung tumour models. The absence of an effect of CAF enrichment on CAR T cell efficacy suggests a missing component for the development of an immunosuppressive TME, even though immunomodulatory cytokines were detected in co-culture models. Finally, improved gene-edited ROR1 CAR T cells lacking exhaustion-associated genes (PD-1, TGF-β-receptor or both) were challenged by the combination of CAF-enrichment and TGF-β in microphysiologic 3D TNBC models. Results indicated that the absence of PD-1 and TGF-β receptor leads to improved CAR T cells, that induce strong tumour cell lysis, and are protected against the hostile TME. Collectively, the microphysiologic 3D tumour models presented in this work reflect aspects of the hostile TME of solid tumours, engage BLI-based analysis and provide long-term tissue homeostasis. Therefore, they present a defined, scalable, reproducible, standardisable and exportable model for translational research with enhanced predictive value for efficacy testing and candidate selection of cellular immunotherapy, as exemplified by ROR1 CAR T cells.
Kritische Knochendefekte stellen heutzutage ein ungelöstes Problem in der klinischen Praxis dar, da die verfügbaren prothetischen Optionen oft die mechanische Anpassung an das Gewebe nicht gewährleisten oder zu wichtigen immunologischen und Implantat-bedingten Komplikationen führen.
In diesem Kontext ermöglichen Tissue Engineering-Ansätze neue Strategien, um in vitro Zell-Material Interaktionen zu untersuchen und so die Implantatmaterialien zu optimieren.
In dieser Arbeit habe ich Zell-Material Interaktionen eines neuen Kollagen-basierten Scaffolds untersucht, das langfristig als Trägerstruktur für eine zellbasierte Therapie für kritische Knochendefekte entwickelt werden soll. Im Rahmen der Dissertation konnte ich belegen, dass die Kollagen-basierten makroporöse Mikrocarrier für die Zellvermehrung humaner mesenchymaler Stammzellen (MSC) und deren osteogene Differenzierung unter GMP Bedingungen verwendet werden können. Außerdem habe ich die die Kokultur von hämatopoietischen Stammzellen des Knochenmarks und multiplen Myelomzellen funktionell charakterisiert. Ich konnte erstmals Kulturbedingungen etablieren, die die Langzeitkultur ohne die Verwendung von Zytokinen ermöglicht. Mittels dieser Kokultur konnte ich ein Knochenmarknischen-Modell etablieren und die Untersuchung der Expression von zentralen Signalkaskaden der Homöostase dieser Nische untersuchen. Ich konnte die Expression von zwei verschiedenen Isoformen von Osteopontin nachweisen, die in Tiermodellen nicht gefunden werden. Diese Isoformen des Osteopontins habe ich kloniert und die rekombinanten Isoformen exprimiert und ihre Rollen in der Homöostase der Knochenmarknische untersucht.
Critical size bone defects represent nowadays an unresolved problem in the clinical practice, where the available prosthetic options often lack adequate mechanical matching to the host tissue or lead to important immunological and implant-related complications.
In this context, Tissue Engineering approaches promise more effective strategies to study cell-material interactions in vitro and consequently optimize implant materials.
In this work, I investigated the cell-scaffold interactions of a new collagen-based scaffold for a putative cell-based therapy for critical size defects to be developed. In the context of this thesis, I could demonstrate that the collagen-based macroporous microcarriers could be employed for the expansion and osteogenic differentiation of human mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) under GMP-compliant conditions. Moreover, I functionally characterized the co-culture of bone marrow hematopoietic stem cells and multiple myeloma cells. I was for the first time able to establish culture conditions allowing their long-term culture in absence of externally supplemented cytokines. Using this co-culture, I was able to establish a bone marrow niche model to investigate the expression of key signaling pathways involved in the niche´s homeostasis. I was able to demonstrate the expression of two different isoforms of Osteopontin, that could not previously be detected in animal models. Finally, I cloned these Osteopontin isoforms, expressed recombinant versions of the isoforms, and investigated their roles in the homeostasis of the bone marrow niche.
Many arthropods such as mosquitoes, ticks, bugs, and flies are vectors for the transmission of pathogenic parasites, bacteria, and viruses. Among these, the unicellular parasite Trypanosoma brucei (T. brucei) causes human and animal African trypanosomiases and is transmitted to the vertebrate host by the tsetse fly. In the fly, the parasite goes through a complex developmental cycle in the alimentary tract and salivary glands ending with the cellular differentiation into the metacyclic life cycle stage. An infection in the mammalian host begins when the fly takes a bloodmeal, thereby depositing the metacyclic form into the dermal skin layer. Within the dermis, the cell cycle-arrested metacyclic forms are activated, re-enter the cell cycle, and differentiate into proliferative trypanosomes, prior to dissemination throughout the host.
Although T. brucei has been studied for decades, very little is known about the early events in the skin prior to systemic dissemination. The precise timing and the mechanisms controlling differentiation of the parasite in the skin continue to be elusive, as does the characterization of the proliferative skin-residing trypanosomes. Understanding the first steps of an infection is crucial for developing novel strategies to prevent disease establishment and its progression.
A major shortcoming in the study of human African trypanosomiasis is the lack of suitable infection models that authentically mimic disease progression. In addition, the production of infectious metacyclic parasites requires tsetse flies, which are challenging to keep. Thus, although animal models - typically murine - have produced many insights into the pathogenicity of trypanosomes in the mammalian host, they were usually infected by needle injection into the peritoneal cavity or tail vein, bypassing the skin as the first entry point. Furthermore, animal models are not always predictive for the infection outcome in human patients. In addition, the relatively small number of metacyclic parasites deposited by the tsetse flies makes them difficult to trace, isolate, and study in animal hosts.
The focus of this thesis was to develop and validate a reconstructed human skin equivalent as an infection model to study the development of naturally-transmitted metacyclic parasites of T. brucei in mammalian skin. The first part of this work describes the development and characterization of a primary human skin equivalent with improved mechanical properties. To achieve this, a computer-assisted compression system was designed and established. This system allowed the improvement of the mechanical stability of twelve collagen-based dermal equivalents in parallel through plastic compression, as evaluated by rheology. The improved dermal equivalents provided the basis for the generation of the skin equivalents and reduced their contraction and weight loss during tissue formation, achieving a high degree of standardization and reproducibility. The skin equivalents were characterized using immunohistochemical and histological techniques and recapitulated key anatomical, cellular, and functional aspects of native human skin. Furthermore, their cellular heterogeneity was examined using single-cell RNA sequencing - an approach which led to the identification of a remarkable repertoire of extracellular matrix-associated genes expressed by different cell subpopulations in the artificial skin. In addition, experimental conditions were established to allow tsetse flies to naturally infect the skin equivalents with trypanosomes.
In the second part of the project, the development of the trypanosomes in the artificial skin was investigated in detail. This included the establishment of methods to successfully isolate skin-dwelling trypanosomes to determine their protein synthesis rate, cell cycle and metabolic status, morphology, and transcriptome. Microscopy techniques to study trypanosome motility and migration in the skin were also optimized. Upon deposition in the artificial skin by feeding tsetse, the metacyclic parasites were rapidly activated and established a proliferative population within one day. This process was accompanied by: (I) reactivation of protein synthesis; (II) re-entry into the cell cycle; (III) change in morphology; (IV) increased motility. Furthermore, these observations were linked to potentially underlying developmental mechanisms by applying single-cell parasite RNA sequencing at five different timepoints post-infection.
After the initial proliferative phase, the tsetse-transmitted trypanosomes appeared to enter a reversible quiescence program in the skin. These quiescent skin-residing trypanosomes were characterized by very slow replication, a strongly reduced metabolism, and a transcriptome markedly different from that of the deposited metacyclic forms and the early proliferative trypanosomes. By mimicking the migration from the skin to the bloodstream, the quiescent phenotype could be reversed and the parasites returned to an active proliferating state. Given that previous work has identified the skin as an anatomical reservoir for T. brucei during disease, it is reasonable to assume that the quiescence program is an authentic facet of the parasite's behavior in an infected host.
In summary, this work demonstrates that primary human skin equivalents offer a new and promising way to study vector-borne parasites under close-to-natural conditions as an alternative to animal experimentation. By choosing the natural transmission route - the bite of an infected tsetse fly - the early events of trypanosome infection have been detailed with unprecedented resolution. In addition, the evidence here for a quiescent, skin-residing trypanosome population may explain the persistence of T. brucei in the skin of aparasitemic and asymptomatic individuals. This could play an important role in maintaining an infection over long time periods.
The main function of the small intestine is the absorption of essential nutrients, water and vitamins. Moreover, it constitutes a barrier protecting us from toxic xenobiotics and pathogens. For a better understanding of these processes, the development of intestinal in vitro models is of great interest to the study of pharmacological and pathological issues such as transport mechanisms and barrier function. Depending on the scientific questions, models of different complexity can be applied.
In vitro Transwell® systems based on a porous PET-membrane enable the standardized study of transport mechanisms across the intestinal barrier as well as the investigation of the influence of target substances on barrier integrity. However, this artificial setup reflects only limited aspects of the physiology of the native small intestine and can pose an additional physical barrier. Hence, the applications of this model for tissue engineering are limited.
Previously, tissue models based on a biological decellularized scaffold derived from porcine gut tissue were demonstrated to be a good alternative to the commonly used Transwell® system. This study showed that preserved biological extracellular matrix components like collagen and elastin provide a natural environment for the epithelial cells, promoting cell adhesion and growth. Intestinal epithelial cells such as Caco-2 cultured on such a scaffold showed a confluent, tight monolayer on the apical surface. Additionally, myofibroblasts were able to migrate into the scaffold supporting intestinal barrier formation.
In this thesis, dendritic cells were additionally introduced to this model mimicking an important component of the immune system. This co-culture model was then successfully proven to be suitable for the screening of particle formulations developed as delivery system for cancer antigens in peroral vaccination studies. In particular, nanoparticles based on PLGA, PEG-PAGE-PLGA, Mannose-PEG-PAGE-PLGA and Chitosan were tested. Uptake studies revealed only slight differences in the transcellular transport rate among the different particles. Dendritic cells were shown to phagocytose the particles after they have passed the intestinal barrier. The particles demonstrated to be an effective carrier system to transport peptides across the intestinal barrier and therefore present a useful tool for the development of novel drugs.
Furthermore, to mimic the complex structure and physiology of the gut including the presence of multiple different cell types, the Caco-2 cell line was replaced by primary intestinal cells to set up a de novo tissue model. To that end, intestinal crypts including undifferentiated stem cells and progenitor cells were isolated from human small intestinal tissue samples (jejunum) and expanded in vitro in organoid cultures. Cells were cultured on the decellularized porcine gut matrix in co-culture with intestinal myofibroblasts. These novel tissue models were maintained under either static or dynamic conditions.
Primary intestinal epithelial cells formed a confluent monolayer including the major differentiated cell types positive for mucin (goblet cells), villin (enterocytes), chromogranin A (enteroendocrine cells) and lysozyme (paneth cells). Electron microscopy images depicted essential functional units of an intact epithelium, such as microvilli and tight junctions. FITC-dextran permeability and TEER measurements were used to assess tightness of the cell layer. Models showed characteristic transport activity for several reference substances. Mechanical stimulation of the cells by a dynamic culture system had a great impact on barrier integrity and transporter activity resulting in a tighter barrier and a higher efflux transporter activity.
In Summary, the use of primary human intestinal cells combined with a biological decellularized scaffold offers a new and promising way to setup more physiological intestinal in vitro models. Maintenance of primary intestinal stem cells with their proliferation and differentiation potential together with adjusted culture protocols might help further improve the models. In particular, dynamic culture systems and co culture models proofed to be a first crucial steps towards a more physiological model. Such tissue models might be useful to improve the predictive power of in vitro models and in vitro in vivo correlation (IVIVC) studies. Moreover, these tissue models will be useful tools in preclinical studies to test pharmaceutical substances, probiotic active organisms, human pathogenic germs and could even be used to build up patient-specific tissue model for personalized medicine.
Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) is a valuable technique analyzing electrochemical behavior of biological systems such as electrical characterization of cells and biomolecules, drug screening, and biomaterials in biomedical field. In EIS, an alternating current (AC) power signal is applied to the biological system, and the impedance of the system is measured over a range of frequencies.
In vitro culture models of endothelial or epithelial barrier tissue can be achieved by culturing barrier tissue on scaffolds made with synthetic or biological materials that provide separate compartments (apical and basal sides), allowing for further studies on drug transport. EIS is a great candidate for non-invasive and real-time monitoring of the electrical properties that correlate with barrier integrity during the tissue modeling. Although commercially available transendothelial/transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER) measurement devices are widely used, their use is particularly common in static transwell culture. EIS is considered more suitable than TEER measurement devices in bioreactor cultures that involve dynamic fluid flow to obtain accurate and reliable measurements. Furthermore, while TEER measurement devices can only assess resistance at a single frequency, EIS measurements can capture both resistance and capacitance properties of cells, providing additional information about the cellular barrier's characteristics across various frequencies. Incorporating EIS into a bioreactor system requires the careful optimization of electrode integration within the bioreactor setup and measurement parameters to ensure accurate EIS measurements. Since bioreactors vary in size and design depending on the purpose of the study, most studies have reported using an electrode system specifically designed for a particular bioreactor. The aim of this work was to produce multi-applicable electrodes and established methods for automated non-invasive and real-time monitoring using the EIS technique in bioreactor cultures. Key to the electrode material, titanium nitride (TiN) coating was fabricated on different substrates (materials and shape) using physical vapor deposition (PVD) and housed in a polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) structure to allow the electrodes to function as independent units. Various electrode designs were evaluated for double-layer capacitance and morphology using EIS and scanning electron microscopy (SEM), respectively. The TiN-coated tube electrode was identified as the optimal choice. Furthermore, EIS measurements were performed to examine the impact of influential parameters related to culture conditions on the TiN-coated electrode system. In order to demonstrate the versatility of the electrodes, these electrodes were then integrated into in different types of perfusion bioreactors for monitoring barrier cells. Blood-brain barrier (BBB) cells were cultured in the newly developed dynamic flow bioreactor, while human umblical vascular endothelial cells (HUVECs) and Caco-2 cells were cultured in the miniature hollow fiber bioreactor (HFBR). As a result, the TiN-coated tube electrode system enabled investigation of BBB barrier integrity in long-term bioreactor culture. While EIS measurement could not detect HUVECs electrical properties in miniature HFBR culture, there was the possibility of measuring the barrier integrity of Caco-2 cells, indicating potential usefulness for evaluating their barrier function. Following the bioreactor cultures, the application of the TiN-coated tube electrode was expanded to hemofiltration, based on the hypothesis that the EIS system may be used to monitor clotting or clogging phenomena in hemofiltration. The findings suggest that the EIS monitoring system can track changes in ion concentration of blood before and after hemofiltration in real-time, which may serve as an indicator of clogging of filter membranes. Overall, our research demonstrates the potential of TiN-coated tube electrodes for sensitive and versatile non-invasive monitoring in bioreactor cultures and medical devices.
The limited intrinsic self-healing capability of articular cartilage requires treatment of
cartilage defects. Material assisted and cell based therapies are in clinical practice but
tend to result in formation of mechanical inferior fibro-cartilage in long term follow up. If
a lesion has not been properly restored degenerative diseases are diagnosed as late sequela
causing pain and loss in morbidity. Complex three dimensional tissue models mimicking
physiological situation allow investigation of cartilage metabolism and mechanisms involved
in repair. A standardized and reproducible model cultured under controllable conditions
ex vivo to maintain tissue properties is of relevance for comparable studies.
Topic of this thesis was the establishment of an cartilage defect model that allows for
testing novel biomaterials and investigate the effect of defined defect depths on formation
of repair tissue.
In part I an ex vivo osteochondral defect model was established based on isolation of
porcine osteochondral explants (OCE) from medial condyles, 8 mm in diameter and 5 mm
in height. Full thickness cartilage defects with 1 mm to 4 mm in diameter were created
to define ex vivo cartilage critical size after 28 days culture with custom developed static
culture device. In part II of this thesis hydrogel materials, namely collagen I isolated from
rat tail, commercially available fibrin glue, matrix-metalloproteinase clevable poly(ethylene
glycol) polymerized with heparin (starPEGh), methacrylated poly(N-(2-hydroxypropyl)
methacrylamide mono-dilactate-poly(ethylene glycol) triblock copolymer/methacrylated
hyaluronic acid (MP/HA), thiol functionalized HA/allyl functionalized poly(glycidol)
(P(AGE/G)-HA-SH), were tested cell free and chondrocyte loaded (20 mio/ml) as implant
in 4 mm cartilage defects to investigate cartilage regeneration. Reproducible chondral
defects, 8 mm in diameter and 1 mm in height, were generated with an artificial tissue
cutter (ARTcut®) to investigate effect of defect depth on defect regeneration in part III.
In all approaches OCE were analyzed by Safranin-O staining to visualize proteoglycans
in cartilage and/or hydrogels. Immuno-histological and -fluorescent stainings (aggrecan,
collagen II, VI and X, proCollagen I, SOX9, RUNX2), gene expression analysis (aggrecan,
collagen II and X, SOX9, RUNX2) of chondrocyte loaded hydrogels (part II) and proteoglycan
and DNA content (Part I & II) were performed for detailed analysis of cartilage
regeneration.
Part I: The development of custom made static culture device, consisting of inserts in which OCE is fixed and deep well plate, allowed tissue specific media supply without
supplementation of TGF . Critical size diameter was defined to be 4 mm.
Part II: Biomaterials revealed differences in cartilage regeneration. Collagen I and fibrin
glue showed presence of cells migrated from OCE into cell free hydrogels with indication
of fibrous tissue formation by presence of proCollagen I. In chondrocyte loaded study
cartilage matrix proteins aggrecan, collagen II and VI and transcription factor SOX9 were
detected after ex vivo culture throughout the two natural hydrogels collagen I and fibrin
glue whereas markers were localized in pericellular matrix in starPEGh. Weak stainings resulted
for MP/HA and P(AGE/G)-HA-SH in some cell clusters. Gene expression data and
proteoglycan quantification supported histological findings with tendency of hypertrophy
indicated by upregulation of collagen X and RunX2 in MP/HA and P(AGE/G)-HA-SH.
Part III: In life-dead stainings recruitment of cells from OCE into empty or cell free
collagen I treated chondral defects was seen.
Separated and tissue specific media supply is critical to maintain ECM composition in
cartilage. Presence of OCE stimulates cartilage matrix synthesis in chondrocyte loaded
collagen I hydrogel and reduces hypertrophy compared to free swelling conditions and
pellet cultures. Differences in cartilage repair tissue formation resulted in preference of
natural derived polymers compared to synthetic based materials. The ex vivo cartilage
defect model represents a platform for testing novel hydrogels as cartilage materials, but
also to investigate the effect of cell seeding densities, cell gradients, cell co-cultures on
defect regeneration dependent on defect depth. The separated media compartments allow
for systematic analysis of pharmaceutics, media components or inflammatory cytokines on
bone and cartilage metabolism and matrix stability.
The basement membrane separates the epithelium from the stroma of any given barrier tissue and is essential in regulating cellular behavior, as mechanical barrier and as structural support. It further plays an important role for new tissue formation, homeostasis, and pathological processes, such as diabetes or cancer. Breakdown of the basement membrane is believed to be essential for tumor invasion and metastasization. Since the basement membrane is crucial for many body functions, the development of artificial basement membranes is indispensable for the ultimate formation of engineered functional tissue, however, challenging due to their complex structure.
Electrospinning enables the production of fibers in the nano- or microscale range with morphological similarities to the randomly orientated collagen and elastic fibers in the basement membrane. However, electrospun fibers often lack the functional similarity to guide cells and maintain tissue-specific functions. Hence, their possible applications as matrix structure for tissue engineering are limited.
Herein, the potential of polyester meshes, modified with six armed star-shaped pre-polymers and cell-adhesion-mediating peptides, was evaluated to act as functional isotropic and bipolar artificial basement membranes. Thereby, the meshes were shown to be biocompatible and stable including under dynamic conditions, and the degradation profile to correlate with the rate of new tissue formation. The different peptide sequences did not influence the morphology and integrity of the fibers. The modified membranes exhibited protein-repellent properties over 12 months, indicating the long-term stability of the cross-linked star-polymer surfaces.
Cell culture experiments with primary fibroblasts and a human keratinocyte cell line (HaCaT) revealed that cell adhesion and growth strongly depends on the peptide sequences and their combinations employed. HaCaT cells grew to confluence on membranes modified with a combination of laminin/collagen type IV derived binding sequences and with a combination of fibronectin/laminin/collagen type IV derived peptide sequences. Fibroblasts strongly adhered to the fibronectin derived binding sequence and to membranes containing a combination of fibronectin/laminin/collagen type IV derived peptide sequences. The adhesion and growth of fibroblasts and HaCaT cells were significantly reduced on membranes modified with laminin, as well as collagen IV derived peptide sequences. HaCaT cells and fibroblasts barely adhered onto meshes without peptide sequences.
Co-culture experiments at the air-liquid interface with fibroblasts and HaCaT cells confirmed the possibility of creating biocompatible, biofunctional and biomimetic isotropic and bipolar basement membranes, based on the functionalized fibers. HaCaT cells grew in several layers, differentiating towards the surface and expressing cytokeratin 10 in the suprabasal and cytokeratin 14 in the basal layers. Migration of fibroblasts into the electrospun membrane was shown by vimentin staining. Moreover, specific staining against laminin type V, collagen type I, III, IV and fibronectin illustrated that cells started to remodel the electrospun membrane and produced new extracellular matrix proteins following the adhesion to the synthetic surface structures.
The culturing of primary human skin keratinocytes proved to be difficult on electrospun fibers. Cells attached to the membrane, but failed to form a multilayered, well-stratified, and keratinized epidermal layer. Changing the fiber composition and fixation methods did not promote tissue development. Further investigations of the membrane demonstrated the tremendous influence of the pore size of the membrane on epithelial formation. Furthermore, primary keratinocytes reacted more sensitive to pH changes in the medium than HaCaT cells did.
Since primary keratinocytes did not adequately develop on the functionalized meshes, polycarbonate membranes were used instead of electrospun meshes to establish oral mucosa models. The tissue-engineered models represented important features of native human oral mucosa. They consisted of a multilayered epithelium with stratum basale, stratum spinosum, stratum granulosum, and stratum corneum. The models formed a physical barrier and the expression of characteristic cell markers was comparable with that in native human oral mucosa. The results from the ET-50 assay and the irritation study reflected the reproducibility of the tissue equivalents.
Altogether, electrospinning enables the production of fibers with structural similarity to the basement membrane. Incorporating extracellular matrix components to mimic the functional composition offers a safe and promising way to modify the fibers so that they can be used for different tissue engineering applications. The resultant biomimetic membranes that can be functionalized with binding sequences derived from widely varying proteins can be used as a toolbox to study the influence of isotropic and bipolar basement membranes on tissue formation and matrix remodeling systematically, with regards to the biochemical composition and the influence and importance of mono- and co-culture. The oral mucosa models may be useful for toxicity and permeation studies, to monitor the irritation potential of oral health care products and biomaterials or as a disease model.
Gonorrhea is the second most common sexually transmitted infection worldwide and is caused by Gram-negative, human-specific diplococcus Neisseria gonorrhoeae. It colonizes the mucosal surface of the female reproductive tract and the male urethra. A rapid increase in antibiotic resistance makes gonorrhea a serious threat to public health worldwide. Since N. gonorrhoeae is a human-specific pathogen, animal infection models are not able to recapitulate all the features of infection. Therefore, a realistic in vitro cell culture model is urgently required for studying the gonorrhea infection. In this study, we established and characterized three independent 3D tissue models based on the porcine small intestinal submucosa (SIS) scaffold by co-culturing human dermal fibroblasts with human colorectal carcinoma, endometrial epithelial, and male uroepithelial cells. The histological, immunohistochemical, and ultra-structural analysis showed that the 3D SIS scaffold-based models closely mimic the main characteristics of the site of gonococcal infection in the human host including the formation of epithelial monolayer, underlying connective tissue, mucus production, tight junction (TJ), and microvilli. In addition, functional analysis such as transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER) and barrier permeability indicated high barrier integrity of the cell layer. We infected the established 3D tissue models with different N. gonorrhoeae strains and derivatives presenting various phenotypes regarding adhesion and invasion. The results showed disruption of TJs and growing the interleukins production in response to the infection, which depends on the type of strain and cell. In addition, the 3D tissue models supported bacterial survival, which provided an appropriate in vitro model for long-term infection study. This could be mainly because of the high resilience of the 3D tissue models based on the SIS scaffold to the infection in terms of alteration in permeability, cell destruction, and bacterial transmigration.
During gonorrhea infection, a high level of neutrophils migrates to the site of infection. The studies also showed that N. gonorrhoeae can survive or even replicate inside the neutrophils. Therefore, studying the interaction between neutrophils and N. gonorrhoeae is substantially under scrutiny. For this purpose, we generated a 3D tissue model by triple co-culturing of human primary fibroblast cells, human colorectal carcinoma cells, and human umbilical vein endothelial cells. The tissue model was subsequently infected by N. gonorrhoeae. A perfusion-based bioreactor system was employed to recreate blood flow in the side of endothelial cells and consequently study human neutrophils transmigration to the site of infection. We observed neutrophils activation upon the infection. Furthermore, we demonstrated the uptake of N. gonorrhoeae by human neutrophils and reverse transmigration of neutrophils to the basal side carrying N. gonorrhoeae. In summary, the introduced 3D tissue models in this research represent a promising tool to investigate N. gonorrhoeae infections under close-to-natural conditions.
Development Of Three-Dimensional Liver Models For Drug Development And Therapeutical Applications
(2015)
Primary human liver cells such as hepatocytes when isolated and cultured in 2D monolayers, de-differentiate and lose their phenotypic characteristics. In order to maintain the typical polygonal shape of the hepatocytes and their polarization with respect to the neighbouring cells and extra cellular matrix (ECM), it is essential to culture the cells in a three-dimensional (3D) environment. There are numerous culturing techniques available to retain the 3D organization including culturing hepatocytes between two layers of collagen and/or MatrigelTM (Moghe et al. 1997) or in 3D scaffolds (Burkard et al. 2012).
In this thesis, three different 3D hepatic models were investigated.
1. To reflect the in vivo situation, the hepatocytes were cultured in 3D synthetic scaffolds called Mimetix®. These were generated using an electrospinning technique using biodegradable polymers. The scaffolds were modified to increase the pore size to achieve an optimal cell function and penetration into the scaffolds, which is needed for good cell-cell contact and to retain long-term phenotypic functions. Different fibre diameters, and scaffold thicknesses were analyzed using upcyte® hepatocytes. The performance of upcyte® hepatocytes in 3D scaffolds was determined by measuring metabolic functions such as cytochrome P450 3A4 (CYP3A4) and MTS metabolism.
2. Apart from maintaining the hepatocytes in 3D orientation, co-culturing the hepatocytes with other non-parenchymal cell types, such as liver sinusoidal endothelial cells (LSECs) and mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), better reflects the complexity of the liver. Three different upcyte® cell types namely, hepatocytes, LSECs and MSCs, were used to generated 3D liver organoids. The liver organoids were generated and cultured in static and dynamic conditions. Dynamic conditions using Quasi-vivo® chambers were used to reflect the in vivo blood flow. After culturing the cells for 10 days, the structural orientation of cells within the organoids was analyzed. Functional integrity was investigated by measuring CYP3A4 activities. The organoids were further characterized using in situ hybridization for the expression of functional genes, albumin and enzymes regulating glutamine and glucose levels.
3. An ex vivo bioreactor employing a decellularized organic scaffold called a “Biological Vascularized Scaffold” (BioVaSc) was established. Jejunum of the small intestine from pigs was chemically decellularized by retaining the vascular system. The vascular tree of the
BioVaSc was repopulated with upcyte® microvascular endothelial cells (mvECs). The lumen of the BioVaSc was then used to culture the liver organoids generated using upcyte® hepatocytes, LSECs and MSCs. The structural organisation of the cells within the organoids was visualized using cell-specific immunohistochemical stainings. The performance of liver organoids in the BioVaSc was determined according to metabolic functions (CYP3A4 activities).
This thesis also addresses how in vitro models can be optimized and then applied to drug development and therapy.
A comprehensive evaluation was conducted to investigate the application of second-generation upcyte® hepatocytes from 4 donors for inhibition and induction assays, using a selection of reference inhibitors and inducers, under optimized culture conditions. CYP1A2, CYP2B6, CYP2C9 and CYP3A4 were reproducibly inhibited in a concentration-dependent manner and the calculated IC50 values for each compound correctly classified them as potent inhibitors. Upcyte® hepatocytes were responsive to prototypical CYP1A2, CYP2B6, CYP2C9 and CYP3A4 inducers, confirming that they have functional AhR, CAR and PXR mediated CYP regulation. A panel of 11 inducers classified as potent, moderate or non-inducers of CYP3A4 and CYP2B6 were tested. Three different predictive models for CYP3A4 induction, namely the Relative Induction Score (RIS), AUCu/F2 and Cmax,u/Ind50 were analyzed. In addition, PXR (rifampicin) and CAR-selective (carbamazepine and phenytoin) inducers of CYP3A4 and CYP2B6 induction, respectively, were also demonstrated.
Haemophilia A occurs due to lack of functional Factor VIII (FVIII) protein in the blood. Different types of cells from hepatic and extrahepatic origin produce FVIII. Supernatants harvested from primary LSECs were evaluated for the presence of secreted functional FVIII. In order to increase the FVIII production, different upcyte® endothelial cells such as blood outgrowth endothelial cells (BOECs), LSECs and mvECs were transduced with lentiviral particles carrying a FVIII transgene. Also, to reflect a more native situation, primary mvECs were selected and modified by transducing them with FVIII lentivirus and investigated as a potential method for generating this coagulation factor.
Infectious diseases caused by pathogenic microorganisms are one of the largest socioeconomic burdens today. Although infectious diseases have been studied for decades, in numerous cases, the precise mechanisms involved in the multifaceted interaction between pathogen and host continue to be elusive. Thus, it still remains a challenge for researchers worldwide to develop novel strategies to investigate the molecular context of infectious diseases in order to devise preventive or at least anti-infective measures. One of the major drawbacks in trying to obtain in-depth knowledge of how bacterial pathogens elicit disease is the lack of suitable infection models to authentically mimic the disease progression in humans. Numerous studies rely on animal models to emulate the complex temporal interactions between host and pathogen occurring in humans. While they have greatly contributed to shed light on these interactions, they require high maintenance costs, are afflicted with ethical drawbacks, and are not always predictive for the infection outcome in human patients. Alternatively, in-vitro two-dimensional (2D) cell culture systems have served for decades as representatives of human host environments to study infectious diseases. These cell line-based models have been essential in uncovering virulence-determining factors of diverse pathogens as well as host defense mechanisms upon infection. However, they lack the morphological and cellular complexity of intact human tissues, limiting the insights than can be gained from studying host-pathogen interactions in these systems.
The focus of this thesis was to establish and innovate intestinal human cell culture models to obtain in-vitro reconstructed three-dimensional (3D) tissue that can faithfully mimic pathogenesis-determining processes of the zoonotic bacterium Campylobacter jejuni (C. jejuni). Generally employed for reconstructive medicine, the field of tissue engineering provides excellent tools to generate organ-specific cell culture models in vitro, realistically recapitulating the distinctive architecture of human tissues. The models employed in this thesis are based on decellularized extracellular matrix (ECM) scaffolds of porcine intestinal origin. Reseeded with intestinal human cells, application of dynamic culture conditions promoted the formation of a highly polarized mucosal epithelium maintained by functional tight and adherens junctions. While most other in-vitro infection systems are limited to a flat monolayer, the tissue models developed in this thesis can display the characteristic 3D villi and crypt structure of human small intestine.
First, experimental conditions were established for infection of a previously developed, statically cultivated intestinal tissue model with C. jejuni. This included successful isolation of bacterial colony forming units (CFUs), measurement of epithelial barrier function, as well as immunohistochemical and histological staining techniques. In this way, it became possible to follow the number of viable bacteria during the infection process as well as their translocation over the polarized epithelium of the tissue model. Upon infection with C. jejuni, disruption of tight and adherens junctions could be observed via confocal microscopy and permeability measurements of the epithelial barrier. Moreover, C. jejuni wildtype-specific colonization and barrier disruption became apparent in addition to niche-dependent bacterial localization within the 3D microarchitecture of the tissue model. Pathogenesis-related phenotypes of C. jejuni mutant strains in the 3D host environment deviated from those obtained with conventional in-vitro 2D monolayers but mimicked observations made in vivo. Furthermore, a genome-wide screen of a C. jejuni mutant library revealed significant differences for bacterial factors required or dispensable for interactions with unpolarized host cells or the highly prismatic epithelium provided by the intestinal tissue model. Elucidating the role of several previously uncharacterized factors specifically important for efficient colonization of a 3D human environment, promises to be an intriguing task for future research.
At the frontline of the defense against invading pathogens is the protective, viscoelastic mucus layer overlying mucosal surfaces along the human gastrointestinal tract (GIT). The development of a mucus-producing 3D tissue model in this thesis was a vital step towards gaining a deeper understanding of the interdependency between bacterial pathogens and host-site specific mucins. The presence of a mucus layer conferred C. jejuni wildtype-specific protection against epithelial barrier disruption by the pathogen and prevented a high bacterial burden during the course of infection. Moreover, results obtained in this thesis provide evidence in vitro that the characteristic corkscrew morphology of C. jejuni indeed grants a distinct advantage in colonizing mucous surfaces.
Overall, the results obtained within this thesis highlight the strength of the tissue models to combine crucial features of native human intestine into accessible in-vitro infection models. Translation of these systems into infection research demonstrated their ability to expose in-vivo like infection outcomes. While displaying complex organotypic architecture and highly prismatic cellular morphology, these tissue models still represent an imperfect reflection of human tissue. Future advancements towards inclusion of human primary and immune cells will strive for even more comprehensive model systems exhibiting intricate multicellular networks of in-vivo tissue. Nevertheless, the work presented in this thesis emphasizes the necessity to investigate host-pathogen interactions in infection models authentically mimicking the natural host environment, as they remain among the most vital parts in understanding and counteracting infectious diseases.
Critical size bone defects and nonunion fractures remain difficult to treat. Although cell‐loaded bone substitutes have improved bone ingrowth and formation, the lack of methods for achieving viability and the uniform distribution of cells in the scaffold limits their use as bone grafts. In addition, the predominant mechanical stimulus that drives early osteogenic cell maturation has not been clearly identified. Further, it is challenging to evaluate mechanical stimuli (i.e., deformation and fluid–flow-induced shear stress) because they are interdependent. This thesis compares different mechanical stimuli applied to cell-seeded scaffolds to develop bone grafts efficiently for the treatment of critical size bone defects. It also seeks to understand how deformation strain and interstitial fluid–flow-induced shear stress promote osteogenic lineage commitment. In this thesis, different scaffolds were seeded with primary human bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BM-MSCs) from different donors and subjected to static and dynamic culture conditions. In contrast with the static culture conditions, homogenous cell distributions were accomplished under dynamic culture conditions. Additionally, the induction of osteogenic lineage commitment without the addition of soluble factors was observed in the bioreactor system after one week of cell culture. To determine the role of mechanical stimuli, a bioreactor was developed to apply mechanical deformation force to a mesenchymal stem sell (MSC) line (telomerase reverse transcriptase (TERT)) expressing a strain-responsive AP-1 luciferase reporter construct on porous scaffolds. Increased luciferase expression was observed in the deformation strain compared with the shear stress strain. Furthermore, the expression of osteogenic lineage commitment markers such as osteonectin, osteocalcin (OC), osteopontin, runt-related transcription factor 2 (RUNX2), alkaline phosphate (AP), and collagen type 1 was significantly downregulated in the shear stress strain compared with the deformation strain. These findings establish that the deformation strain was the predominant stimulus causing skeletal precursors to undergo osteogenesis in earlier stages of osteogenic cell maturation. Finally, these findings were used to develop a bioreactor in vitro test system in which the effect of medication on osteoporosis could be tested. Primary human BM-MSCs from osteoporotic donors were subjected to strontium ranelate (an osteoporotic drug marketed as Protelos®). Increased expression of collagen type 1 and calcification was seen in the drugtreated osteoporotic stem cells compared with the nondrug-treated osteoporotic stem cells. Thus, this bioreactor technology can easily be adapted into an in vitro osteoporotic drug testing system.
Das maligne Melanom nimmt als Tumorerkrankung mit hoher Metastasierungsrate und steigenden Inzidenzraten bei höchster Mortalität aller Hauttumoren eine zunehmende Bedeutung in der modernen Onkologie ein. Frühzeitige Diagnosemöglichkeiten und moderne Behandlungen konnten das Überleben der Patienten bereits erheblich verbessern. Jedoch besteht nach wie vor Bedarf an geeigneten Modellen, um die Melanomprogression vollständig zu verstehen und neue wirksame Therapien zu entwickeln. Hierfür werden häufig Tiermodelle verwendet, diese spiegeln jedoch nicht die menschliche Mikroumgebung wider. Zweidimensionalen Zellkulturen fehlen dagegen entscheidende Elemente der Tumormikroumgebung. Daher wurde in dieser Arbeit ein dreidimensionales epidermales Tumormodell des malignen Melanoms, welches aus primären humanen Keratinozyten und verschiedenen Melanomzelllinien besteht, entwickelt. Die eingesetzten Melanomzelllinien variieren in ihren Treibermutationen, wodurch das Modell in der Lage ist, Wirkstoffe zu untersuchen, die spezifisch auf diese Mutationen wirken. Mit Techniken des Tissue Engineerings konnte ein dreidimensionales Hautmodell aufgebaut werden, das alle charakteristischen Schichten der Epidermis aufweist und im Bereich des stratum basale Melanomcluster ausbildet. Diese reichen je nach Größe und Ausdehnung bis in suprabasale Epidermisschichten hinein. Die Tumor-Histopathologie, der Tumorstoffwechsel sowie tumorassoziierte Proteinsekretionen ließen sich im in vitro Modell nachweisen. Darüber hinaus konnte ein Protokoll entwickelt werden, mit dem einzelne Zellen aus den Modellen reisoliert werden können. Dies ermöglichte es, den Proliferationszustand innerhalb des jeweiligen Modells zu charakterisieren und die Wirkung von Antitumortherapien gezielt zu bewerten. Die Anwendbarkeit als Testsystem im Bereich der Tumortherapeutika wurde mit dem in der Klinik häufig verwendeten v-raf-Maus-Sarkom-Virus-Onkogen-Homolog B (BRAF)-Inhibitor Vemurafenib demonstriert. Der selektive BRAF-Inhibitor reduzierte erfolgreich das Tumorwachstum in den Modellen mit BRAF-mutierten Melanomzellen, was durch eine Verringerung der metabolischen Aktivität, der proliferierenden Zellen und des Glukoseverbrauchs gezeigt wurde. Für die Implementierung des Modells in die präklinische Therapieentwicklung wurde B-B-Dimethylacrylshikonin, ein vielversprechender Wirkstoffkandidat, welcher einen Zellzyklusarrest mit anschließender Apoptose bewirkt, im Modell getestet.
Bei einer Anwendung der Modelle im Bereich der Testung topischer Behandlungen ist eine Barrierefunktion der Modelle notwendig, die der in vivo Situation nahe kommt. Die Barriereeigenschaften der Hautäquivalente wurden durch die Melanomzellen nachweislich nicht beeinflusst, sind aber im Vergleich zur in vivo Situation noch unzureichend. Eine signifikante Steigerung der Hautbarriere konnte durch die Bereitstellung von Lipiden und die Anregung hauteigener Regenerationsprozesse erreicht werden. Über den Nachweis des transepidermalen Wasserverlusts konnte eine Messmethode zur nicht-invasiven Bestimmung der Hautbarriere etabliert und über den Vergleich zur Impedanzspektroskopie validiert werden. Hierbei gelang es, erstmals die Korrelation der Hautmodelle zur in vivo Situation über ein solches Verfahren zu zeigen. Das entwickelte epidermale Modell konnte durch die Integration eines dermalen Anteils und einer Endothelzellschicht noch weiter an die komplexe Struktur und Physiologie der Haut angepasst werden um Untersuchungen, die mit der Metastierung und Invasion zusammenhängen, zu ermöglichen. Die artifizielle Dermis basiert auf einem Kollagen-Hydrogel mit primären Fibroblasten. Eine dezellularisierte Schweinedarmmatrix ließ sich zur Erweiterung des Modells um eine Endothelzellschicht nutzen. Dabei wanderten die primären Fibroblasten apikal in die natürliche Schweindarmmatrix ein, während die Endothelzellen basolateral eine geschlossene Schicht bildeten.
Die in dieser Arbeit entwickelten Gewebemodelle sind in der Lage, die Vorhersagekraft der in vitro Modelle und die in vitro - in vivo Korrelation zu verbessern. Durch die Kombination des Melanommodells mit einer darauf abgestimmten Analytik wurde ein neuartiges Werkzeug für die präklinische Forschung zur Testung von pharmazeutischen Wirkstoffen geschaffen.
Die Risikobewertung von Chemikalien ist für die öffentliche Gesundheit von entschei-dender Bedeutung, weshalb strenge Testverfahren zu deren toxikologischer Begutach-tung angewandt werden. Die ursprünglich tierbasierten Testverfahren werden aufgrund von neuen wissenschaftlichen Erkenntnissen und wegen ökonomischer Ineffizienz sowie ethischer Fragwürdigkeit immer mehr durch alternative Methoden ohne Tiermodelle ersetzt. Für den toxikologischen Endpunkt der Augenreizung wurden bereits die ersten alternativen Testsysteme auf der Basis von ex vivo- oder in vitro-Modellen entwickelt. Jedoch ist bis dato kein alternatives Testsystem in der Lage, das gesamte Spektrum der verschiedenen Kategorien der Augenreizungen nach dem global harmonisierten System zur Einstufung und Kennzeichnung von Chemikalien (GHS) vorherzusagen und damit den tierbasierten Draize-Augenreizungstest vollends zu ersetzen. Gründe hierfür sind fehlende physiologische Merkmale im Modell sowie eine destruktive Analysemethode.
Aufgrund dessen wurden in dieser Studie die Hypothesen getestet, ob ein verbessertes In-vitro-Modell oder eine zerstörungsfreie, hochsensitive Analysemethode die Vorher-sagekraft des Augenreizungstests verbessern können. Dafür wurden zunächst neue Mo-delle aus humanen Hornhaut- und Hautepithelzellen entwickelt. Die Modelle aus pri-mären cornealen Zellen zeigten eine gewebespezifische Expression der Marker Zytokera-tin 3 und 12 sowie Loricrin. In beiden Modellen konnte durch die Verkürzung der Kul-turdauer die Ausbildung einer Hornschicht verhindert werden. Die Modelle wiesen dadurch eine sensiblere Barriere vergleichbar der nativen Cornea auf. Darüber hinaus konnte durch die chemische Quervernetzung mit Polyethylenglykolsuccinimidylglutara-tester ein transparentes, nicht kontrahierendes Stroma-Äquivalent etabliert werden. Der Stroma-Ersatz konnte zur Generierung von Hemi- und Voll-Cornea-Äquivalenten einge-setzt werden und lieferte somit erste Ansatzpunkte für die Rekonstruktion der nativen Hornhaut.
Parallel dazu konnte ein zerstörungsfreies Analyseverfahren basierend auf der Impe-danzspektroskopie entwickelt werden, das wiederholte Messungen der Gewebeintegri-tät zulässt. Zur verbesserten Messung der Barriere in dreidimensionalen Modelle wurde hierfür ein neuer Parameter, der transepitheliale elektrische Widerstand (TEER) bei der Frequenz von 1000 Hz, der TEER1000 Hz definiert, der eine genauere Aussage über die Integrität der Modelle zulässt. Durch die Kombination der entwickelten cornealen Epithelzellmodelle mit der TEER1000 Hz-Messung konnte die Prädikitivität des Augenrei-zungstests auf 78 - 100 % erhöht werden. Von besonderer Bedeutung ist dabei, dass die nicht destruktive Messung des TEER1000 Hz zum ersten Mal erlaubte, die Persistenz von Irritationen durch wiederholte Messungen in einem in vitro-Modell zu erkennen und somit die GHS-Kategorie 1 von GHS-Kategorie 2 zu unterscheiden. Der wissenschaftli-che Gewinn dieser Forschungsarbeit ist ein neues Testverfahren, das alle GHS-Kategorien in einem einzigen in vitro-Test nachweisen und den Draize-Augenreizungstest gänzlich ersetzen kann.
Herzschrittmachersysteme sind eine weitverbreitete Möglichkeit Herz-Kreislauf-Erkrankungen zu behandeln. Wegen der natürlichen Reaktion des Immunsystems auf Fremdkörper, erfolgt aber eine fortschreitende Verkapselung der Herzschrittmacherelektrode. Die Folge ist eine ansteigende Verminderung der Stimulationseffizienz durch Erhöhung der Anregungsschwelle. Die Integration der Elektrode in das Gewebe ist dabei mangelhaft und wird bestimmt durch Implantateigenschaften wie Größe, Flexibilität und Dimensionalität. Um die Integration zu verbessern, stellen dreidimensionale (3D) bzw. gewebeartige Elektroden eine Alternative zu den derzeit verwendeten planaren Metallelektroden dar. Zur Entwicklung einer leitfähigen, 3D und faserförmigen Elektrode wurden in dieser Arbeit Kohlenstoff-Nanofaser-Scaffolds über Elektrospinnen hergestellt. Durch die Modifikation des Fasergerüstes mit Natriumchlorid (NaCl) während der Scaffoldherstellung, konnte das Fasernetzwerk aufgelockert und Poren generiert werden. Die Kohlenstofffaser-Elektroden zeigten einen effizienten Energieübertrag, welcher vergleichbar mit heutigen Titannitrid (TiN) -Elektroden ist. Die Auflockerung des Fasergewebes hatte eine verbesserte Flexibilität des Faserscaffolds zu Folge. Neben der Flexibilität, konnte auch die Infiltration von Zellen in das poröse Faserscaffold erheblich verbessert werden. Dabei konnten Fibroblasten durch das gesamte Scaffold migrieren. Die Kompatibilität mit kardialen Zellen, die Grundvoraussetzung von Herzschrittmacherelektroden, wurde in vitro nachgewiesen. Durch die Kombination aus dem 3D-Elektrodengerüst mit einer Co-Kultur aus humanen Kardiomyozyten, mesenchymalen Stammzellen und Fibroblasten, erfolgte eine Einbettung der Elektrode in funktionelles kardiales Gewebe. Dadurch konnte ein lebender Gewebe-Elektroden-Hybrid generiert werden, welcher möglicherweise die Elektrode vor Immunzellen in vivo abschirmen kann. Eine Zusammenführung der hybriden Elektrode mit einen Tissue-Engineerten humanen kardialen Patch in vitro, führte zu Bildung einer nahtlosen Elektronik-Gewebe-Schnittstelle. Die fusionierte Einheit wurde abschließend auf ihre mechanische Belastbarkeit getestet und konnte über einen Elektroden-Anschluss elektrisch stimuliert werden.
Kardiovaskuläre Erkrankungen, wie beispielsweise der Herzinfarkt, sind die häufigste Todesursache weltweit. Bei einem Herzinfarkt sterben Areale des Herzens aufgrund einer Unterversorgung mit Blut ab. Da das Herzmuskelgewebe ein sogenanntes terminal differenziertes Gewebe ist, kommt es zu keiner Regeneration des Gewebes, mit der Folge einer Herzinsuffizienz beziehungsweise dem Tod des Patienten. Eine alternative Behandlungsmöglichkeit zu einer Herztransplantation stellt das Tissue Engineering dar. Mit Hilfe des Tissue Engineerings können dreidimensionale Gewebe aufgebaut und kultiviert werden, um auf diese Weise ein funktionelles Gewebe zu erhalten, durch welches das abgestorbene Gewebeareal des Herzens zukünftig auch ersetzt werden könnte.
In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurden notwendige Technologien für den Aufbau von Geweben entwickelt sowie erste Versuche für die Erzeugung eines funktionellen Herzmuskelgewebes durchgeführt. Beim Aufbau von dreidimensionalen Geweben finden Trägerstrukturen Anwendung, die mit Zellen besiedelt werden. Solche Trägerstrukturen können aus biologischen oder synthetischen Polymeren hergestellt sein oder aus der extrazellulären Matrix eines dezellularisierten Gewebes bestehen. Für eine standardisierte Dezellularisierung von Geweben wurde eine computergesteuerte Pumpeneinheit, für die Herstellung von Nanofaserscaffolds eine Elektrospinninganlage entwickelt. Mit Hilfe der Dezellularisierungseinheit können komplexe Organe, wie ein Herz im Ganzen, reproduzierbar dezellularisiert werden. Untersuchungen der mittels Elektrospinning hergestellten Nanofaserscaffolds, welche als Alternative zu der dezellularisierten, natürlichen Matrix eingesetzt werden können, zeigten bei allen hergestellten Zusammensetzungen eine Orientierung der Zellen entlang der Fasern.
Die Kultivierung von Zellmatrixkonstrukten erfolgt im Tissue Engineering häufig unter dynamischen Bedingungen. Hierfür wurde ein mobiler Stand Alone Inkubator mit der erforderlichen Peripherie für eine Kultur unter Perfusion des Gewebes entwickelt. Als Weiterentwicklung des Stand Alone Inkubators ist eine modulare Bioreaktorplattform, bestehend aus Wärmetauscher, Beutelpumpe und Gasaustauscher, aufgebaut worden. In dieses System kann über Standard Anschlüsse jegliche Art von Bioreaktor in das System eingebunden werden. Durch die Kompaktheit des Systems ist es möglich mehrere Ansätze parallel auf engem Raum durchzuführen. Die Funktion der Plattform, wurde in der vorliegenden Arbeit durch die Gewebekultur einer nativen porzinen Karotis nachgewiesen.
Für den Aufbau des kardialen Gewebes dient die small intestinal submucosa ohne Serosa (SISser) als Trägerstruktur. Der Aufbau des Gewebekonstrukts erfolgte in verschiedenen Ansätzen unter Einsatz verschiedener Zellarten. Native, aus Herzbiopsien generierte Cardiosphere derived cells (CDCs) verteilten sich gleichmäßige über die Oberfläche der Matrix, jedoch konnten immunhistologisch keine spezifischen kardialen Marker bei den artifiziellen Geweben nachgewiesen werden. Zellmatrixkonstrukte aus einer Mono Kultur von Kardiomyozyten, differenziert aus induzierten pluripotenten Stammzellen (iPS Zellen) sowie einer Co Kultur dieser Kardiomyozyten mit mesenchymalen Stammzellen und Zellen aus einer Herzbiopsie zeigten nach wenigen Tagen in Kultur ein kontraktiles Verhalten. Immunhistologische Färbungen der beiden Gewebe bestätigten die Expression der spezifischen kardialen Marker, wie beispielsweise kardiales Troponin T, kardiales Troponin C und alpha Actinin. Die Kardiomyozyten der Mono Kultur sind jedoch nicht über die gesamte Matrixoberfläche verteilt, sondern bilden Aggregate. Bei der Co Kultur kann eine gleichmäßige Verteilung der Zellen auf der Matrix beobachtet werden. Der vielversprechendste Ansatz für den Aufbau eines Herzmuskelgewebes, welches als Implantat oder Testsystem eingesetzt werden kann, bildet nach den in dieser Arbeit erzielten Ergebnissen, ein Konstrukt aus der SISser und der Co Kultur der Zellen. Allerdings muss die Zusammensetzung der Co Kultur sowie das Verhältnis der Zellzahlen optimiert werden.
Bevor ein zellbasiertes GTMP erstmalig beim Menschen angewendet werden kann, müssen verschiedene notwendige nicht-klinische Studien durchgeführt werden. Wichtig ist hier u.a. die Untersuchung der Biodistribution im Tiermodel. Diese umfasst die Verteilung, das Engraftment, die Persistenz, die Eliminierung und gegebenenfalls die Expansion der humanen Zellen in verschiedenen Organen, meistens im Mausmodel. Deshalb wurde eine qPCR-basierte Analysenmethode entwickelt, mit der humane genomische DNA innerhalb von muriner genomischer DNA bestimmt werden kann, und entsprechend den regulatorischen Richtlinien der European Medicines Agency und des International Council for Harmonisation validiert. Anschließend wurde diese Methode innerhalb einer präklinischen worst-case Szenario Biodistributionsstudie angewendet. Das Ziel dieser Studie war die Untersuchung des Biodistributionsprofils von genetisch modifizierten Blood Outgrowth Endothelial Cells von Hämophilie A Patienten 24 Stunden und sieben Tage nach intravenöser Applikation einer Dosis von 2x106 Zellen. Die Isolation, genetische Modifikation und die Expansion der Zellen sollte entsprechend den Richtlinien der Guten Herstellungspraxis durchgeführt werden. Hierbei ist die Auswahl und Anwendung geeigneter und essentieller Rohstoffe wichtig. Gleichermaßen ist die Durchführung einer definierten Qualitätskontrollstrategie notwendig und die Patientenzellen sollten nur innerhalb von nicht-klinischen Studien eingesetzt werden, wenn alle Akzeptanzkriterien erfüllt wurden. Die Validierung der qPCR-Methode zeigte eine hohe Genauigkeit, Präzision und Linearität innerhalb des Konzentrationsintervalls von 1:1x103 bis 1:1x106 humanen zu murinen Genomen. Bei Anwendung dieser Methode für die Biodistributionsstudie konnten nach 24 Stunden humane Genome in vier der acht untersuchten Mausorgane bestimmt werden. Nach sieben Tagen konnten in keinem der acht Organe humane Genome nachgewiesen werden...
Breast cancer is the most common cancer among women worldwide and the second most common cause of cancer death in the developed countries. As the current state of the art in first-line drug screenings is highly ineffective, there is an urgent need for novel test systems that allow for reliable predictions of drug sensitivity.
In this study, a tissue engineering approach was used to successfully establish and standardize a 3-dimensional (3D) mamma carcinoma test system that was optimized for the testing of anti-tumour therapies as well as for the investigation of tumour biological issues. This 3D test system is based on the decellularised scaffold of a porcine small intestinal segment and represents the three molecular subsets of oestrogen receptor-positive, HER2/Neu-overexpressing and triple negative breast cancer (TNBC). The characterization of the test system with respect to morphology as well as the expression of markers for epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and differentiation indicate that the 3D tumour models cultured under static and dynamic conditions reflect tumour relevant features and have a good correlation with in vivo tumour tissue from the corresponding xenograft models. In this respect, the dynamic culture in a flow bioreactor resulted in the generation of tumour models that exhibited best reflection of the morphology of the xenograft material. Furthermore, the proliferation indices of 3D models were significantly reduced compared to 2-dimensional (2D) cell culture and therefore better reflect the in vivo situation. As this more physiological proliferation index prevents an overestimation of the therapeutic effect of cytostatic compounds, this is a crucial advantage of the test system compared to 2D culture. Moreover, it could be shown that the 3D models can recapitulate different tumour stages with respect to tumour cell invasion. The scaffold SISmuc with the preserved basement membrane structure allowed the investigation of invasion over this barrier which tumour cells of epithelial origin have to cross in in vivo conditions during the process of metastasis formation. Additionally, the data obtained from ultrastructural analysis and in situ zymography indicate that the invasion observed is connected to a tumour cell-associated change in the basement membrane in which matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are also involved. This features of the model in combination with the mentioned methods of analysis could be used in the future to mechanistically investigate invasive processes and to test anti-metastatic therapy strategies.
The validation of the 3D models as a test system with respect to the predictability of therapeutic effects was achieved by the clinically relevant targeted therapy with the monoclonal antibody trastuzumab which induces therapeutic response only in patients with HER2/Neu-overexpressing mamma carcinomas due to its specificity for HER2. While neither in 2D nor in 3D models of all molecular subsets a clear reduction of cell viability or an increase in apoptosis could be observed, a distinct increase in antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity (ADCC) was detected only in the HER2/NEU-overexpressing 3D model with the help of an ADCC reporter gene assay that had been adapted for the application in the 3D model in the here presented work. This correlates with the clinical observations and underlines the relevance of ADCC as a mechanism of action (MOA) of trastuzumab. In order to measure the effects of ADCC on the tumour cells in a direct way without the indirect measurement via a reporter gene, the introduction of an immunological component into the models was required. This was achieved by the integration of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs), thereby allowing the measurement of the induction of tumour cell apoptosis in the HER2/Neu-overexpressing model. Hence, in this study an immunocompetent model could be established that holds the potential for further testing of therapies from the emergent field of cancer immunotherapies.
Subsequently, the established test system was used for the investigation of scientific issues from different areas of application. By the comparison of the sensitivity of the 2D and 3D model of TNBC towards the water-insoluble compound curcumin that was applied in a novel nanoformulation or in a DMSO-based formulation, the 3D test system was successfully applied for the evaluation of an innovative formulation strategy for poorly soluble drugs in order to achieve cancer therapy-relevant concentrations. Moreover, due to the lack of targeted therapies for TNBC, the TNBC model was applied for testing novel treatment strategies. On the one hand, therapy with the WEE1 kinase inhibitor MK 1775 was evaluated as a single agent as well as in combination with the chemotherapeutic agent doxorubicin. This therapy approach did not reveal any distinct benefits in the 3D test system in contrast to testing in 2D culture. On the other hand, a novel therapy approach from the field of cellular immunotherapies was successfully applied in the TNBC 3D model. The treatment with T cells that express a chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) against ROR1 revealed in the static as well as in the dynamic model a migration of T cells into the tumour tissue, an enhanced proliferation of T cells as well as an efficient lysis of the tumour cells via apoptosis and therefore a specific anti-cancer effect of CAR-transduced T cells compared to control T cells. These results illustrate that the therapeutic application of CAR T cells is a promising strategy for the treatment of solid tumours like TNBC and that the here presented 3D models are suitable for the evaluation and optimization of cellular immunotherapies.
In the last part of this work, the 3D models were expanded by components of the tumour stroma for future applications. By coculture with fibroblasts, the natural structures of the intestinal scaffold comprising crypts and villi were remodelled and the tumour cells formed tumour-like structures together with the fibroblasts. This tissue model displayed a strong correlation with xenograft models with respect to morphology, marker expression as well as the activation of dermal fibroblasts towards a cancer-associated fibroblast (CAF) phenotype. For the integration of adipocytes which are an essential component of the breast stroma, a coculture with human adipose-derived stromal/stem cells (hASCs) which could be successfully differentiated along the adipose lineage in 3D static as well as dynamic models was established. These models are suitable especially for the mechanistic analysis of the reciprocal interaction between tumour cells and adipocytes due to the complex differentiation process.
Taken together, in this study a human 3D mamma carcinoma test system for application in the preclinical development and testing of anti-tumour therapies as well as in basic research in the field of tumour biology was successfully established. With the help of this modular test system, relevant data can be obtained concerning the efficacy of therapies in tumours of different molecular subsets and different tumour stages as well as for the optimization of novel therapy strategies like immunotherapies. In the future this can contribute to improve the preclinical screening and thereby to reduce the high attrition rates in pharmaceutical industry as well as the amount of animal experiments.
The small intestine represents a strong barrier separating the lumen from blood circulation thereby playing a major role in the absorption and the transport of pharmacological agents prior to their arrival on the respective target site. In order to gain more knowledge about specialized uptake mechanisms and risk assessment for the patient after oral admission of drugs, intestinal in vitro models demonstrating a close similarity to the in vivo situation are needed.
In the past, cell line-based in vitro models composed of Caco-2 cells cultured on synthetic cell carriers represented the “gold standard” in the field of intestinal tissue engineering. Expressive advantages of these models are a reproducible, cost-efficient and standardized model set up, but cell function can be negatively influenced by the low porosity or unwanted molecular adhesion effects of the artificial scaffold material. Natural extracellular matrices (ECM) such as the porcine decellularized small intestinal submucosa (SIS) are used as alternative to overcome some common drawbacks; however, the fabrication of these scaffolds is time- and cost-intensive, less well standardized and the 3Rs (replacement, reduction, refinement) principle is not entirely fulfilled. Nowadays, biopolymer-based scaffolds such as the bacterial nanocellulose (BNC) suggest an interesting option of novel intestinal tissue engineered models, as the BNC shows comparable features to the native ECM regarding fiber arrangement and hydrophilic properties. Furthermore, the BNC is of non-animal origin and the manufacturing process is faster as well as well standardized at low costs.
In this context, the first part of this thesis analyzed the BNC as alternative scaffold to derive standardized and functional organ models in vitro. Therefore, Caco-2 cells were cultured on two versions of BNC with respect to their surface topography, the unmodified BNC as rather smooth surface and the surface-structured BNC presenting an aligned fiber arrangement. As controls, Caco-2 in vitro models were set up on PET and SIS matrices. In this study, the BNC-based models demonstrated organ-specific properties comprising typical cellular morphologies, a characteristic tight junction protein expression profile, representative ultrastructural features and the formation of a tight epithelial barrier together with a corresponding transport activity. In summary, these results validated the high quality of the BNC-based Caco-2 models under cost-efficient conditions and their suitability for pre-clinical research purposes. However, the full functional diversity of the human intestine cannot be presented by Caco-2 cells due to their tumorigenic background and their exclusive representation of mature enterocytes.
Next to the scaffold used for the setup of in vitro models, the cellular unit mainly drives functional performance, which demonstrates the crucial importance of mimicking the cellular diversity of the small intestine in vitro. In this context, intestinal primary organoids are of high interest, as they show a close similarity to the native epithelium regarding their cellular diversity comprising enterocytes, goblet cells, enteroendocrine cells, paneth cells, transit amplifying cells and stem cells. In general, such primary organoids grow in a 3D Matrigel® based environment and a medium formulation supplemented with a variety of growth factors to maintain stemness, to inhibit differentiation and to stimulate cell migration supporting long term in vitro culture.
Intestinal primary spheroid/organoid cultures were set up as Transwell®-like models on both BNC variants, which resulted in a fragmentary cell layer and thereby unfavorable properties of these scaffold materials under the applied circumstances. As the BNC manufacturing process is highly flexible, surface properties could be adapted in future studies to enable a good cell adherence and barrier formation for primary intestinal cells, too. However, the application of these organoid cultures in pre-clinical research represents an enormous challenge, as the in vitro culture is complex and additionally time- and cost-intensive.
With regard to the high potential of primary intestinal spheroids/organoids and the necessity of a simplified but predictive model in pre-clinical research purposes, the second part of this thesis addressed the establishment of a primary-derived immortalized intestinal cell line, which enables a standardized and cost-efficient culture (including in 2D), while maintaining the cellular diversity of the organoid in vitro cultures. In this study, immortalization of murine and human intestinal primary organoids was induced by ectopic expression of a 10- (murine) or 12 component (human) pool of genes regulating stemness and the cell cycle, which was performed in cooperation with the InSCREENeX GmbH in a 2D- and 3D-based transduction strategy. In first line, the established cell lines (cell clones) were investigated for their cell culture prerequisites to grow under simplified and cost-efficient conditions. While murine cell clones grew on uncoated plastic in a medium formulation supplemented with EGF, Noggin, Y-27632 and 10% FCS, the human cell clones demonstrated the necessity of a Col I pre coating together with the need for a medium composition commonly used for primary human spheroid/organoid cultures. Furthermore, the preceding analyses resulted in only one human cell clone and three murine cell clones for ongoing characterization. Studies regarding the proliferative properties and the specific gene as well as protein expression profile of the remaining cell clones have shown, that it is likely that transient amplifying cells (TACs) were immortalized instead of the differentiated cell types localized in primary organoids, as 2D, 3D or Transwell®-based cultures resulted in slightly different gene expression profiles and in a dramatically reduced mRNA transcript level for the analyzed marker genes representative for the differentiated cell types of the native epithelium. Further, 3D cultures demonstrated the formation of spheroid-like structures; however without forming organoid-like structures due to prolonged culture, indicating that these cell populations have lost their ability to differentiate into specific intestinal cell types. The Transwell®-based models set up of each clone exhibit organ-specific properties comprising an epithelial-like morphology, a characteristic protein expression profile with an apical mucus-layer covering the villin-1 positive cell layer, thereby representing goblet cells and enterocytes, together with representative tight junction complexes indicating an integer epithelial barrier. The proof of a functional as well as tight epithelial barrier in TEER measurements and in vivo-like transport activities qualified the established cell clones as alternative cell sources for tissue engineered models representing the small intestine to some extent. Additionally, the easy handling and cell expansion under more cost-efficient conditions compared to primary organoid cultures favors the use of these newly generated cell clones in bioavailability studies.
Altogether, this work demonstrated new components, structural and cellular, for the establishment of alternative in vitro models of the small intestinal epithelium, which could be used in pre-clinical screenings for reproducible drug delivery studies.
Cardiovascular diseases are considered the leading cause of death worldwide according to the World Health Organization. Heart failure is the last stage of most of these diseases, where loss of myocardium leads to architectural and functional decline.
The definitive treatment option for patients with CVDs is organ or tissue transplantation, which relies on donor availability. Therefore, generating an autologous bioengineered myocardium or heart could overcome this limitation. In addition, generating cardiac patches will provide ventricular wall support and enable reparative stem cells delivery to damaged areas. Although many hurdles still exist, a good number of researches have attempted to create an engineered cardiac tissue which can induce endogenous cardiac repair by replacing damaged myocardium.
The present study provided cardiac patches in two models, one by a detergent coronary perfusion decellularization protocol that was optimized, and the other that resulted in a 3D cell-free extracellular matrix with intact architecture and preserved s-glycosaminoglycan and vasculature conduits. Perfusion with 1% Sodium dodecyle sulfate (SDS) under constant pressure resulted in cell-free porcine scaffold within two and cell-free rat scaffold in 7 days, whereas scaffold perfused with 4% sodium deoxycholate (SDO) was not able to remove cells completely. Re-reendothelialization of tissue vasculature was obtained by injecting human microvascular endothelial cell and human fibroblast in 2:1 ratio in a dynamic culture. One-week later, CD31 positive cells and endothelium markers were observed, indicating new blood lining. Moreover, functionality test of re-endothelialized tissue revealed improvement in clotting seen in decellularized tissues. When the tissue was ready to be repopulated, porcine induced pluripotent stem cells (PiPSc) were generated by transfected reprogramming of porcine skin fibroblast and then differentiated to cardiac cells following a robust protocol, for an autologous cardiac tissue model. However, due to the limitation in the PiPSc cell number, alternatively, human induced pluripotent stem cells generated cardiac cells were used.
For reseeding a coculture of human iPSc generated cardiac cells, human mesenchymal stem cells and human fibroblast in 2:1:1 ratio respectively were used in a dynamic culture for 6-8 weeks. Contractions at different areas of the tissue were recorded at an average beating rate of 67 beats/min. In addition, positive cardiac markers (Troponin T), Fibroblast (vemintin), and mesenchymal stem cells (CD90) were detected. Not only that, but by week 3, MSC started differentiating to cardiac cells progressively until few CD90 positive cells were very few by week 6 with increasing troponin t positive cells in parallel. Electrophysiological and drug studies were difficult to obtain due to tissue thickness and limited assessment sources. However, the same construct was established using small intestine submucosa (SISer) scaffold, which recorded a spontaneous beating rate between 0.88 and 1.2 Hz, a conduction velocity of 23.9 ± 0.74 cm s−1, and a maximal contraction force of 0.453 ± 0.015 mN. Moreover, electrophysiological studies demonstrated a drug-dependent response on beating rate; a higher adrenalin frequency was revealed in comparison to the untreated tissue and isoproterenol administration, whereas a decrease in beating rate was observed with propranolol and untreated tissue.
The present study demonstrated the establishment of vascularized cardiac tissue, which can be used for human clinical application.