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The eukaryotic parasite Trypanosoma brucei has evolved sophisticated strategies to persist within its mammalian host. Trypanosomes evade the hosts' immune system by antigenic variation of their surface coat, consisting of variant surface glycoproteins (VSGs). Out of a repertoire of thousands of VSG genes, only one is expressed at any given time from one of the 15 telomeric expression sites (ES). The VSG is stochastically exchanged either by a transcriptional switch of the active ES (in situ switch) or by a recombinational exchange of the VSG within the active ES. However, for infections to persist, the parasite burden has to be limited. The slender (sl) bloodstream form secretes the stumpy induction factor (SIF), which accumulates with rising parasitemia. SIF induces the irreversible developmental transition from the proliferative sl to the cell cycle-arrested but fly-infective stumpy (st) stage once a concentration threshold is reached. Thus, antigenic variation and st development ensure persistent infections and transmissibility. A previous study in monomorphic cells indicated that the attenuation of the active ES could be relevant for the development of trypanosomes. The present thesis investigated this hypothesis using the inducible overexpression of an ectopic VSG in pleomorphic trypanosomes, which possess full developmental competence. These studies revealed a surprising phenotypic plasticity: while the endogenous VSG was always down-regulated upon induction, the ESactivity determined whether the VSG overexpressors arrested in growth or kept proliferating. Full ES-attenuation induced the differentiation of bona fide st parasites independent of the cell density and thus represents the sole natural SIF-independent differentiation trigger to date. A milder decrease of the ES-activity did not induce phenotypic changes, but appeared to prime the parasites for SIF-induced differentiation. These results demonstrate that antigenic variation and development are linked and indicated that the ES and the VSG are independently regulated. Therefore, I investigated in the second part of my thesis how ES-attenuation and VSG-silencing can be mediated. Integration of reporters with a functional or defective VSG 3'UTR into different genomic loci showed that the maintenance of the active state of the ES depends on a conserved motif within the VSG 3'UTR. In situ switching was only triggered when the telomere-proximal motif was partially deleted, suggesting that it serves as a DNA-binding motif for a telomere-associated protein. The VSG levels seem to be additionally regulated in trans based on the VSG 3'UTR independent of the genomic context, which was reinforced by the regulation of a constitutively expressed reporter with VSG 3' UTR upon ectopic VSG overexpression.
Mit jährlich circa 11 Millionen Fällen weltweit, stellen schwere Brandwunden bis heute einen großen Anteil an Verletzungen dar, die in Kliniken behandelt werden müssen. Während leichte Verbrennungen meist problemlos heilen, bedarf die Behandlung tieferer Verbrennungen medizinischer Intervention. Zellbasierte Therapeutika zeigen hier bereits große Erfolge, aufgrund der eingeschränkten Übertragbarkeit von Ergebnissen aus Tiermodellen ist jedoch sowohl die Testung neuer Produkte, als auch die Erforschung der Wundheilung bei Brandwunden noch immer schwierig.
Aufgrund dessen wurden in dieser Arbeit zwei Ziele verfolgt: Die Etablierung von Methoden, um ein zellbasiertes Therapeutikum produzieren zu können und die Entwicklung eines Modells zur Untersuchung von Verbrennungswunden. Zunächst wurden hierfür die Kulturbedingungen und -protokolle zur Isolation und Expansion von Keratinozyten so angepasst, dass sie gängigen Regularien zur Produktion medizinischer Produkte entsprechen. Hier zeigten die Zellen auch in anschließenden Analysen, dass charakteristische Merkmale nicht verloren hatten. Darüber hinaus gelang es, die Zellen mithilfe verschiedener protektiver Substanzen erfolgreich einzufrieren und zu konservieren.
Des Weiteren konnte ein Modell etabliert werden, das eine Verbrennung ersten Grades widerspiegelt. Über einen Zeitraum von zwei Wochen wurde seine Regeneration hinsichtlich verschiedener Aspekte, wie der Histomorphologie, dem Metabolismus und der Reepithelialisierungsrate, untersucht. Die Modelle zeigten hier viele Parallelen zur Wundheilung in vivo auf. Um die Eignung der Modelle zur Testung von Wirkstoffen zu ermitteln wurde außerdem eine Behandlung mit 5% Dexpanthenol getestet. Sie resultierte in einer verbesserten Histomorphologie und einer erhöhten Anzahl an proliferativen Zellen in den Modellen, beschleunigte jedoch die Reepithelialisierung nicht. Zusammengefasst konnten in dieser Arbeit zunächst Methoden etabliert werden, um ein medizinisches Produkt aus Keratinozyten herzustellen und zu charakterisieren. Außerdem wurde ein Modell entwickelt, anhand dessen die Wundheilung und Behandlung von Verbrennungen ersten Grades untersucht werden kann und welches als Basis zur Entwicklung von Modellen von tieferen Verbrennungen dienen kann.
Structure and dynamics of the plasma membrane: a single-molecule study in \(Trypanosoma\) \(brucei\)
(2024)
The unicellular, flagellated parasite Trypanosoma brucei is the causative agent of human African sleeping sickness and nagana in livestock. In the last decades, it has become an established eukaryotic model organism in the field of biology, as well as in the interdisciplinary field of biophysics. For instance, the dense variant surface glycoprotein (VSG) coat offers the possibility to study the dynamics of GPI-anchored proteins in the plasma membrane of living cells. The fluidity of the VSG coat is not only an interesting object of study for its own sake, but is critically important for the survival of the parasite in the mammalian host. In order to maintain the integrity of the coat, the entire VSG coat is recycled within a few minutes. This is surprisingly fast for a purely diffusive process with the flagellar pocket (FP) as the sole site for endo- and exocytosis. Previous studies characterising VSG dynamics using FRAP reported diffusion coefficients that were not sufficient to to enable fast turnover based on passive VSG randomisation on the trypanosome surface.
In this thesis, live-cell single-molecule fluorescence microscopy (SMFM) was employed to elucidate whether VSG diffusion coefficients were priorly underestimated or whether directed forces could be involved to bias VSGs towards the entrance of the FP. Embedding the highly motile trypanosomes in thermo-stable hydrogels facilitated the investigation of VSG dynamics on living trypanosomes at the mammalian host's temperature of 37°C. To allow for a spatial correlation of the VSG dynamics to the FP entrance, a cell line was employed harbouring a fluorescently labelled structure as a reference. Sequential two-colour SMFM was then established to allow for recording and registration of the dynamic and static single-molecule information.
In order to characterise VSG dynamics, an algorithm to obtain reliable information from short trajectories was adapted (shortTrAn). It allowed for the quantification of the local dynamics in two distinct scenarios: diffusion and directed motion. The adaptation of the algorithm to the VSG data sets required the introduction of an additional projection filter. The algorithm was further extended to take into account the localisation errors inherent to single-particle tracking. The results of the quantification of diffusion and directed motion were presented in maps of the trypanosome surface, including an outline generated from a super-resolved static structure as a reference. Information on diffusion was displayed in one map, an ellipse plot. The colour code represented the local diffusion coefficient, while the shape of the ellipses provided an indication of the diffusion behaviour (aniso- or isotropic diffusion). The eccentricity of the ellipses was used to quantify deviations from isotropic diffusion. Information on directed motion was shown in three maps: A velocity map, representing the amplitude of the local velocities in a colour code. A quiver plot, illustrating the orientation of directed motion, and a third map which indicated the relative standard error of the local velocities colour-coded. Finally, a guideline based on random walk simulations was used to identify which of the two motion scenarios dominated locally. Application of the guideline to the VSG dynamics analysed by shortTrAn yielded supermaps that showed the locally dominant motion mode colour-coded.
I found that VSG dynamics are dominated by diffusion, but several times faster than previously determined. The diffusion behaviour was additionally characterised by spatial heterogeneity. Moreover, isolated regions exhibiting the characteristics of round and elongated traps were observed on the cell surface. Additionally, VSG dynamics were studied with respect to the entrance of the FP. VSG dynamics in this region displayed similar characteristics compared to the remainder of the cell surface and forces biasing VSGs into the FP were not found.
Furthermore, I investigated a potential interference of the attachment of the cytoskeleton to the plasma membrane with the dynamics of VSGs which are anchored to the outer leaflet of the membrane. Preliminary experiments were conducted on osmotically swollen trypanosomes and trypanosomes depleted for a microtubule-associated protein anchoring the subpellicular microtubule cytoskeleton to the plasma membrane. The measurements revealed a trend that detachment of the cytoskeleton could be associated with a reduction in the VSG diffusion coefficient and a loss of elongated traps. The latter could be an indication that these isolated regions were caused by underlying structures associated with the cytoskeleton.
The measurements on cells with an intact cytoskeleton were complemented by random walk simulations of VSG dynamics with the newly determined diffusion coefficient on long time scales not accessible in experiments. Simulations showed that passive VSG randomisation is fast enough to allow for a turnover of the full VSG coat within a few minutes. According to an estimate based on the known rate of endocytosis and the newly determined VSG diffusion coefficient, the majority of exocytosed VSGs could escape from the FP to the cell surface without being immediately re-endocytosed.
Analysis of \(Trypanosoma\) \(brucei\) motility and the infection process in the tsetse fly vector
(2021)
African trypanosomes are protist pathogens that are infective for a wide spectrum of mammalian hosts. Motility has been shown to be essential for their survival and represents an important virulence factor. Trypanosoma brucei is transmitted by the bite of the bloodsucking tsetse fly, the only vector for these parasites. The voyage through the fly is complex and requires several migration, proliferation and differentiation steps, which take place in a defined order and in specific fly tissues.
The first part of this doctoral thesis deals with the establishment of the trypanosome tsetse system as a new model for microswimmer analysis. There is an increasing interdisciplinary interest in microbial motility, but a lack of accessible model systems. Therefore, this work introduces the first enclosed in vivo host parasite system that is suitable for analysis of diverse microswimmer types in specific microenvironments. Several methods were used and adapted to gain unprecedented insights into trypanosome motion, the fly´s interior architecture and the physical interaction between host and parasite. This work provides a detailed overview on trypanosome motile behavior as a function of development in diverse host surroundings. In additional, the potential use of artificial environments is shown. This can be used to partly abstract the complex fly architecture and analyze trypanosome motion in defined nature inspired geometries.
In the second part of the thesis, the infection of the tsetse fly is under investigation. Two different trypanosome forms exist in the blood: proliferative slender cells and cell cycle arrested stumpy cells. Previous literature states that stumpy cells are pre adapted to survive inside the fly, whereas slender cells die shortly after ingestion. However, infection experiments in our laboratory showed that slender cells were also potentially infective. During this work, infections were set up so as to minimize the possibility of stumpy cells being ingested, corroborating the observation that slender cells are able to infect flies. Using live cell microscopy and fluorescent reporter cell lines, a comparative analysis of the early development following infection with either slender or stumpy cells was performed. The experiments showed, for the first time, the survival of slender trypanosomes and their direct differentiation to the procyclic midgut stage, contradicting the current view in the field of research. Therefore, we can shift perspectives in trypanosome biology by proposing a revised life cycle model of T. brucei, where both bloodstream stages are infective for the vector.
Many arthropods such as mosquitoes, ticks, bugs, and flies are vectors for the transmission of pathogenic parasites, bacteria, and viruses. Among these, the unicellular parasite Trypanosoma brucei (T. brucei) causes human and animal African trypanosomiases and is transmitted to the vertebrate host by the tsetse fly. In the fly, the parasite goes through a complex developmental cycle in the alimentary tract and salivary glands ending with the cellular differentiation into the metacyclic life cycle stage. An infection in the mammalian host begins when the fly takes a bloodmeal, thereby depositing the metacyclic form into the dermal skin layer. Within the dermis, the cell cycle-arrested metacyclic forms are activated, re-enter the cell cycle, and differentiate into proliferative trypanosomes, prior to dissemination throughout the host.
Although T. brucei has been studied for decades, very little is known about the early events in the skin prior to systemic dissemination. The precise timing and the mechanisms controlling differentiation of the parasite in the skin continue to be elusive, as does the characterization of the proliferative skin-residing trypanosomes. Understanding the first steps of an infection is crucial for developing novel strategies to prevent disease establishment and its progression.
A major shortcoming in the study of human African trypanosomiasis is the lack of suitable infection models that authentically mimic disease progression. In addition, the production of infectious metacyclic parasites requires tsetse flies, which are challenging to keep. Thus, although animal models - typically murine - have produced many insights into the pathogenicity of trypanosomes in the mammalian host, they were usually infected by needle injection into the peritoneal cavity or tail vein, bypassing the skin as the first entry point. Furthermore, animal models are not always predictive for the infection outcome in human patients. In addition, the relatively small number of metacyclic parasites deposited by the tsetse flies makes them difficult to trace, isolate, and study in animal hosts.
The focus of this thesis was to develop and validate a reconstructed human skin equivalent as an infection model to study the development of naturally-transmitted metacyclic parasites of T. brucei in mammalian skin. The first part of this work describes the development and characterization of a primary human skin equivalent with improved mechanical properties. To achieve this, a computer-assisted compression system was designed and established. This system allowed the improvement of the mechanical stability of twelve collagen-based dermal equivalents in parallel through plastic compression, as evaluated by rheology. The improved dermal equivalents provided the basis for the generation of the skin equivalents and reduced their contraction and weight loss during tissue formation, achieving a high degree of standardization and reproducibility. The skin equivalents were characterized using immunohistochemical and histological techniques and recapitulated key anatomical, cellular, and functional aspects of native human skin. Furthermore, their cellular heterogeneity was examined using single-cell RNA sequencing - an approach which led to the identification of a remarkable repertoire of extracellular matrix-associated genes expressed by different cell subpopulations in the artificial skin. In addition, experimental conditions were established to allow tsetse flies to naturally infect the skin equivalents with trypanosomes.
In the second part of the project, the development of the trypanosomes in the artificial skin was investigated in detail. This included the establishment of methods to successfully isolate skin-dwelling trypanosomes to determine their protein synthesis rate, cell cycle and metabolic status, morphology, and transcriptome. Microscopy techniques to study trypanosome motility and migration in the skin were also optimized. Upon deposition in the artificial skin by feeding tsetse, the metacyclic parasites were rapidly activated and established a proliferative population within one day. This process was accompanied by: (I) reactivation of protein synthesis; (II) re-entry into the cell cycle; (III) change in morphology; (IV) increased motility. Furthermore, these observations were linked to potentially underlying developmental mechanisms by applying single-cell parasite RNA sequencing at five different timepoints post-infection.
After the initial proliferative phase, the tsetse-transmitted trypanosomes appeared to enter a reversible quiescence program in the skin. These quiescent skin-residing trypanosomes were characterized by very slow replication, a strongly reduced metabolism, and a transcriptome markedly different from that of the deposited metacyclic forms and the early proliferative trypanosomes. By mimicking the migration from the skin to the bloodstream, the quiescent phenotype could be reversed and the parasites returned to an active proliferating state. Given that previous work has identified the skin as an anatomical reservoir for T. brucei during disease, it is reasonable to assume that the quiescence program is an authentic facet of the parasite's behavior in an infected host.
In summary, this work demonstrates that primary human skin equivalents offer a new and promising way to study vector-borne parasites under close-to-natural conditions as an alternative to animal experimentation. By choosing the natural transmission route - the bite of an infected tsetse fly - the early events of trypanosome infection have been detailed with unprecedented resolution. In addition, the evidence here for a quiescent, skin-residing trypanosome population may explain the persistence of T. brucei in the skin of aparasitemic and asymptomatic individuals. This could play an important role in maintaining an infection over long time periods.
Gastroesophageal junction (GEJ), demarcating the region where the distal esophagus meets with the proximal stomach region, is known for developing pathological conditions, including metaplasia and esophageal adenocarcinoma (EAC). It is essential to understand the mechanisms of developmental stages which lead to EAC since the incidence rate of EAC increased over 7-fold during the past four decades, and the overall five years survival rate is 18.4%. In most cases, patients are diagnosed in the advanced stage without prior symptoms. The main precursor for the development of EAC is a pre-malignant condition called Barrett's esophagus (BE). BE is the metaplastic condition where the multilayered squamous epithelium of the native esophagus is replaced by specialized single-layered columnar epithelium, which shows the molecular characteristics of the gastric as well as intestinal epithelium. The main risk factors for BE development include chronic gastro-esophageal acid reflux disease (GERD), altered microbiota, and altered retinoic acid signaling (RA). The cell of origin of BE is under debate due to a lack of clear evidence demonstrating the process of BE initiation. Here, I investigated how GEJ homeostasis is maintained in healthy tissue by stem cell regulatory morphogens, the role of vitamin A (RA signaling), and how its alteration contributes to BE development.
In the first part of my thesis, I showed the presence of two types of epithelial cells, the squamous type in the esophagus and the columnar type in the stomach region in the GEJ, using single-molecule RNA in situ hybridization (smRNA-ISH) and immunohistochemistry. Employing lineage tracing in the mouse model, I have demonstrated that the esophageal epithelial and stomach epithelial cells derived from two distinct epithelial stem cell lineages in the GEJ. The border between squamous and columnar epithelial cells in the Squamo-columnar junction (SCJ) of GEJ is regulated by opposing Wnt microenvironments. The regeneration of stomach columnar epithelial stem cells is maintained by Wnt activating signal from the stromal compartment while squamous epithelial stem cells of the esophagus are maintained by the Wnt inhibitory signals. I recapitulated the in vivo GEJ epithelial stem cell maintenance by using in vitro epithelial 3D organoid culture model. The growth and propagation of stomach columnar epithelial organoids depend on Wnt growth factors, while squamous epithelial organoids' development needs Wnt-deficient culture conditions.
Further, single-cell RNA sequence (scRNA-seq) analysis of organoid-derived epithelial cells revealed the non-canonical Wnt/ planar cell polarity (PCP) pathway involvement in regulating the squamous epithelial cells. In contrast, columnar stomach epithelial cells are regulated by the canonical Wnt/ beta-catenin and non-canonical Wnt/Ca2+ pathways. My data indicate that the SCJ epithelial cells that merge at the GEJ are regulated by opposing stromal Wnt factors and distinct Wnt pathway signaling in the epithelial cells.
In the second part of the thesis, I investigated the role of Vitamin A-derived bioactive compound RA on esophageal and stomach epithelial stem cells. In vitro treatment of esophageal and stomach, epithelial organoids with RA or its pharmacological inhibitor BMS 493 revealed that each cell type was regulated distinctly. I observed that enhanced RA promoted esophageal stem cell differentiation and loss of stratification, while RA inhibition led to enhanced stemness and regeneration of the esophagus stratified epithelium. As opposed to the esophagus, RA signaling is active in the stomach organoids, and inhibition of RA reduces the growth of stomach organoids. Global transcriptomic data and scRNA-seq data revealed that RA signaling induces dormancy phenotype in the esophageal cells. In contrast, the absence of RA in stomach epithelial cells induces the expression of genes associated with BE. Thus, spatially defined regulation of Wnt and RA signaling at GEJ is critical for healthy homeostasis, and its perturbation leads to disease development.
Antigenic variation of surface proteins is a commonly used strategy among pathogens to evade the host immune response [63]. The mechanism underlying antigenic variation relies on monoallelic exclusion of a single gene from a hypervariable multigene family combined with repeated, systematic changes in antigen expression. In many systems, these gene families are arranged in subtelomeric contingency loci that are subject to both transcriptional repression and enhanced mutagenesis and recombination [16].
Eviction of a selected gene from a repressed antigen repertoire can be achieved e.g. by recombination into a dedicated, transcriptionally permissive site or by local epigenetic alterations in chromatin composition of the selected gene.
Both processes are ultimately affected by genome architecture. Architectural proteins controlling antigenic variation have, however, remained elusive in any pathogen.
The unicellular protozoan parasite Trypanosoma brucei evades the host immune response by periodically changing expression of a single variant surface glycoprotein (VSG) from a repertoire of ~3000 VSG genes – the largest mutually exclusively expressed gene family described today. To activate a selected VSG gene, it needs to be located in a dedicated expression site that becomes subject to relocation into a distinct, transcriptionally active subnuclear compartment, the expression site body (ESB). Whereas this emphasizes the importance of nuclear architecture in regulating antigen expression in T. brucei, the mechanisms underlying spatial positioning of DNA in T. brucei are not well understood.
In this study I applied genome-wide chromosome conformation capture (Hi-C) to obtain a comprehensive picture of the T. brucei genome in three dimensions, both in procyclic and bloodstream form parasites. Hi-C revealed a highly structured nucleus with megabase chromosomes occupying distinct chromosome territories. Further, specific trans interactions between chromosomes, among which are clusters of centromeres, rRNA genes and procyclins became apparent. With respect to antigenic variation, Hi-C revealed a striking compaction of the subtelomeric VSG gene repertoire and a strong clustering of transcriptionally repressed VSG-containing expression sites. Further, Hi-C analyses confirmed the spatial separation of the actively transcribed from the silenced expression sites in three dimensions.
I further sought to characterize architectural proteins mediating nuclear architecture in T. brucei. Whereas CTCF is absent in non-metazoans, we found cohesin to be expressed throughout the cell cycle, emphasizing a function beyond sister chromatid cohesion in S-phase.
By Chromatin-Immunoprecipitation with sequencing (ChIPseq), I found cohesin enrichment to coincide with the presence of histone H3 vari- ant (H3.V) and H4 variant (H4.V). Most importantly, cohesin and the histone variants were enriched towards the VSG gene at silent and active expression sites.
While the deletion of H3.V led to increased clustering of expression sites in three dimensions and increased chromatin accessibility at expression site promoters, the additional deletion of H4.V increased chromatin accessibility at expression sits even further.
RNAseq showed that mutually exclusive VSG expression was lost in H3.V and H4.V single and double deletion mutants. Immunofluorescence imaging of surface VSGs, flow cytometry and single-cell RNAseq revealed a progressive loss of VSG-2 expression, indicative of an increase in VSG switching rate in the H3.V/H4.V double deletion mutants. Using long-read sequencing technology, we found that VSG switching occurred via recombination and concluded, that the concomitant increase in spatial proximity and accessibility among expression sites facilitated the recombination event.
I therefore identified the histone variants H3.V and H4.V to act at the interface of global nuclear architecture and chromatin accessibility and to represent a link between genome architecture and antigenic variation.
African trypanosomes are the causative agents of fatal diseases in humans and livestock. Trypanosomes show a complex lifecycle and shuttle between the transmitting vector, the tsetse (Glossina spec.), and the mammalian host. As a result of this the parasite undergoes tremendous changes in morphology and metabolism to adapt to the different living environments.
The two best-studied lifecycle stages are the procyclic forms (PCF) that live in the tsetse fly and the proliferative bloodstream form (BSF) that resides in the mammalian blood. The most conspicuous weapon that trypanosomes use to evade the host immune attack is a dense layer of a single protein type, the variant surface glycoprotein (VSG), which shields the entire cell surface. Immune evasion required high rates of surface membrane turnover and surface coat recycling.
Trypanosomes show highly polarised cell architecture with all major eukaryotic organelles (endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, endosomal apparatus, lysosome, mitochondrion and peroxisome-like glycosomes) generally present in single copy. Furthermore, trypanosomes possess a single flagellum, which is important not only for cellular motility but also for cell division.
How the duplication of all these cellular components is coordinated in order to progresss through the cell division cycle is poorly understood.
We used trypanosomes as a model organism due to the relative simplicity and the polarised nature of their cell architecture and determined the duplication of all their compartments. This was only possible due to a new synchronisation approach developed during this project.
In the first part of the thesis a precise temporal map of the cell division cycle of the BSF T. brucei cell division cycle was generated. By the use of well-described morphological markers (K/N status, new flagellum outgrowth and DNA synthesis) the position of individual cells was determined with high temporal resolution; this allowed us for the first time to synchronise a cell population in silico without affecting the naturally asynchronous growth.
In the second part of the thesis we used this tool to follow duplication events of the Major organelles during progression through the cell division cycle. We precisely determined the time points of organelle duplication and found that it is ordered in trypanosomes. Furthermore we found that BSF T. brucei cells do not grow continuously, cell size start to increase rapidly, during a short period of time, late in the cell division cycle. We speculate that the initiation of cell volume increase is temporally separated from the formation of all secretory organelles in order to ensure maintenance of the protective coat, which must remain intact at all times in order for BSF trypanosomes to be able to evade the host immune response.
Die Diffusion von Membranproteinen spielt bei einer Vielzahl von zellbiologischen Prozessen eine zentrale Rolle. So hat die Beweglichkeit von Glykosyl-Phosphatidyl-Inositol-(GPI-) verankerten Proteinen zum Beispiel eine tragende Funktion bei der Alzheimer Krankheit, der Creutzfeldt-Jacob Krankheit und der Afrikanischen Schlafkrankheit. Der Erreger der Afrikanischen Schlafkrankheit, Trypanosoma brucei spec., präsentiert auf
seiner Zelloberfläche einen dichten Mantel aus identischen GPI-verankerten Proteinen. Diese sogenannten Variant Surface Glycoproteins (VSGs) stellen den zentralen Pathogenitätsfaktor der Trypanosomen im Blutstrom des Wirtes dar und ermöglichen dem Parasiten die Antigene Variation. Während der Antigenen Variation wird der VSGMantel durch einen immunologisch distinkten Mantel ersetzt. Hierfür ist die Diffusion der VSG essentiell. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wird die Diffusion des VSG in lebenden Trypanosomen und in artifiziellen Membranen systematisch untersucht. Auf diese Weise werden der Einfluss der lateralen Proteindichte, der N-Glykosylierung und der Proteingröße auf die Diffusion der GPI-verankerten Proteine charakterisiert. Die Mobilität des VSG auf lebenden Trypanosomen ist an der Grenze zu einem Diffusionsschwellenwert, dieser wird allerdings nicht überschritten. Die Mobilität des VSG in der Nähe des Diffusionsschwellenwertes wird durch die N-Glykosylierung der VSG ermöglicht. Außerdem kann gezeigt werden, dass die Größe der Proteine einen entscheidenden Einfluss auf den Diffusionskoeffizienten der GPI-verankerten Proteine ausübt. Zusammengefasst zeigen die Ergebnisse der vorliegenden Arbeit deutlich, dass der VSG-Mantel der Trypanosomen ein, an seine Anforderungen, hoch-adaptiertes System darstellt. Würde entweder die laterale Dichte, die N-Glykosylierung oder die Größe der Proteine beeinträchtigt werden, so wäre die Funktion der Antigenen Variation gestört und die Pathogenität des Parasiten gefährdet. Da die lokale Verteilung von GPI-verankerten Proteinen in biologischen Membranen ein wichtiges funktionelles Konzept darstellt, ist der Einfluss der untersuchten Faktoren nicht nur für den VSG-Mantel relevant, sondern kann auch für das generelle Verständnis
der Dynamik von Proteinen in zellulären Membranen dienen.
Bedeutung der NO-sensitiven Guanylyl Cyclase bei der Angiogenese und der Arteriogenese in der Maus
(2014)
Stickstoffmonoxid (NO) spielt eine wichtige Rolle bei Gefäßremodelling-Prozessen wie Angiogenese und Arteriogenese. Die NO-Synthese im Gefäßsystem wird hauptsächlich durch die endotheliale NO-Synthase (eNOS) gewährleistet. Sie kann durch verschiedene Faktoren wie Scherkräfte und Zytokine wie der vaskuläre endotheliale Wachstumsfaktor (VEGF) reguliert werden. VEGF ist ein wichtiger Stimulator der Angiogenese und wird während dieses Prozesses hochreguliert. Die meisten physiologischen Effekte von NO werden durch die NO-sensitive Guanylyl-Cyclase (NO-GC) vermittelt. Als Hauptrezeptor für NO produziert die NO-GC den sekundären Botenstoff cyklisches Guanosinmonophosphat (cGMP) und führt dadurch zur Stimulation der verschiedenen Effektoren wie z.B. der PKG. Ob die Wirkung von NO in Angiogenese und Arteriogenese ebenfalls durch NO-GC vermittelt wird, war bis zum Beginn dieser Arbeit noch unklar.
Die NO-GC besteht aus zwei Untereinheiten (α und ß). Die Deletion der ß1-Untereinheit in Mäusen resultiert in einer vollständigen Knockout Maus (GCKO). Mithilfe des Cre-LoxP-Systems wurden zusätzlich zellspezifische Knockout-Mäuse für glatte Muskelzellen (SMC-GCKO) und Endothelzellen (EC-GCKO) generiert. Um die Rolle der NO-GC in der Angiogenese und Arteriogenese zu untersuchen, wurden drei gut etablierte Methoden benutzt.
Im ersten Teil des Projekts sollte die Expression der NO-GC in Endothelzellen untersucht werden. Zu diesem Zweck wurde die reverse Transkriptase-Polymerase-Kettenreaktion (RT-PCR) benutzt. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass die NO-GC in Endothelzellen der Lunge nur äußerst gering wenig exprimiert ist. Durch den Aortenring-Assay wurde eine Rolle der NO-GC bei der VEGF-vermittelten Angiogenese festgestellt. Dabei zeigte sich eine stärkere Angiogeneserate bei globaler Abwesenheit der NO-GC. Bei Fehlen der NO-GC ausschließlich in Endothelzellen zeigte sich kein Unterschied in den aussprossenden Aorten im Vergleich zu den Kontroll-Tieren. Dies zeigt, dass die NO-GC in Endothelzellen sehr wahrscheinlich keine Rolle bei der VEGF-vermittelten Angiogenese spielt.
Im zweiten Teil wurde die Rolle der NO-GC bei der Angiogenese in einem in vivo-Modell untersucht. In dem Modell der Sauerstoff-induzierten-Retinopathie zeigten die GCKO-Mäuse eine verringerte Vaso-Obliteration, eine verlangsamte Angiogenese und eine erhöhte Tuft-Bildung. Ähnliche Ergebnisse wurden bei den SMC-GCKO-Tieren beobachtet. EC-GCKO-Mäuse zeigten eine gegenüber den Kontroll-Tieren unveränderte Vaso-Obliteration, Angiogeneserate und Tuft-Bildung. Diese Ergebnisse lassen darauf schließen, dass die NO-GC in Endothelzellen keine Rolle spielt. Immunfluoreszenz-Aufnahmen zeigten die Expression von NO-GC in Perizyten der Gefäßkapillaren der Mausretina. Daher könnte die NO-GC in diesem Zelltyp letztendlich für die Effekte bei den GCKO- und SMC-GCKO-Tieren verantwortlich sein.
Im letzten Teil dieser Arbeit wurde eine Versuchsreihe unter Anwendung des Hinterlauf-Ischämie-Modells durchgeführt. Hierbei entwickelten die Pfoten aller GCKO- und teilweise der SMC-GCKO-Tiere nach der Ligation der Femoralarterie eine Nekrose. Die Regeneration der Hinterläufe der EC-GCKO-Tiere nach der Operation verlief normal. Diese Ergebnisse schließen eine bedeutende Rolle der NO-GC in Endothelzellen aus, zeigen allerdings, dass die NO-GC in den glatten Muskelzellen essentiell für den Arteriogenese-Prozess ist.
Zusammengefasst führt die Deletion der NO-GC in glatten Muskelzellen und wahrscheinlich auch in Perizyten zur einer verlangsamten Angiogenese und Inhibierung der Arteriogenese.