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The Notch signaling pathway is crucial for mammalian heart development. It controls cell-fate decisions, coordinates patterning processes and regulates proliferation and differentiation. Critical Notch effectors are Hey bHLH transcription factors (TF) that are expressed in atrial (Hey1) and ventricular (Hey2) cardiomyocytes (CM) and in the developing endocardium (Hey1/2/L). The importance of Hey proteins for cardiac development is demonstrated by knockout (KO) mice, which suffer from lethal cardiac defects, such as ventricular septum defects (VSD), valve defects and cardiomyopathy. Despite this clear functional relevance, little is known about Hey downstream targets in the heart and the molecular mechanism by which they are regulated.
Here, I use a cell culture system with inducible Hey1, Hey2 or HeyL expression to study Hey target gene regulation in HEK293 cells, in murine embryonic stem cells (ESC) and in ESC derived CM. In HEK293 cells, I could show that genome wide binding sites largely overlap between all three Hey proteins, but HeyL has many additional binding sites that are not bound by Hey1 or Hey2. Shared binding sites are located close to transcription start sites (TSS) where Hey proteins preferentially bind to canonical E boxes, although more loosely defined modes of binding exist. Additional sites only bound by HeyL are more scattered across the genome. The ability of HeyL to bind these sites depends on the C-terminal part of the protein. Although there are genes which are differently regulated by HeyL, it is unclear whether this regulation results from binding of additional sites by HeyL.
Additionally, Hey target gene regulation was studied in ESC and differentiated CM, which are more relevant for the observed cardiac phenotypes. ESC derived CM contract in culture and are positive for typical cardiac markers by qRT PCR and staining. According to these markers differentiation is unaffected by prolonged Hey1 or Hey2 overexpression. Regulated genes are largely redundant between Hey1 and Hey2. These are mainly other TF involved in e.g. developmental processes, apoptosis, cell migration and cell cycle. Many target genes are cell type specifically regulated causing a shift in Hey repression of genes involved in cell migration in ESC to repression of genes involved in cell cycle in CM.
The number of Hey binding sites is reduced in CM and HEK293 cells compared to ESC, most likely due to more regions of dense chromatin in differentiated cells. Binding sites are enriched at the proximal promoters of down-regulated genes, compared to up-or non-regulated genes. This indicates that up-regulation primarily results from indirect effects, while down-regulation is the direct results of Hey binding to target promoters. The extent of repression generally correlates with the amount of Hey binding and subsequent recruitment of histone deacetylases (Hdac) to target promoters resulting in histone H3 deacetylation.
However, in CM the repressive effect of Hey binding on a subset of genes can be annulled, likely due to binding of cardiac specific activators like Srf, Nkx2-5 and Gata4. These factors seem not to interfere with Hey binding in CM, but they recruit histone acetylases such as p300 that may counteract Hey mediated histone H3 deacetylation. Such a scenario explains differential regulation of Hey target genes between ESC and CM resulting in gene and cell-type specific regulation.
In contrast to c-Myc, a deregulated expression of the MYCN gene is restricted to human neuroendocrine tumours. In most cases, the excessive activity of N-Myc results from a MYCN amplification. In neuroblastoma, amplification of MYCN is a predictor of poor prognosis and resistance to therapy. The inability to target the N-Myc protein directly necessitates the search for alternative targets. This project aimed at identifying genes specifically required for growth and survival of cells that express high levels of N-Myc using high-throughput shRNA screening combined with next generation sequencing. The identification and analysis of these genes will shed light on functional interaction partners of N-Myc.
We screened a shRNA library containing 18,327 shRNAs and identified 148 shRNAs, which were selectively depleted in the presence of active N-Myc. In addition, shRNAs targeting genes that are involved in p53 and ARF turnover and apoptosis were depleted in the cell population during the screen. These processes are known to affect N-Myc-mediated apoptosis. Consequently, these results biologically validated the screen. The 148 shRNAs that showed a significant synthetic lethal interaction with high levels of N-Myc expression were further analysed using the bioinformatics program DAVID. We found an enrichment of shRNAs that target genes involved in specific biological processes. For example, we validated synthetic lethal interactions for genes such as, THOC1, NUP153 and LARP7, which play an important role in the process of RNA polymerase II-mediated transcription elongation. We also validated genes that are involved in the neddylation pathway.
In the screen we identified Cullin 3, which is a component of the BTB-CUL3-Rbx1 ubiquitin ligase that is involved in the turnover of Cyclin E. Depletion of cullin 3 and activation of N-Myc was found to synergistically increase Cyclin E expression to supraphysiological levels, inducing S-phase arrest and a strong DNA damage response.
Together with results from a proteomics analysis of N-Myc associated proteins, our results lead us to the following hypothesis: In a neuroblastoma cell, the high levels of N-Myc result in a conflict between RNA polymerase II and the replication machinery during S-phase. The newly identified interaction partners of N- Myc are required to solve this conflict. Consequently, loss of the interaction leads to a massive DNA damage and the induction of apoptosis. In addition, inhibition or depletion of the essential components of the neddylation pathway also results in an unresolvable problem during S-phase.