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Institute
- Graduate School of Life Sciences (1034)
- Theodor-Boveri-Institut für Biowissenschaften (101)
- Rudolf-Virchow-Zentrum (70)
- Medizinische Fakultät (44)
- Institut für Pharmakologie und Toxikologie (39)
- Institut für Virologie und Immunbiologie (35)
- Institut für Psychologie (34)
- Institut für Molekulare Infektionsbiologie (33)
- Klinik und Poliklinik für Psychiatrie, Psychosomatik und Psychotherapie (29)
- Julius-von-Sachs-Institut für Biowissenschaften (25)
Sonstige beteiligte Institutionen
- Helmholtz Institute for RNA-based Infection Research (HIRI) (7)
- Universitätsklinikum Münster (3)
- Rudolf Virchow Center for Integrative and Translational Bioimaging, University of Würzburg (2)
- Zentrum für Infektionsforschung (ZINF) Würzburg (2)
- Bio-Imaging Center Würzburg (1)
- Biomedical Center Munich, Department of Physiological Chemistry, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (1)
- CAPES - Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - the development agency of the Brazilian Federal Government (1)
- CBIO, University of Cape Town, South Africa (1)
- Carl-Ludwig-Institut für Physiologie, Universität Leipzig (1)
- Chair of Experimental Biomedicine I (1)
The ubiquitination of proteins controls a multitude of physiological processes. This versatility of ubiquitin as a molecular signal arises from the diverse ways by which it can be attached to target proteins. Different ubiquitination patterns are then translated into different downstream consequences. Due to the enormous complexity of possible ubiquitin modifications, the ubiquitination machinery must be highly specific and tightly controlled. Ubiquitination proceeds through an enzymatic cascade, the last step of which is catalyzed by the E3 enzyme family. E3 enzymes are the crucial regulators since they dictate the specificity of substrate selection and modification.
Deregulation of the HECT-type ubiquitin ligase E6AP (UBE3A) is implicated in human papilloma virus-induced cervical tumorigenesis and several neurodevelopmental disorders. Yet the structural underpinnings of activity, regulation and specificity in this crucial ligase are incompletely understood.
One aim of this study was to unravel the role of the a1’-helix N-terminal to the HECT domain that was found to be a key element mediating regulation and oligomerization in other HECT ligases. I found that most N-terminally extended HECT domain constructs were insoluble when expressed in E. coli, indicating that additional regions N-terminal to the tested fragments may be essential to protect this highly hydrophobic helix from causing aggregation.
Another question addressed in this study was how E6AP builds ubiquitin chains. Using single-turnover experiments, I showed that ubiquitin-loaded E6AP is unable to transfer an additional ubiquitin molecule onto a stably linked ubiquitin-E6AP complex. This indicates that E6AP cannot assemble chains on its active site and may instead follow a sequential addition mechanism in which one ubiquitin molecule is transferred at a time to the target protein.
Using NMR spectroscopy and extensive mutational analyses, the determinants of ubiquitin recognition by the C-lobe of E6AP were unraveled and assigned to particular steps in the catalytic cycle. A functionally critical interface was identified that is specifically required during thioester formation between the C-terminus of ubiquitin and the ligase active site. This interface resembles the one utilized by NEDD4-type enzymes, suggesting a conserved ubiquitin binding mode across HECT ligases, independent of their linkage specificities. Moreover, I identified critical surface patches on ubiquitin and in the N- and C-terminal portions of the catalytic domain of E6AP that are important for the subsequent step of isopeptide bond formation. I also uncovered key determinants of the Lys48-linkage specificity of E6AP, both in the E6AP HECT domain and ubiquitin itself. This includes the C-terminal tail of E6AP and a hydrophilic surface region of ubiquitin in proximity to the acceptor site, Lys48. It is thus tempting to speculate that ubiquitin linkage formation by E6AP is substrate-assisted. Taken together, my results improve our mechanistic understanding of the structure-function relationship between E6AP and ubiquitin, thus providing a basis for ultimately manipulating the functions of this HECT ligase for therapeutic applications.
In this thesis, three species were investigated for the conservation of two non-conventional T cell systems, the CD1d/ iNKT cell system and the BTN3/ Vγ9Vδ2 T cell system. Non-conventional T cells are αβ or γδ T cells that do not fit into the classical mode of antigen recognition and adaptive responses. These T cells recognize antigens different from classical peptide antigens and are not restricted to the polymorphic MHC molecules but rather to non-polymorphic antigen-presenting molecules. The iNKT cell subset is restricted by the lipid antigen-presenting molecule CD1d and carries out immunomodulatory functions by rapid cytokine secretion. The molecular basis of this system, the semi-invariant iNKT TCR chains and CD1d were proven to be expressed and compared to homologs in human and rodents. Cotton rats possess multiple members of the AV14 and BV8 family and only one isoform of CD1d which is comparable to findings in the rat.
Moreover, the reactivity of primary cells to glycolipid antigens could be shown, and an iNKT
cell-like population was detected in primary cells using newly developed cotton rat CD1d oligomers. These were also applied to test the capacity of CD1d to present typical glycolipid
antigens to iNKT TCR transductants. In addition, expression of cotton rat iNKT TCR α and β chains in TCR-negative cell lines was used to show successful pairing and detection of glycolipids in the context of CD1d. In summary, the conservation of a functional CD1d/iNKT cell system in the cotton rat could be shown, and tools were developed to study this cell subset in the course of infectious diseases. The Vγ9Vδ2 T cell subset is the major γδ T cell subset in human peripheral blood and has the unique ability to contribute to immune surveillance by detecting pyrophosphorylated metabolites of isoprenoid synthesis that indicate cell stress, transformation or infection. Up to this date, phosphoantigen-reactive γδ T cells have only been shown in primate species. However, evidence for the existence and functional conservation of the genes implied in the BTN3/Vγ9Vδ2 T cell system was found in several placental mammal species,
and two candidate species were chosen for further investigation. The nine-banded armadillo, a valuable model for leprosy research, was shown to possess homologous genes to TRGV9, TRDV2 and BTN3. In this study, the expression of productive rearrangements of TRDV2 gene segments could be shown in peripheral blood samples, but no evidence was found for the expression of a functional TRGV9 rearrangement or BTN3 molecules. Moreover, determinants of phosphoantigen-reactive Vγ9Vδ2 T cells and functional BTN3 molecules were found to still be prevalent in armadillo genes. This makes the armadillo an interesting model to study the structural determinants that allow phosphoantigen recognition by a functional Vγ9Vδ2 T cell subset although this species is merely a witness for a functional system in a placental mammal ancestor. In contrast, alpacas were shown to express functional Vγ9Vδ2 T cells which conserved many features of the human counterpart. Expression of Vγ9Vδ2 pairings could be shown by single-cell PCR and functional phosphoantigenreactive pairings were observed. This phosphoantigen reactivity was also shown in PBMC cultures with a newly developed antibody specific for alpaca Vδ2Jδ4 chains. Moreover, a more detailed study of the alpaca TCR repertoire showed similarities to “γδ high” species like
camelids and cattle which possess an extended family of TRDV genes. The γ and δ loci of alpaca
TCR genes were drafted based on genomic information and cDNA studies and provide an overview for more detailed studies. Conservation of phosphoantigen recognition by the single BTN3 molecule of alpacas was shown in 293T knock out cell lines, and BTN3 detection on PBMCs was investigated with a newly developed alpaca BTN3-specific antibody. These findings prove the existence of a functional BTN3-dependent phosphoantigen-reactive Vγ9Vδ2 T cell subset and provide a basis for the future study of this cell system in a non-primate species. Moreover, as the first non-primate candidate species with the BTN3/Vγ9Vδ2 T cell system the alpaca is an important outgroup for research in this field. The use of a single BTN3 variant in contrast to three human isoforms that work together renders the alpaca a unique and to this date indispensable model for Vγ9Vδ2 T cells.
In conclusion, this study provides an overview of the applicability of new animal models in the
study of the non-conventional T cell subsets iNKT cells and Vγ9Vδ2 T cells and leads the way for a better understanding of structural and functional relationships.
Despite the large number of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) expressed in the central nervous system (CNS), little is known about their location, organization, and dynamics in functional nanodomains at synapses. Class C GPCRs including metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs) and the γ-aminobutyric acid subtype B receptor (GABABR) mediate several key functions in synaptic transmission. However, it is still insufficiently understood how these receptors function at synapses to modulate neurotransmission. One limitation is the availability of techniques to examine receptors with high spatiotemporal resolution in physiologically relevant cells. To investigate the distribution and spatiotemporal dynamics of mGluR4 and GABABR in cerebellar slices and cultured hippocampal neurons, I used advanced imaging techniques, including single-molecule imaging and superresolution microscopy with high spatial (10-20 nm) and temporal (20 ms) resolution.
The presynaptic active zone (AZ) is a highly organized structure that specializes in neurotransmitter release. mGluR4 is a prototypical presynaptic class C GPCR. mGluR4 mediates an inhibitory effect on presynaptic glutamate release mainly via the inhibition of P/Q type voltage dependent calcium channels (CaV2.1). In this study, I analyzed the organization of mGluR4 at the synapse between parallel fibers and Purkinje cells in the mouse cerebellum with near-molecular resolution using two-color direct stochastic optical reconstruction microscopy (dSTORM). Quantitative analyses revealed a four-fold mGluR4 enrichment at parallel fiber AZs. I found that an AZ contains 29 mGluR4 nanoclusters on average. Each nanocluster contains one or two mGluR4s, with few nanoclusters containing three or more receptors. To assess the spatial distribution of mGluR4 relative to functional active zone elements such as CaV2.1 and Munc 18-1 (an essential component of the synaptic secretory machinery), a distance-based colocalization analysis was used. The analysis revealed positive correlation between mGluR4 and both proteins at a distance of 40 nm. Interestingly, mGluR4 showed a higher positive correlation to Munc 18-1 in comparison to CaV2.1. These results suggest that mGluR4 might directly inhibit the exocytotic machinery to reduce glutamate release from the synaptic vesicles in addition to its role in the inhibition of presynaptic calcium influx. The revealed high degree of mGluR4 organization may provide a new ultrastructural basis to explain the depressive effect of mGluR4 on the neurotransmission.
Moreover, I directly imaged GABABR dynamic behavior with high spatiotemporal resolution in living hippocampal neurons utilizing single-molecule total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy (TIRFM). To this purpose, the GABAB1 subunit was engineered with an N-terminal SNAP-tag to enable specific labeling with bright organic fluorophores. On the plasma membrane surface, immobile and mobile GABABRs were detected at both synaptic and extrasynaptic compartments. A mean square displacement analysis (MSD) revealed characteristic dynamic patterns of GABABR depending on receptor location inside or outside of the synapses. The majority of receptors belonging to the extrasynaptic pool displayed rapid and free diffusion. In contrast, approximately 80% of receptors residing at the synaptic compartments were immobile or confined within limited regions. Receptors located at pre- and post-synaptic sites showed a similar behavior. GABABR lateral diffusion patterns inside and outside synapses might be important for the regulation of efficacy of synaptic inhibition.
Altogether, this study puts forward previously unknown GPCR nanoscopic details in functional nanodomains. GPCR spatial organization might be important for the efficiency, fidelity, and rapid signaling required for synaptic transmission.
T cell infiltration into the intestine occurs after priming and activation in the mesenteric lymph nodes and Peyer’s patches and subsequent trafficking via the blood circulation. We hypothesized that additionally to the vascular trafficking route, a fraction of T cells in the Peyer’s patches directly migrate into the adjacent lamina propria of the small intestine. To test this hypothesis, we employed a mouse model of acute Graft-versus-Host Disease to study the direct T cell migration from the Peyer’s patches to the adjacent lamina propria.
First, we analyzed the border of Peyer’s patches on histological sections and found that the Peyer’s patch is not enclosed by a capsule or basement membrane. Thus, the tissue architecture allows for direct access to the surrounding tissue. With whole-mount light sheet fluorescence microscopy we quantified a three-dimensional gradient of T cells around Peyer’s patches on day 2.5 and day 3 after transplantation. This gradient evened out at day 4 and day 6 when high numbers of T cells started to evenly infiltrate the intestine from the blood circulation. We confirmed that gradient-forming T cells around Peyer’s patches resided within the tissue parenchyma of the lamina propria and not inside lymphatic vessels.
To positively prove that the recently activated donor T cells around Peyer’s patches have egressed directly from that patch, we established a protocol for intravital photoconversion of T cells inside Peyer’s patches. 12 h after photoconversion inside a single Peyer’s patch, photoconverted T cells resided only around this particular Peyer’s patch and not elsewhere in the small intestine. This indicated that the T cells did not infiltrate via the blood but migrated to the adjacent lamina propria of the small intestine. Dynamic intravital two-photon microscopy revealed that these T cells next to the Peyer’s patch migrated in a random pattern. This suggested that these cells did not follow a positive chemoattractive gradient once they had reached the lamina propria. Laser-capture microdissection combined with RNA sequencing of the mucosa near the Peyer’s patch identified a wide range of migration-promoting factors. These included chemokines, co-stimulatory receptors and migration-associated intracellular molecules, which are candidates to promote this direct migration from Peyer’s patches.
Altogether, we demonstrate for the first time that additionally to the vascular trafficking route, a fraction of T cells migrates directly from the Peyer’s patch to the surrounding mucosa. This mechanism implies so far unrecognized regional specification of Peyer’s-patch-primed T cells. Our findings may impact treatment strategies to avoid intestinal inflammation or foster immunity after oral vaccination.
Gene expression and transfer of the genetic information to the next generation forms the basis of cellular life. These processes crucially rely on DNA, thus the preservation, transcription and translation of DNA is of fundamental importance for any living being. The general transcription factor TFIIH is a ten subunit protein complex, which consists of two subcomplexes: XPB, p62, p52, p44, p34, and p8 constitute the TFIIH core, CDK7, CyclinH, and MAT1 constitute the CAK. These two subcomplexes are connected via XPD. TFIIH is a crucial factor involved in both, DNA repair and transcription. The central role of TFIIH is underlined by three severe disorders linked to failure of TFIIH in these processes: xeroderma pigmentosum, Cockayne syndrome, and trichothiodystrophy. Only limited structural and functional data of TFIIH are available so far. Here, the model organism Chaetomium thermophilum was utilized with the aim to structurally and functionally characterize TFIIH. By combining the expression and purification of single TFIIH subunits with the co-expression and co-purification of dual complexes, a unique and powerful modular system of the TFIIH core subunits could be established, encompassing all proteins in high quality and fully functional. This system permits the step-wise assembly of TFIIH core, thereby making it possible to assess the influence of the intricate interaction network within TFIIH core on the overall enzymatic activities of TFIIH, which has not been possible so far. Utilizing the single subunits and dual complexes, a detailed interaction network of TFIIH core was established, revealing the crucial role of the p34 subunit as a central scaffold of TFIIH by linking the two proteins p44 and p52. Our studies also suggest that p62 constitutes the central interface of TFIIH to the environment rather than acting as a scaffold. TFIIH core complexes were assembled and investigated via electron microscopy. Preliminary data indicate that TFIIH adopts different conformational states, which are important to fulfill its functions in transcription and DNA repair. Additionally, a shortened construct of p62 was used to develop an easy-to-use, low cost strategy to overcome the crystallographic phase problem via cesium derivatization.
Kinetics and timing of IL-12 production by dendritic cells for Th1 polarization \(in\) \(vivo\)
(2020)
Dendritic cell (DC) based vaccines rely on the quality of DC maturation to induce antigen presentation, co-stimulation, lymph node migration and the release of heterodimeric IL-12p70 in case of T helper type-1 cell (Th1) polarization. In contrast, DCs that cannot secrete IL-12p70 (e.g. after cytokine cocktail maturation) readily induce Th1 cells when injected into mice and humans. Since it was also previously suggested that DCs are capable of activating other DCs in a bystander fashion, we tested here for the DC source of IL-12p70 for Th1 polarization in a murine DC vaccination model. Migration of the injected murine bone marrow-derived DCs (BM-DCs) was essential for antigen delivery to the lymph node. However, they contributed only partially to antigen presentation, and induced a non-polarized Th0 state of the cognate T cells producing IL-2 but no IFN-. Instead, endogenous dermal migratory XCR1+ cDC1s underwent re-programming by the injected BM-DCs to acquire bystander antigen presentation and IL-12 release for Th1 polarization in the lymph node. Genetic deficiency of migratory DCs and specifically of XCR1+ migratory DCs completely abolished Th1 priming. The kinetic of cell interactions in the draining lymph nodes appeared step-wise as i) injected DCs with cognate T cells, ii) injected DCs with bystander XCR1+ DCs, and iii) bystander XCR1+ DCs with T cells. The transcriptome of the bystander DCs showed a down-regulation of Treg and Th2/Th9 inducing genes, and up-regulation of genes required for Th1 instruction. Together, these data show that injected mature lymph node migratory BM-DCs direct T cell priming and bystander DC activation, but not Th1 polarization which is mediated by endogenous IL-12p70+ XCR1+ migratory bystander DCs. Our results are of importance for clinical DC-based vaccinations against tumors where endogenous DCs may be functionally impaired by chemotherapy.
Dem Endothel, welches die luminale Oberfläche aller Blutgefäße auskleidet, kommt eine wichtige Barrierefunktion zwischen Blut und Gewebe zu. Nur durch eine bedarfsgerechte Justierung dieser Barriere, die den Durchtritt von Molekülen und Zellen reguliert, kann die Gewebehomöostase aufrechterhalten werden. Dabei ist das Endothel nicht nur passive Barriere, sondern auch an dieser dynamischen Regulation aktiv beteiligt. Störungen oder Fehlregulationen dieser Prozesse führen zu Pathologien, z.B. Arteriosklerose.
Es ist seit längerem bekannt, dass Carcinoembryonic antigen–related cell adhesion molecule-1 (CEACAM1), ein Mitglied der Immunglobulin-Superfamilie, die Bildung und Morphogenese neuer Blutgefäße beeinflusst. Die spontane Entwicklung kleiner Arteriosklerose-ähnlicher Läsionen in CEACAM1 knockout (Cc1-/-) Mäusen zeigt, dass CEACAM1 auch für die Homöostase ausgereifter Blutgefäße von Bedeutung ist. Ziel dieser Dissertationsarbeit war daher, den Einfluss von CEACAM1 auf wesentliche Aspekte der Endothelfunktion in Aorten in situ bzw. in Endothelzellkulturen in vitro zu analysieren.
Es konnte zunächst gezeigt werden, dass CEACAM1-defiziente Endothelzellen im Vergleich zu Wildtyp (WT) Endothelzellen eine rundlichere Zellmorphologie mit meanderförmigen Zellgrenzen und interzellulären Lücken aufweisen. Diese morphologischen Unterschiede stimmen mit Befunden in situ an Aorten von WT und Cc1-/- Mäusen überein.
Weiterhin wurde eine Translokation der endothelialen NO-Synthase (eNOS) von der Zellmembran in den peri-nukleären Bereich bei CEACAM1-Defizienz festgestellt. Die erhobenen Daten bieten zwei mögliche Erklärungen dafür. Einerseits könnte CEACAM1 durch Interaktion mit eNOS als Membrananker fungieren. Daneben wiesen CEACAM1-defiziente Endothelzellen eine erhöhte Expression des Enzyms APT1 auf, welches eNOS depalmitoyliert. Die daraus resultierende, ebenfalls nachgewiesene geringere Palmitoylierung könnte auch zur verminderten Membran-lokalisation von eNOS beitragen.
Zur endothelialen Funktion gehört, die Adhäsion von Blutzellen an die Gefäßwand weitestgehend zu beschränken. CEACAM1-defiziente Endothelzellen zeigten im Vergleich zu WT Endothelzellen eine verstärkte Adhäsivität gegenüber murinen und humanen Monozyten. Ähnliche Unterschiede wurden für Aortenexplantate aus WT und Cc1-/- Mäusen festgestellt. Dies ist einerseits mit einer verstärkten Expression des Zelladhäsionsmoleküls ICAM-1 bei CEACAM1-Defizienz erklärbar. Darüber hinaus vermittelt die Glykokalyx anti-adhäsive Eigenschaften. Aus Vorbefunden war bekannt, dass die endotheliale Glykokalyx in der Aorta von Cc1-/- Mäuse reduziert ist. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit konnte dies auf eine verstärkte Expression der Glykokalyx-degradierenden Enzyme MMP9, Chondroitinase sowie Hyaluronidase-2 in Cc1-/- Endothelzellen zurückgeführt werden.
Eine erhöhte Permeabilität stellt einen Indikator für ein dysfunktionales Endothel, eines der initialen Schritte in der Pathogenese der Arteriosklerose, dar. Zur Analyse der aortalen Permeabilität wurde ein modifizierter Miles-Assay etabliert. Unter Verwendung etablierter muriner Arteriosklerosemodelle konnte gezeigt werden, dass dieser Assay eine Störung der vaskulären Permeabilität bereits vor Auftreten makroskopischer Veränderungen zuverlässig detektiert.
Im Rahmen der folgenden Analysen an WT und Cc1-/- Mäusen zeigte sich ein altersabhängiger Effekt von CEACAM1 auf die Gefäßpermeabilität: Aorten von 3 Monate alten Cc1-/- Mäuse wiesen eine im Vergleich zum WT erhöhte Gefäßpermeabilität auf, welche wahrscheinlich Folge einer verzögerten Gefäßreifung ist. Im Alter von 9 Monaten zeigte sich dagegen ein entgegengesetztes Bild. Dies wurde auf eine verstärkte Expression des die Barriere schädigenden Inflammationsmediators TNF-α in 9 Monate alten WT Mäusen zurückgeführt.
Außerdem modulierte CEACAM1 die TNF-α-vermittelte Lockerung der endothelialen Barriere, indem es die Phosphorylierung von Adherens Junction Proteinen beeinflusste. Basal stabilisierte CEACAM1 die endotheliale Barriere durch Hemmung der Phosphorylierung von Caveolin-1, welches Adherens Junctions destabilisiert. Unter Einfluss von TNF-α war CEACAM1 verstärkt im Bereich von Adherens Junctions lokalisiert und rekrutierte dort Src-Kinase. Src-Kinase wiederum destabilisierte Adherens Junctions durch Phosphorylierung von β-Catenin, was in verstärkter Gefäßpermeabilität resultierte. Dagegen führte TNF-α in CEACAM1-defizienten Endothelzellen zu einer Dephosphorylierung von Caveolin-1 und β-Catenin, wodurch Adherens Junctions und damit die endotheliale Barriere stabilisiert wurden. Diese CEACAM1-abhängige differenzielle Regulation der Stabilität von Adherens Junctions unter TNF-α trägt wahrscheinlich maßgeblich zu den Unterschieden der vaskulären Permeabilität in 3 bzw. 9 Monate alten WT und Cc1-/- Mäusen bei.
Zusammenfassend konnte im Rahmen dieser Arbeit nachgewiesen werden, dass CEACAM1 zentrale Funktionen des Endothels und hierüber die Homöostase reifer Gefäße beeinflusst. Da eine Expression von CEACAM1 auch in arteriosklerotischen Plaques nachgewiesen werden konnte, soll in weiteren Untersuchungen auch der Beitrag von CEACAM1 zur arteriosklerotischen Plaquebildung analysiert werden.
Frizzled (FZD) are highly conserved receptors that belong to class F of the G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) superfamily. They are involved in a great variety of processes during embryonic development, organogenesis, and adult tissue homeostasis. In particular, FZD5 is an important therapeutic target due to its involvement in several pathologies, such as tumorigenesis. Nevertheless, little is known regarding the activation of FZD receptors and the signal initiation, and their GPCR nature has been debated. In order to investigate the activation mechanism of these receptors, FRET (Förster Resonance Energy Transfer)-based biosensors for FZD5 have been developed and characterized. A cyan fluorescent protein (CFP) was fused to the C-terminus of the receptor and the specific FlAsH-binding sequence (CCPGCC) was inserted within the 2nd or the 3rd intracellular loop. Single-cell FRET experiments performed using one of these sensors, V5-mFZD5-FlAsH436-CFP, reported structural rearrangements in FZD5 upon stimulation with the endogenous ligand WNT-5A. These movements are similar to those observed in other GPCRs using the same technique, which suggests an activation mechanism for FZD reminiscent of GPCRs. Furthermore, stimulation of the FZD5 FRET-based sensor with various recombinant WNT proteins in a microplate FRET reader allowed to obtain concentration-response curves for several ligands, being possible to distinguish between full and partial agonists. This technology allowed to address the selectivity between WNTs and FZD5 using a full-length receptor in living cells. In addition, G protein FRET-based sensors revealed that WNT-5A specifically induced Gαq activation mediated by FZD5, but not Gαi activation. Other WNT proteins were also able to induce Gαq activation, but with lower efficacy than WNT-5A. In addition, a dual DAG/calcium sensor further showed that WNT-5A stimulation led to the activation of the Gαq-dependent signaling pathway mediated by FZD5, which outcome was the activation of Protein Kinase C (PKC) and the release of intracellular calcium. Altogether, these data provide evidence that the activation process of FZD5 resembles the general characteristics of class A and B GPCR activation, and this receptor also mediates the activation of the heterotrimeric Gαq protein and its downstream signaling pathway. In addition, the FZD5 receptor FRET-based sensor provides a valuable tool to characterize the pharmacological properties of WNTs and other potential ligands for this receptor.
Genome-wide association studies revealed CLEC16A as a candidate gene for Type 1 Diabetes and multiple other autoimmune disorders. The function of CLEC16A remains unknown. However, previous work showed that the CLEC16A ortholog ema and the murine Clec16a were both implicated in autophagy, a process partially required for MHC class II loading and antigen presentation. Furthermore, studies could show that autophagy was required in thymic epithelial cells for antigen presentation during T cell selection, suggesting a possible role of CLEC16A in T cell selection in the thymus. Additionally, it was postulated that CLEC16A may function as an expression quantitative trait locus for its neighboring genes and that Clec16a KD was involved in pancreatic islet function and impaired insulin secretion and glucose homeostasis. Prior to this work, Schuster et al. had created a Clec16a KD NOD mouse, which was protected from spontaneous autoimmune diabetes.
For this work it was hypothesized that CLEC16A variation serves as a Type 1 Diabetes risk gene by affecting autophagy in thymic epithelial cells, which modulates antigen presentation and shapes the T cell repertoire. To expand and complement previous findings by Schuster et al., this thesis aimed to investigate how CLEC16A modifies the function of thymic epithelial cells. For this purpose, CLEC16A KD was induced in human cells via RNA interference and autophagy was studied through immunoblotting. Additionally, inflammation of pancreatic tissue in Clec16a KD NOD mice was scored using H.E. stained pancreatic sections. Thymic transplantation experiments were conducted to test whether the effects of Clec16a KD were T cell intrinsic. Also, intraperitoneal glucose tolerance tests were performed to study glucose homeostasis in Clec16a KD NOD animals. Finally, using qPCR, gene expression levels of neighboring genes such as Dexi and Socs1 were measured to study Clec16a as an expression quantitative trait locus.
In combination with the findings of Schuster et al., this thesis demonstrates that Clec16a KD reduces the severity of insulitis and protects from onset of spontaneous diabetes in the NOD mouse. Disease protection is conveyed by impaired autophagy in TEC, which leads to altered T cell selection and hyporeactive CD4+ T cells. The effects of Clec16a KD in the NOD mouse are thymus intrinsic. Glucose homeostasis remains unchanged in the Clec16a KD NOD mouse and plays no role in disease protection. Clec16a and Dexi presented similar expression levels, but further studies are required to investigate a clear link between these two genes. Finally, impaired autophagy could be replicated in human CLEC16A KD cells, which demonstrates a conserved function of CLEC16A and suggests a possible link between CLEC16A variation and risk of autoimmune disease in human.
Investigation of dynamic processes of prototypical class A GPCRs by single-molecule microscopy
(2020)
In this work, two projects were pursued.
In the first project, I investigated two different subtypes of opioid receptors, which play a key role as target for analgesia. A set of subtype specific fluorescent ligands for μ opioid receptor (MOR) and δ opioid receptor (DOR) was characterised and used to gain insights into the diffusion behaviour of those receptors. It was shown that the novel ligands hold photophysical and pharmacological properties making them suitable for single-molecule microscopy. Applying them to wild-type receptors expressed in living cells revealed that both sub-types possess a heterogeneous diffusion behaviour. Further- more, the fluorescent ligands for the MOR were used to investigate homodomerisation, a highly debated topic. The results reveal that only ≈ 5 % of the receptors are present as homodimers, and thus the majority is monomeric. G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) play a major role as drug targets. Accordingly, understanding the activation process is very important. For a long time GPCRs have been believed to be either active or inactive. In recent years several studies have shown, that the reality is more complex, involving more substates. [1, 2, 3, 4] In this work the α 2A AR was chosen to investigate the activation process on a single-molecule level, thus being able to distinguish also rare or short-lived events that are hidden in ensemble mea- surements. With this aim, the receptor was labelled intracellular with two fluorophores using supported membranes. Thus it was possible to acquire movies showing qualita- tively smFRET events. Unfortunately, the functionality of the used construct could not be demonstrated. To recover the functionality the CLIP-tag in the third intracellular loop was replaced successfully with an amber codon. This stop codon was used to insert an unnatural amino acid. Five different mutants were created and tested and the most promising candidate could be identified. First ensemble FRET measurements indicated that the functionality might be recovered but further improvements would be needed. Overall, I could show that single-molecule microscopy is a versatile tool to investigate the behaviour of typical class A GPCRs. I was able to show that MOR are mostly monomeric under physiological expression levels. Furthermore, I could establish intra- cellular labelling with supported membranes and acquire qualitative smFRET events.
To this day, opioids represent the most effective class of drugs for the treatment of severe pain. On a molecular level, all opioids in use today are agonists at the μ-opioid receptor (μ receptor). The μ receptor is a class A G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR). GPCRs are among the biological structures most frequently targeted by pharmaceuticals. They are membrane bound receptors, which confer their signals into the cell primarily by activating a variety of GTPases called G proteins. In the course of the signaling process, the μ receptor will be phosphorylated by GRKs, increasing its affinity for another entity of signaling proteins called β-arrestins (β-arrs). The binding of a β-arr to the activated μ receptor will end the G protein signal and cause the receptor to be internalized into the cell. Past research showed that the μ receptor’s G protein signal puts into effect the desired pain relieving properties of opioid drugs, whereas β-arr recruitment is more often linked to adverse effects like obstipation, tolerance, and respiratory depression. Recent work in academic and industrial research picked up on these findings and looked into the possibility of enhancing G protein signaling while suppressing β-arr recruitment. The conceptual groundwork of such approaches is the phenomenon of biased agonism. It appreciates the fact that different ligands can change the relative contribution of any given pathway to the overall downstream signaling, thus enabling not only receptor-specific but even pathway-specific signaling.
This work examined the ability of a variety of common opioid drugs to specifically activate the different signaling pathways and quantify it by means of resonance energy transfer and protein complementation experiments in living cells. Phosphorylation of the activated receptor is a central step in the canonical GPCR signaling process. Therefore, in a second step, expression levels of the phosphorylating GRKs were enhanced in search for possible effects on receptor signaling and ligand bias.
In short, detailed pharmacological profiles of 17 opioid ligands were recorded. Comparison with known clinical properties of the compounds showed robust correlation of G protein activation efficacy and analgesic potency. Ligand bias (i.e. significant preference of any path- way over another by a given agonist) was found for a number of opioids in native HEK293 cells overexpressing μ receptor and β-arrs. Furthermore, overexpression of GRK2 was shown to fundamentally
change β-arr pharmacodynamics of nearly all opioids. As a consequence, any ligand bias as detected earlier was abolished with GRK2 overexpression, with the exception of buprenorhin. In summary, the following key findings stand out: (1) Common opioid drugs exert biased agonism at the μ receptor to a small extent. (2) Ligand bias is influenced by expression levels of GRK2, which may vary between individuals, target tissues or even over time. (3) One of the opioids, buprenorhin, did not change its signaling properties with the overexpression of GRK2. This might serve as a starting point for the development of new opioids which could lack the ability of β-arr recruitment altogether and thus might help reduce adverse side effects in the treatment of severe pain.
Staphylococcus aureus ist ein Kommensale, der die menschliche Haut und Schleimhaut der Nase und des Rachens besiedelt. Der Keim verursacht aufgrund zahlreicher Virulenzfaktoren leichte aber auch schwere Infektionen wie Pneumonie, Endokarditis oder Sepsis. Die Behandlung von S. aureus-Infektionen gestaltet sich heutzutage schwierig, da der Keim Resistenzen gegen verschiedenste Antibiotika ausgebildet hat. Zur Bekämpfung dieser Resistenzen werden neue Antibiotika benötigt, die u.a. mit der Zellphysiologie und der Zellwandwandsynthese der Bakterien interferieren.
Die Zellphysiologie und Zellwandsynthese wird abhängig von der Wachstumsphase und Umwelt-einflüssen in den Bakterien streng reguliert. Neben den Zweikomponentensystemen sind Serin/Threonin-Proteinkinasen und -Phosphatasen wesentliche Sensoren und Regulatoren der Bakterien. Durch Phosphorylierung und Dephosphorylierung bewirken diese beiden Systeme eine Hemmung oder Aktivierung der entsprechenden Zielproteine. Dadurch kann sich die Bakterienzelle an innere und äußere Reize anpassen. In dieser Arbeit wurde die konservierte Serin/Threonin-Proteinkinase Stk und die Serin/Threonin-Phosphatase Stp von S. aureus untersucht. Die beiden Proteine Stk und Stp haben einen großen Einfluss auf die Signalweiterleitung, den zentralen Metabolismus, die Stressantwort, die Antibiotikaresistenz und die Virulenz von S. aureus.
Im ersten Teil dieser Arbeit wird dargelegt, dass Stk und Stp in der bakteriellen Membran lokalisiert sind, dort miteinander interagieren und antagonistisch Zielproteine phosphorylieren bzw. dephospho-rylieren. Die Deletion der Phosphatase Stp bewirkt, dass zahlreiche Proteine in der Zelle permanent phosphoryliert und daher vermutlich nur noch eingeschränkt funktionstüchtig sind. Die ausbleibende Dephosphorylierung der Proteine in der stp-Mutante hat einen dramatischen Effekt auf die Zellwand-synthese und die Virulenz von S. aureus. So hat die stp-Mutante eine verdickte Zellwand und ist weniger virulent als die stk-Mutante und der Wildtypstamm. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wird erstmals eine Erklärung präsentiert, die die strukturellen Besonderheiten von Stk und deren Auswirkung auf die Zellwandsynthese zusammenführt: In der stp-Mutante akkumulieren Zellwandvorläufer in der Zelle, da vermutlich die entsprechenden Zellwandsyntheseproteine durch Stk-vermittelte Phosphorylierung gehemmt werden. Die Proteine FemXAB nehmen eine zentrale Rolle in der Zellwandsynthese ein, indem sie die Pentaglycin-Interpeptidbrücke des Zellwandvorläufers Pentaglycin-Lipid II syntheti-sieren. Stk wird durch die Bindung seiner extrazellulären Domänen an Pentaglycin-Lipid II aktiviert. In der vorliegenden Arbeit konnte FemX als in vitro Substrat von Stk und Stp identifiziert werden. Die permanente Phosphorylierung von FemX in der stp-Mutante führt zur verminderten Synthese der Pentaglycin-Brücken am Lipid II und infolgedessen zum Einbau von unvollständigen Muropeptiden in den neuen Peptidoglycanstrang. Diese strukturelle Veränderung führt zur Verdickung der Zellwand und folglich zur verminderten Empfindlichkeit gegenüber der Glycyl-Glycinpeptidase Lysostaphin. Neben FemX interagiert Stk mit weiteren Zellwandsyntheseproteinen wie FemAB und einigen Zellteilungsproteinen. Diese Ergebnisse verdeutlichen, dass Stk das Vorkommen seines extrazellulären Liganden Lipid II detektiert und dementsprechend die Zellwandsynthese über FemX reguliert.
Im zweiten Teil der Arbeit wurde anhand verschiedener Omics-Techniken die stk-, stp- und stk/stp-Mutante im Vergleich zum S. aureus NewmanHG Wildtyp charakterisiert. Dabei zeigten sich teilweise große Unterschiede zwischen der stp-Mutante und den anderen Stämmen. Mit diesen Unter-suchungen konnten Ergebnisse aus anderen Studien bestätigt und mit weiteren Daten untermauert werden. So lässt sich die verminderte Virulenz der stp-Mutante mit der reduzierten Expression und Sekretion von Toxinen wie Hämolysinen und Leukozidinen erklären. Dies führt zu einer verminderten Hämolyse von Erythrozyten und einer verminderten Immunantwort gegen diese Toxine im Infektions-versuch. Stk und Stp phosphorylieren bzw. dephosphorylieren Transkriptionsfaktoren und Antwort-regulatoren von Zweikomponentensystemen, was zu der veränderten Expression und Sekretion der Virulenzfaktoren führt. Die Analyse der Mutanten offenbart, dass Stk ein negativer und Stp ein positiver Regulator der Virulenz in S. aureus ist. Außerdem regulieren Stk und Stp zentrale Aspekte des Metabolismus in S. aureus. So ist die Konzentration an Nukleotidtriphosphaten in der stp-Mutante reduziert, was auf eine verminderte Expression der Gene der Pyrimidinsynthese zurückzuführen ist. Anhand dieser Ergebnisse wird deutlich, dass Stk und Stp wesentliche Aspekte der Zellphysiologie wie die Zellwandsynthese, den zentralen Metabolismus und die Virulenz von S. aureus regulieren.
Quantitative genetics is the study of continuously distributed traits and their ge-
netic components. Recent developments in DNA sequencing technologies and
computational systems allow researchers to conduct large scale in silico studies.
However, going from raw DNA reads to genomic prediction of quantitative traits
with the help of neural networks is a long and error-prone process. In the course
of this thesis, many steps involved in this process will be assessed in depth. Chap-
ter 2 will feature a study that compares the landscape of chloroplast genome as-
sembly tools. Chapter 3 will present a software to perform genome-wide associa-
tion studies using modern tools, which allow GWAS-Flow to outperform current
state of the art software packages. Chapter 4 will give an in depth introduc-
tion to machine learning and the nature of quantitative traits and will combine
those to genomic prediction with artificial neural networks and compares the re-
sults to those of algorithms based on linear mixed models. Finally, in Chapter 5
the results from the previous chapters are summarized and used to elucidate the
complex nature of studies concerning quantitative genetics.
Neisseria meningitidis, a commensal β-proteobacterium residing exclusively in the human nasopharynx, is a leading cause of sepsis and epidemic meningitis worldwide. While comparative genome analysis was able to define hyperinvasive lineages that are responsible for most of the cases of invasive meningococcal disease (IMD), the genetic basis of their virulence remains unclear. Recent studies demonstrate that the type II C CRISPR/Cas system of meningococci is associated with carriage and less invasive lineages. CRISPR/Cas, an adaptive defence system against foreign DNA, was shown to be involved in gene regulation in Francisella novicida. This study shows that knockout strains of N. meningitidis lacking the Cas9 protein are impaired in the adhesion to human nasopharyngeal cells in a strain-dependant manner, which constitutes a central step in the pathogenesis of IMD. Consequently, this study indicates that the meningococcal CRISPR/Cas system fulfils functions beyond the defence of foreign DNA and is involved in the regulation of meningococcal virulence.
G protein coupled receptor kinases (GRK) phosphorylate and thereby desensitize G protein coupled receptors (GPCR) including β-adrenergic receptors (βAR), which are critical regulators of cardiac function. We identified the Raf kinase inhibitor protein (RKIP) as an endogenous inhibitor of GRK2 that leads to increased cardiac contractility via βAR activation. RKIP binds to the N-terminus (aa1-185) of GRK2, which is important for the GRK2/receptor interaction. Thereby it interferes with the GRK2/receptor interaction without interference with cytosolic GRK2 target activation. In this project, the RKIP/GRK interface was investigated to develop strategies that simulate the effects of RKIP on βAR.
RKIP binding to different isoforms of GRK expressed in the heart was analyzed by protein interaction assays using full-length and N-termini of GRK2, GRK3 and GRK5: 1-53, 54-185 and 1-185. Co-immunoprecipitation (Co-IPs) and pull-down assays revealed that RKIP binds to the peptides of GRK2 and GRK3 but not to the ones of GRK5, which suggests the existence of several binding sites of RKIP within the N-termini of GRK2 and GRK3. To analyze whether the peptides of GRK2 and GRK3 are able to simulate the RKIP mediated interference of the GRK2/receptor interaction, we analyzed the β2-AR phosphorylation in the absence and presence of the peptides. Interestingly, N-termini (aa1-185) of GRK2 and GRK3 reduced β2AR phosphorylation to a comparable extent as RKIP. In line with reduced receptor phosphorylation, the peptides also reduced isoproterenol-stimulated receptor internalization as shown by [3H] CGP-12177 radioligand binding assay and fluorescence microscopy compared to control cells. Subsequently, these peptides increased downstream signaling of β2AR, i.e. the phosphorylation of the PKA substrate phosducin. In an attempt to elucidate the mechanism behind the observed effects, Co-IPs were performed in order to investigate whether the peptides bind directly to the β2-AR and block its phosphorylation by GRK2. Indeed, GRK2 1-185 and GRK3 1-185 could bind the receptor, suggesting that this way GRK2 is prevented from inhibiting the receptor. To investigate the physiological effect of GRK2 1-185, GRK3 1-185 and GRK5 1-185, their effect on neonatal mouse cardiomyocyte contractility and hypertrophy was analyzed. After long-term isoproterenol stimulation, in the presence of GRK2 1 185 and GRK3 1-185 the cross-sectional area of the cardiomyocytes showed no significant increase in comparison to the unstimulated control cells. In addition, upon isoproterenol stimulation, GRK2 1-185 and GRK3 1-185 increased the beat rate in cardiomyocytes, mimicking RKIP while the base impedance, an indicator of viability, remained stable.
The N-termini (1-185) of GRK2 and GRK3 simulated RKIP’s function and had a significant influence on β2AR phosphorylation, on its downstream signaling and internalization, could bind β2-AR, increased beat rate and did not significantly induce hypertrophy, suggesting that they may serve as a model for the generation of new and more specific targeting strategies for GRK mediated receptor regulation.
The honeybee is a well studied and important organism in neuroethology. The possibility to train them with a classical conditioning paradigm and their miniature brain provide a perfect requisite to investigate the neuronal principles of learning and memory. Honeybees use visual and olfactory cues to detect flowers during their foraging trips. Hence, the reward association of a nectar source is a multi-modal construct, which has at least two major components - olfactory and visual cues. It is still an open question, how both sensory components are converged in the mushroom body, which represent the multi-modal integration centre of the honeybee brain. The main goal of this study, is to investigate the processing of multiple modalities and how a reward association is formed. This includes, how and wether both sensory modalities interfere during learning. Thus, in this study stimulation with UV, blue and green light was used to evoke distinct photoreceptor activities in the compound eye. Furthermore, three different odours (Geraniol, Citronellol and Farnesol) were used. These stimuli were tested in three different experimental series. The first experiment involved classical differential conditioning of the single modalities - odour and colour. Honeybees showed high learning performances in differentiating olfactory stimuli and also reliable responses for visual conditioning. Furthermore, a temporal discrepancy in the stimulus length for best learning in the olfatcoty and visual cues was found. In the second series, it was tested how multi-modal compounds are perceived. This includes, unique cues (configural processing) or the sum of the single components of a compound (elemen- tal processing). This was tested by combining single odour components with monochromatic light in a positive (PP) and negative patterning (NP) experiment. During PP, the olfactory- visual compound was rewarded, whereas the single components were unrewarded. In contrast, during NP the single components were reinforced, but the compound was not. In addition, the ability to distinguish between two different light stimuli presented as a part of an olfactory-visual compound with the same odour component during acquisition was tested. In a memory test, the light stimuli were presented again as a compound and in addition as the single components. The results revealed that bees used elemental processing with compounds containing green and blue light. In contrast, when UV light was presented the bees used configural processing. Finally, a third experiment was conducted at the neuronal level. Multi-unit recordings were established to provide a suitable method to analyse extrinsic neurons at the mushroom body output region, the so called ventral lobe of the pedunculus. Here, three different odours (Geran- iol, Farnesol and Citronellol), two colours (green and blue) and two combined stimuli (colour + odour) were chosen as stimuli, to search for possible variations in processing stimuli with different modalities. Two units could be detected that responded mainly to visual stimuli.
Emotionale Kontrolle ist für unsere Zusammenleben unerlässlich. Zum neuronalen Netzwerk der Emotionsverarbeitung und Emotionskontrolle gehört auch der rechte inferiore präfrontale Kortex, wobei seine Funktion häufig mit der einer Bremse verglichen wird. Die Antizipationsangst, die bei manchen Angststörungen eine Rolle spielt und das daraus resultierende Vermeidungsverhalten, bieten einen relevanten Zusammenhang, den man in der Therapie von Angsterkrankungen beeinflussen könnte. Hierbei bieten nichtinvasive Hirnstimulationsverfahren einen möglichen Ansatzpunkt und der rechte IFG ein mögliches Ziel. In dieser Studie stimulierten wir den rechten inferioren frontalen Gyrus (rIFG) mittels anodaler transkranieller Gleichstromstimulation (tDCS) um zu prüfen, ob dadurch die emotionale Anspannung moduliert werden kann. Zu diesem Zwecke wurde der rIFG bei gesunden Probanden (N = 80), aufgeteilt in eine tDCS Gruppe und eine Sham Gruppe, über einen Zeitraum von 20 Minuten mit einer Stromstärke von 2 mA und einer Elektrodengröße von 35 cm² elektrisch stimuliert. Währenddessen wurde die Hautleitfähigkeiten (SCL) als psychophysiologischer Parameter in Antizipation eines akustischen neutralen bzw. aversiven Reizes gemessen. Die Art des akustischen Reizes war dabei für die Probanden durch einen visuellen Hinweisstimulus vorhersehbar, jedoch war der Zeitpunkt der Präsentation des akustischen Reizes nicht vorhersehbar. Dadurch konnte emotionale Anspannung in Antizipation des aversiven Stimulus induziert werden, was wir durch ein insgesamt höheres SCL während der aversiven Bedingung nachweisen konnten. Wir konnten einen signifikanten Effekt der tDCS des rIFG auf die psychophysiologischen Parameter der Antizipationsangst nachweisen. Der Effekt beruhte dabei auf einem geringeren Anstieg des Hautleitfähigkeitslevels der tDCS Gruppe von neutraler zu aversiver Bedingung im Vergleich zu Sham Gruppe. Wir können daher bestätigen, dass es möglich ist die physiologische Reaktion bei emotionaler Anspannung durch tDCS des rIFG zu regulieren. Darüber hinaus können wir dadurch die angenommene Rolle des rIFG in der Emotionsregulation bestätigen. Dieser scheint daher ein vielversprechender Stimulationsort für tDCS zur Verstärkung der emotionalen Kontrolle zu sein. Auf Basis unserer Ergebnisse, könnte in zukünftigen Studien tDCS des rIFG in Kombination mit Verhaltenstherapie bei Angsterkrankungen oder zur Modulation von Vermeidungsverhalten eingesetzt werden. Durch unseren Versuch konnte damit ein grundlegender Beitrag für zukünftige Therapiestudien im Zusammenhang mit tDCS geleistet werden.
Spinal muscular atrophy with respiratory distress type 1 (SMARD1) is a fatal monogenic motoneuron disease in children with unknown etiology caused by mutations in the immunoglobulin μ-binding protein 2 (IGHMBP2) gene coding for DNA/RNA ATPase/helicase. Despite detailed knowledge of the underlying genetic changes, the cellular mechanisms leading to this disease are not well understood. In the Nmd2J ("neuromuscular disorder") mouse, the mouse model for the juvenile form of SMARD1 patients, in which similar pathological features as diaphragmatic paralysis and skeletal muscle atrophy are observed. Ex vivo studies in Nmd2J mice showed that loss of the motor axon precedes atrophy of the gastrocnemius muscle and does not correlate with neurotransmission defects in the motor endplate. The already described independent myogenic anomalies in the diaphragm and heart of the Nmd2J mouse raised the question whether spinal motoneuron degeneration develops cell autonomously. Ighmbp2 is predominantly localized in the cytoplasm and seems to bind to ribosomes and polysomes, suggesting a role in mRNA metabolism.
In this Ph.D. thesis, morphological and functional analyses of isolated Ighmbp2-deficient (Ighmbp2-def.) motoneurons were performed to answer the question whether the SMARD1 phenotype results from dysregulation of protein biosynthesis. Ighmbp2-deficient motoneurons show only negligible morphological alterations with respect to a slight increase in axonal branches. This observation is consistent with only minor changes of transcriptome based on RNA sequencing data from Ighmbp2-deficient motoneurons. Only the mRNA of fibroblast growth factor receptor 1 (Fgfr1) showed significant up-regulation in Ighmbp2-deficient motoneurons. Furthermore, no global aberrations at the translational level could be detected using pulsed SILAC (Stable Isotope Labeling by Amino acids in cell culture), AHA (L-azidohomoalanine) labeling and SUnSET (SUrface SEnsing of Translation) methods. However, a reduced β-actin protein level was observed at the growth cones of Ighmbp2-deficient motoneurons, which was accompanied with a reduced level of Imp1 protein, a known β-actin mRNA interactor. Live-cell imaging studies using fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP) showed translational down-regulation of eGFPmyr-β-actin 3'UTR mRNA in the growth cones and the cell bodies, although the amount of β-actin mRNA and the total protein amount in Ighmbp2-deficient motoneurons showed no aberrations. This compartment-specific reduction of β-actin protein occurred independently of a non-existent direct IGHMBPF2 binding to β-actin mRNA. Fgfr1, which was upregulated on the RNA level, did not show an increased protein amount in Ighmbp2-deficient motoneurons, whereas a reduced amount could be detected. Interestingly, a correlation could be found between the reduced amount of the Imp1 protein and the increased Fgfr1 mRNA, since the IMP1 protein binds the FGFR1 mRNA and thus could influence the transport and translation of FGFR1 mRNA. In summary, all data suggest that Ighmbp2 deficiency leads to a local but modest disturbance of protein biosynthesis, which might contribute to the motoneuron defects of SMARD1.
The culture of human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) at large-scale becomes feasible with the aid of scalable suspension setups in continuously stirred tank reactors (CSTRs). Suspension cul- tures of hiPSCs are characterized by the self-aggregation of single cells into macroscopic cell aggre- gates that increase in size over time. The development of these free-floating aggregates is dependent on the culture vessel and thus represents a novel process parameter that is of particular interest for hiPSC suspension culture scaling. Further, aggregates surpassing a critical size are prone to spon- taneous differentiation or cell viability loss. In this regard, and, for the first time, a hiPSC-specific suspension culture unit was developed that utilizes in situ microscope imaging to monitor and to characterize hiPSC aggregation in one specific CSTR setup to a statistically significant degree while omitting the need for error-prone and time-intensive sampling. For this purpose, a small-scale CSTR system was designed and fabricated by fused deposition modeling (FDM) using an in-house 3D- printer. To provide a suitable cell culture environment for the CSTR system and in situ microscope, a custom-built incubator was constructed to accommodate all culture vessels and process control devices. Prior to manufacture, the CSTR design was characterized in silico for standard engineering parameters such as the specific power input, mixing time, and shear stress using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations. The established computational model was successfully validated by comparing CFD-derived mixing time data to manual measurements. Proof for system functionality was provided in the context of long-term expansion (4 passages) of hiPSCs. Thereby, hiPSC aggregate size development was successfully tracked by in situ imaging of CSTR suspensions and subsequent automated image processing. Further, the suitability of the developed hiPSC culture unit was proven by demonstrating the preservation of CSTR-cultured hiPSC pluripotency on RNA level by qRT-PCR and PluriTest, and on protein level by flow cytometry.
Die Einhaltung eines gesunden Lebensstils, einschließlich der Behandlung modifizierbarer kardiovaskulärer Risikofaktoren, beeinflusst maßgeblich die Entstehung und Progression von Herz-Kreislauf-Erkrankungen (HKE). So reduziert eine ausgewogene Ernährungsweise, ausreichend körperliche Aktivität, Tabakverzicht, das Halten des Normalgewichtes sowie die Behandlung einer Hypertonie, Hyperlipidämie und Diabetes mellitus, die kardiovaskuläre Morbidität und Mortalität.
Die vorliegende Arbeit widmet sich (a) der Prävalenz und leitliniengerechten Kontrolle kardiovaskulärer Risikofaktoren von Teilnehmern aus der Allgemeinbevölkerung der STAAB Kohortenstudie („Häufigkeit und Einflussfaktoren auf frühe Stadien A und B der Herzinsuffizienz in der Bevölkerung“) sowie der Schätzung des 10-Jahres Risikos für tödliche HKE in diesem Kollektiv. Weiterhin wurde (b) der Einfluss von medikamentenbezogenen Überzeugungen auf die Blutdruckkontrolle von Teilnehmern der STAAB Kohortenstudie untersucht. Schließlich wurde (c) der Erhalt von ärztlichen Lebensstilempfehlungen sowie deren Determinanten bei Teilnehmern der STAAB Kohortenstudie sowie der EUROASPIRE IV Studie („European Action on Secondary and Primary Prevention by Intervention to Reduce
Events“) in Deutschland betrachtet.
Die STAAB Kohortenstudie untersucht die frühen asymptomatischen Formen der Herzinsuffizienz-Stadien A und B in einer repräsentativen Stichprobe von 5.000 Personen
ohne symptomatische Herzinsuffizienz im Alter von 30 bis 79 Jahren aus der Allgemeinbevölkerung mit Wohnsitz in der Stadt Würzburg.
Die EUROASPIRE IV Studie untersuchte bei 7.998 Koronarpatienten im Alter von 18 bis 79
Jahren aus insgesamt 24 Europäischen Ländern (536 Patienten aus Deutschland) im Zeitraum 2012 bis 2013 die Risikofaktoren sowie die Umsetzung der leitliniengerechten Versorgung und Prävention von HKE im europäischen Vergleich. Die Datenerhebung beider Studien erfolgte durch ein geschultes Studienpersonal nach standardisierten Vorgaben.
Die Prävalenz und Kontrolle kardiovaskulärer Risikofaktoren nach den aktuellen Vorgaben der „European Society of Cardiology“ (ESC) wurde bei insgesamt 1.379 Teilnehmern, die zwischen Dezember 2013 und April 2015 an der STAAB Kohortenstudie teilgenommen haben, untersucht. Es zeigte sich eine hohe Prävalenz der kardiovaskulären Risikofaktoren Hypertonie (31.8%), Hyperlipidämie (57.6%) und Diabetes mellitus (3.5%). Hierbei erreichten
trotz Pharmakotherapie über die Hälfte der Teilnehmer mit einem Bluthochdruck (52.7%) oder erhöhten LDL-Cholesterinwerten (56.7%) sowie 44.0% der Personen mit einem Diabetes mellitus die empfohlenen Grenzwerte nicht. Weiterhin wurde erstmalig zu Studienbesuch eine Hypertonie (36.0%), Hyperlipidämie (54.2%) oder ein Langzeitzuckerwert (HbA1c) >6.5% (23.3%) detektiert. In der jüngsten Altersgruppe (30-39 Jahre) fand sich der höchste Anteil von unbekanntem Bluthochdruck (76.5%) sowie hohem LDL-Cholesterin (78.0%) und die Altersgruppe 60-69 Jahren wies mit 43.5% die höchste Prävalenz für einen bislang nicht detektierten HbA1c >6.5% auf. Die Akkumulation von drei oder mehr kardiovaskulären Risikofaktoren war mit dem männlichen Geschlecht, einem höheren Alter und einem niedrigeren Bildungsgrad assoziiert. Von 980 mittels SCORE („Systematic Coronary Risk Evaluation“) Risiko-Chart untersuchten Teilnehmern befanden sich jeweils 56.6%, 35.8% und 7.5% in der niedrigen, mittleren und hohen bis sehr hohen SCORE-Risikogruppe für tödliche HKE. Das Hochrisiko-Kollektiv für tödliche HKE war vorwiegend männlich und wies häufiger eine Hypertonie oder ein hohes LDL-Cholesterin auf.
Der Einfluss von Überzeugungen gegenüber antihypertensiver Medikation auf die Blutdruckkontrolle wurde an 293 Teilnehmern, die von Oktober 2014 bis März 2017 an der STAAB Kohortenstudie teilgenommen haben, untersucht. Auf ihre Medikamente gesundheitlich angewiesen zu sein gaben 87% der Teilnehmer an, 78.1% stimmten der Aussage zu, dass ihre Medikamente sie vor einer Verschlechterung ihrer Gesundheit schützen. Es zeigte sich ein inverser Zusammenhang zwischen einem höheren Maß an Bedenken gegenüber der verordneten blutdrucksenkenden Medikation und einer besseren Blutdruckkontrolle bei Frauen. Ein signifikanter Zusammenhang zwischen Bedenken gegenüber einer antihypertensiven Medikation und der Blutdruckkontrolle bei Männern ließ sich hingegen nicht feststellen. Es konnten keine statistisch signifikanten Assoziationen für die Notwendigkeit von Medikation in der vorliegen Untersuchung gezeigt werden.
Die Häufigkeit und Determinanten für die Empfehlung eines ärztlichen Lebensstils wurde bei 665 Teilnehmern der STAAB Kohortenstudie ohne vorbestehende HKE (Primärprävention) und bei 536 Koronarpatienten der EUROASPIRE IV Studie (Sekundärprävention) untersucht.
Mit Ausnahme der Empfehlung zum Rauchverzicht erhielten die Patienten der EUROASPIRE IV Studie häufiger ärztliche Lebensstilempfehlungen verglichen mit Teilnehmern der STAAB Kohortenstudie: (Rauchverzicht: STAAB 44.0%, EUROASPIRE 36.7%; Gewichtsreduktion: STAAB 43.9%, EUROASPIRE 69.2%; körperliche Aktivität steigern: STAAB 52.1%, EUROASPIRE 71.4%; gesundes Ernährungsverhalten: STAAB 43.9%, EUROASPIRE 73.1%). Die Chance für den Erhalt von mindestens 50% aufgrund der individuellen Risikofaktoren adäquaten ärztlichen Lebensstilempfehlungen war bei STAAB Teilnehmern mit offensichtlichen oder beobachtbaren kardiovaskulären Risikofaktoren signifikant erhöht (BMI >25kg/m2, Hypertonie, Hyperlipidämie und Diabetes mellitus).
Hingegen erhielten Patienten mit einer vorbestehenden HKE signifikant häufiger eine ärztliche Lebensstilempfehlung bei einem Diabetes mellitus, wobei die Empfehlungshäufigkeit mit zunehmendem Alter abnahm. Die weitergehende nicht publizierte Analyse des Interaktions
Modells zeigte, dass der Zusammenhang zwischen dem Alter und der Empfehlungshäufigkeit bei Patienten mit bereits bestehender HKE stärker ausgeprägt war, als bei Teilnehmern der STAAB Kohortenstudie ohne koronare HKE. Weiterhin war der Zusammenhang zwischen einer adäquaten Lebensstilempfehlung und Hyperlipidämie bei Teilnehmern ohne koronares Ereignis signifikant stärker ausgeprägt, im Vergleich zu Patienten mit einer bereits bestehender HKE.
Die Ergebnisse zeigten ein erhebliches Potenzial für eine verbesserte Umsetzung leitliniengerechter Behandlung modifizierbarer kardiovaskulärer Risikofaktoren in der Primär- und Sekundärprävention. Vor dem Hintergrund einer hohen Anzahl kardiovaskulärer Risikofaktoren bei jungen Erwachsenen sollte die Bedeutung der Langzeitfolgen im Arzt
Patienten-Gespräch hervorgehoben und bei der Erarbeitung von Präventionsstrategien, insbesondere für junge Altersgruppen, Beachtung finden. Geschlechtsspezifische
Determinanten hinsichtlich der Kontrolle kardiovaskulärer Risikofaktoren sowie Befürchtungen gegenüber der Medikation sollten stärker im Arzt-Patientengespräch berücksichtigt werden.
Zur Stärkung der Compliance des Patienten bei der Umsetzung eines gesunden Lebensstils,
sollte der Arzt hinsichtlich der Bedeutung von Lebensstilintervention, aber auch im Umgang mit schwierigen Situationen, wie die Empfehlung einer Gewichtsreduktion, sensibilisiert und bei der richtigen Handhabung der Leitlinienempfehlung stärker unterstützt werden.
In 2006, 0.18 Mio pediatric nuclear medicine diagnostic exams were performed worldwide. However, for most of the radiopharmaceuticals used data on biokinetics and, as a consequence on dosimetry, are missing or have not been made publicly available. Therefore, most of the dosimetry assessments presented today for diagnostic agents in children and adolescents rely on the biokinetics data of adults. Even for one of the most common nuclear medicine exams for this patient group, renal scintigraphy with 99mTc-MAG3 for assessing renal function measured data on biokinetics is available only from a study performed on four children of different ages. In particular, renal scans are among the most frequent exams performed on infants and toddlers. Due to the young age, this patient group can be classified as a risk group with a higher probability of developing stochastic radiation effects compared to adults. As there are only limited data on biokinetics and dosimetry in this patient group, the aim of this study is to reassess the dosimetry and the associated radiation risk for a larger number of infants undergoing 99mTc-MAG3 renal scans based on a retrospective analysis of existing patient data.
Data were collected retrospectively from 34 patients younger than 20 months with normal (20 patients) and abnormal renal function (14 patients) undergoing 99mTc-MAG3 scans. The patient-specific organ activity was estimated based on a retrospective calibration which was performed based on a set of two 3D-printed infant kidneys (newborns: 8.6 ml; 1-year-old: 23.4 ml) filled with known activities. Both phantoms were scanned at different positions along the anteroposterior axis inside a water phantom, providing depth- and size-dependent attenuation correction factors for planar imaging. Time-activity curves were determined by drawing kidney, bladder, and whole body regions-of-interest for each patient, and subsequently applying the calibration factor for conversion of counts to activity. Patient-specific time-integrated activity coefficients were obtained by integrating the organ-specific time-activity curves. Absorbed and effective dose coefficients for each patient were assessed with OLINDA/EXM for the provided newborn and 1-year-old phantom. Based on absorbed dose values, the radiation risk estimation was performed individually for each of the 34 patients with the National Cancer Institute’s Radiation Risk Assessment Tool.
The patients’ organ-specific mean absorbed dose coefficients for the patients with normal renal function were 0.04±0.03 mGy/MBq for the kidneys and 0.27±0.24 mGy/MBq for the bladder. This resulted in a mean effective dose coefficient of 0.02±0.02 mSv/MBq. Based on the dosimetry results, the evaluation of the excess lifetime risk (ELR) for the development of radiation-induced cancer showed that the group of newborns has an ELR of 16.8 per 100,000 persons, which is higher in comparison with the 1-year-old group with an ELR of 14.7 per 100,000 persons. With regard to the 14 patients with abnormal renal function, the mean values for the organ absorbed dose coefficients for the patients were: 0.40±0.34 mGy/MBq for the kidneys and 0.46±0.37 mGy/MBq for the bladder. The corresponding effective dose coefficients (mSv/MBq) was: 0.05±0.02 mSv/MBq. The mean ELR (per 100,000 persons) for developing cancer from radiation exposure for patients with abnormal renal function was 29.2±18.7 per 100,000 persons.
As a result, the radiation-associated stochastic risk increases with the organ doses, taking age- and gender-specific influences into account. Overall, the lifetime radiation risk associated with the 99mTc-MAG3 scans is very low in comparison to the general population risk for developing cancer.
Furthermore, due to the increasing demand for PET-scans in children and adolescents with 68Ga-labelled peptides, in this work published data sets for those compounds were analyzed to derive recommendations for the administered activities in children and adolescents. The recommendation for the activities to be administered were based on the weight-independent effective dose model, proposed by the EANM Pediatric Dosage Card for application in pediatric nuclear medicine. The aim was to derive recommendations on administered activities for obtaining age-independent effective doses. Consequently, the corresponding weight-dependent effective dose coefficients were rescaled according to the formalism of the EANM dosage card, to determine the radiopharmaceutical class of 68Ga-labeled peptides (“multiples”), and to calculate the baseline activities based on the biokinetics of these compounds and an upper limit of the administered activity of 185 MBq for an adult. Analogous to 18F-fluoride, a minimum activity of 14 MBq is recommended. As a result, for those pediatric nuclear medicine applications involving 68Ga-labeled peptides, new values for the EANM dosage card were proposed and implemented based on the results derived in this work.
Overall, despite the low additional radiation-related cancer risk, all efforts should be undertaken to optimize administered activities in children and adolescents for obtaining sufficient diagnostic information with minimal associated radiation risk.
Cardiovascular diseases are considered the leading cause of death worldwide according to the World Health Organization. Heart failure is the last stage of most of these diseases, where loss of myocardium leads to architectural and functional decline.
The definitive treatment option for patients with CVDs is organ or tissue transplantation, which relies on donor availability. Therefore, generating an autologous bioengineered myocardium or heart could overcome this limitation. In addition, generating cardiac patches will provide ventricular wall support and enable reparative stem cells delivery to damaged areas. Although many hurdles still exist, a good number of researches have attempted to create an engineered cardiac tissue which can induce endogenous cardiac repair by replacing damaged myocardium.
The present study provided cardiac patches in two models, one by a detergent coronary perfusion decellularization protocol that was optimized, and the other that resulted in a 3D cell-free extracellular matrix with intact architecture and preserved s-glycosaminoglycan and vasculature conduits. Perfusion with 1% Sodium dodecyle sulfate (SDS) under constant pressure resulted in cell-free porcine scaffold within two and cell-free rat scaffold in 7 days, whereas scaffold perfused with 4% sodium deoxycholate (SDO) was not able to remove cells completely. Re-reendothelialization of tissue vasculature was obtained by injecting human microvascular endothelial cell and human fibroblast in 2:1 ratio in a dynamic culture. One-week later, CD31 positive cells and endothelium markers were observed, indicating new blood lining. Moreover, functionality test of re-endothelialized tissue revealed improvement in clotting seen in decellularized tissues. When the tissue was ready to be repopulated, porcine induced pluripotent stem cells (PiPSc) were generated by transfected reprogramming of porcine skin fibroblast and then differentiated to cardiac cells following a robust protocol, for an autologous cardiac tissue model. However, due to the limitation in the PiPSc cell number, alternatively, human induced pluripotent stem cells generated cardiac cells were used.
For reseeding a coculture of human iPSc generated cardiac cells, human mesenchymal stem cells and human fibroblast in 2:1:1 ratio respectively were used in a dynamic culture for 6-8 weeks. Contractions at different areas of the tissue were recorded at an average beating rate of 67 beats/min. In addition, positive cardiac markers (Troponin T), Fibroblast (vemintin), and mesenchymal stem cells (CD90) were detected. Not only that, but by week 3, MSC started differentiating to cardiac cells progressively until few CD90 positive cells were very few by week 6 with increasing troponin t positive cells in parallel. Electrophysiological and drug studies were difficult to obtain due to tissue thickness and limited assessment sources. However, the same construct was established using small intestine submucosa (SISer) scaffold, which recorded a spontaneous beating rate between 0.88 and 1.2 Hz, a conduction velocity of 23.9 ± 0.74 cm s−1, and a maximal contraction force of 0.453 ± 0.015 mN. Moreover, electrophysiological studies demonstrated a drug-dependent response on beating rate; a higher adrenalin frequency was revealed in comparison to the untreated tissue and isoproterenol administration, whereas a decrease in beating rate was observed with propranolol and untreated tissue.
The present study demonstrated the establishment of vascularized cardiac tissue, which can be used for human clinical application.
In mammals, anucleate platelets circulate in the blood flow and are primarily responsible for maintaining functional hemostasis. Platelets are generated in the bone marrow (BM) by megakaryocytes (MKs), which mainly reside directly next to the BM sinusoids to release proplatelets into the blood. MKs originate from hematopoietic stem cells and are thought to migrate from the endosteal to the vascular niche during their maturation, a process, which is, despite being intensively investigated, still not fully understood.
Long-term intravital two photon microscopy (2PM) of MKs and vasculature in murine bone marrow was performed and mean squared displacement analysis of cell migration was performed. The MKs exhibited no migration, but wobbling-like movement on time scales of 3 h. Directed cell migration always results in non-random spatial distribution. Thus, a computational modelling algorithm simulating random MK distribution using real 3D light-sheet fluorescence microscopy data sets was developed. Direct comparison of real and simulated random MK distributions showed, that MKs exhibit a strong bias to vessel-contact. However, this bias is not caused by cell migration, as non-vessel-associated MKs were randomly distributed in the intervascular space. Furthermore, simulation studies revealed that MKs strongly impair migration of other cells in the bone marrow by acting as large-sized obstacles. MKs are thought to migrate from the regions close to the endosteum towards the vasculature during their maturation process. MK distribution as a function of their localization relative to the endosteal regions of the bones was investigated by light sheet fluorescence microscopy (LSFM). The results show no bone-region dependent distribution of MKs. Taken together, the newly established methods and obtained results refute the model of MK migration during their maturation.
Ischemia reperfusion (I/R) injury is a frequent complication of cerebral ischemic stroke, where brain tissue damage occurs despite successful recanalization. Platelets, endothelial cells and immune cells have been demonstrated to affect the progression of I/R injury in experimental mouse models 24 h after recanalization. However, the underlying Pathomechanisms, especially in the first hours after recanalization, are poorly understood.
Here, LSFM, 2PM and complemental advanced image analysis workflows were established for investigation of platelets, the vasculature and neutrophils in ischemic brains. Quantitative analysis of thrombus formation in the ipsilateral and contralateral hemispheres at different time points revealed that platelet aggregate formation is minimal during the first 8 h after recanalization and occurs in both hemispheres. Considering that maximal tissue damage already is present at this time point, it can be concluded that infarct progression and neurological damage do not result from platelet aggregated formation. Furthermore, LSFM allowed to confirm neutrophil infiltration into the infarcted hemisphere and, here, the levels of endothelial cell marker PECAM1 were strongly reduced. However, further investigations must be carried out to clearly identify the role of neutrophils and the endothelial cells in I/R injury.
Introduction: During inflammation, reactive oxygen species (ROS) such as Hydrogen peroxide accumulate at the inflammation site and by oxidizing lipids, they produce metabolites such as 4-hydroxynonenal (4-HNE) and oxidized phospholipids (OxPLs). Transient receptor potential ankyrin 1 (TRPA1) and vanilloid 1 (TRPV1) are ligand gated ion channels that are expressed on nociceptors and their activation elicits pain. Hydrogen peroxide and 4-HNE are endogenous ligands for TRPA1 and their role in inflammatory pain conditions has been shown. OxPLs play a major pro-inflammatory role in many pathologies including atherosclerosis and multiple sclerosis. E06/T15 is a mouse IgM mAb that specifically binds oxidized phosphatidylcholine. D-4F is an apolipoprotein A-I mimetic peptide with a very high affinity for OxPLs and possess anti-inflammatory properties. E06 mAb and D-4F peptide protect against OxPLs-induced damage in atherosclerosis in vivo.
Methods: To investigate the role of ROS and their metabolites in inflammatory pain, I utilized a combination of diverse and complex behavioral pain measurements and binding assays. I examined E06 mAb and D-4F as local treatment options for hypersensitivity evoked by endogenous and exogenous activators of TRPA1 and TRPV1 as well as in inflammatory and OxPL-induced pain models in vivo. 4-HNE, hydrogen peroxide as ROS source and mustard oil (AITC) were used to activate TRPA1, while capsaicin was used to activate TRPV1.
Results: Intraplantar injection of oxidized 1-palmitoyl-2-arachidonoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (OxPAPC) into rats’ hind paw elicited thermal and mechanical hypersensitivity. Genetic and pharmacological evidence in vivo confirmed the role of TRPA1 in OxPLs-induced hypersensitivity. OxPLs formation increased in complete Freund’s adjuvant (CFA)-induced inflamed rats’ paw. E06 mAb and D-4F prevented OxPAPC–induced mechanical and thermal hypersensitivity (hyperalgesia) as well as CFA-induced mechanical hypersensitivity. Also, all irritants induced thermal and mechanical hypersensitivity as well as affective-emotional responses and spontaneous nocifensive behaviors. E06 mAb blocked prolonged mechanical hypersensitivity by all but hydrogen peroxide. In parallel, D-4F prevented mechanical hypersensitivity induced by all irritants as well as thermal hypersensitivity induced by capsaicin and 4-HNE. In addition, competitive binding assays showed that all TRPA1/V1 agonists induced prolonged formation of OxPLs in the paw tissue explaining the anti-nociceptive properties of E06 mAb and D-4F. Finally, the potential of gait analysis as a readout for non-provoked pain behavioral measurements were examined.
Conclusion and implications: OxPLs were characterized as novel targets in inflammatory pain. Treatment with the monoclonal antibody E06 or apolipoprotein A-I mimetic peptide D-4F are suggested as potential inflammatory pain medications. OxPLs’ role in neuropathic pain is yet to be investigated.
Breast cancer is the most common cancer among women worldwide and the second most common cause of cancer death in the developed countries. As the current state of the art in first-line drug screenings is highly ineffective, there is an urgent need for novel test systems that allow for reliable predictions of drug sensitivity.
In this study, a tissue engineering approach was used to successfully establish and standardize a 3-dimensional (3D) mamma carcinoma test system that was optimized for the testing of anti-tumour therapies as well as for the investigation of tumour biological issues. This 3D test system is based on the decellularised scaffold of a porcine small intestinal segment and represents the three molecular subsets of oestrogen receptor-positive, HER2/Neu-overexpressing and triple negative breast cancer (TNBC). The characterization of the test system with respect to morphology as well as the expression of markers for epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and differentiation indicate that the 3D tumour models cultured under static and dynamic conditions reflect tumour relevant features and have a good correlation with in vivo tumour tissue from the corresponding xenograft models. In this respect, the dynamic culture in a flow bioreactor resulted in the generation of tumour models that exhibited best reflection of the morphology of the xenograft material. Furthermore, the proliferation indices of 3D models were significantly reduced compared to 2-dimensional (2D) cell culture and therefore better reflect the in vivo situation. As this more physiological proliferation index prevents an overestimation of the therapeutic effect of cytostatic compounds, this is a crucial advantage of the test system compared to 2D culture. Moreover, it could be shown that the 3D models can recapitulate different tumour stages with respect to tumour cell invasion. The scaffold SISmuc with the preserved basement membrane structure allowed the investigation of invasion over this barrier which tumour cells of epithelial origin have to cross in in vivo conditions during the process of metastasis formation. Additionally, the data obtained from ultrastructural analysis and in situ zymography indicate that the invasion observed is connected to a tumour cell-associated change in the basement membrane in which matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are also involved. This features of the model in combination with the mentioned methods of analysis could be used in the future to mechanistically investigate invasive processes and to test anti-metastatic therapy strategies.
The validation of the 3D models as a test system with respect to the predictability of therapeutic effects was achieved by the clinically relevant targeted therapy with the monoclonal antibody trastuzumab which induces therapeutic response only in patients with HER2/Neu-overexpressing mamma carcinomas due to its specificity for HER2. While neither in 2D nor in 3D models of all molecular subsets a clear reduction of cell viability or an increase in apoptosis could be observed, a distinct increase in antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity (ADCC) was detected only in the HER2/NEU-overexpressing 3D model with the help of an ADCC reporter gene assay that had been adapted for the application in the 3D model in the here presented work. This correlates with the clinical observations and underlines the relevance of ADCC as a mechanism of action (MOA) of trastuzumab. In order to measure the effects of ADCC on the tumour cells in a direct way without the indirect measurement via a reporter gene, the introduction of an immunological component into the models was required. This was achieved by the integration of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs), thereby allowing the measurement of the induction of tumour cell apoptosis in the HER2/Neu-overexpressing model. Hence, in this study an immunocompetent model could be established that holds the potential for further testing of therapies from the emergent field of cancer immunotherapies.
Subsequently, the established test system was used for the investigation of scientific issues from different areas of application. By the comparison of the sensitivity of the 2D and 3D model of TNBC towards the water-insoluble compound curcumin that was applied in a novel nanoformulation or in a DMSO-based formulation, the 3D test system was successfully applied for the evaluation of an innovative formulation strategy for poorly soluble drugs in order to achieve cancer therapy-relevant concentrations. Moreover, due to the lack of targeted therapies for TNBC, the TNBC model was applied for testing novel treatment strategies. On the one hand, therapy with the WEE1 kinase inhibitor MK 1775 was evaluated as a single agent as well as in combination with the chemotherapeutic agent doxorubicin. This therapy approach did not reveal any distinct benefits in the 3D test system in contrast to testing in 2D culture. On the other hand, a novel therapy approach from the field of cellular immunotherapies was successfully applied in the TNBC 3D model. The treatment with T cells that express a chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) against ROR1 revealed in the static as well as in the dynamic model a migration of T cells into the tumour tissue, an enhanced proliferation of T cells as well as an efficient lysis of the tumour cells via apoptosis and therefore a specific anti-cancer effect of CAR-transduced T cells compared to control T cells. These results illustrate that the therapeutic application of CAR T cells is a promising strategy for the treatment of solid tumours like TNBC and that the here presented 3D models are suitable for the evaluation and optimization of cellular immunotherapies.
In the last part of this work, the 3D models were expanded by components of the tumour stroma for future applications. By coculture with fibroblasts, the natural structures of the intestinal scaffold comprising crypts and villi were remodelled and the tumour cells formed tumour-like structures together with the fibroblasts. This tissue model displayed a strong correlation with xenograft models with respect to morphology, marker expression as well as the activation of dermal fibroblasts towards a cancer-associated fibroblast (CAF) phenotype. For the integration of adipocytes which are an essential component of the breast stroma, a coculture with human adipose-derived stromal/stem cells (hASCs) which could be successfully differentiated along the adipose lineage in 3D static as well as dynamic models was established. These models are suitable especially for the mechanistic analysis of the reciprocal interaction between tumour cells and adipocytes due to the complex differentiation process.
Taken together, in this study a human 3D mamma carcinoma test system for application in the preclinical development and testing of anti-tumour therapies as well as in basic research in the field of tumour biology was successfully established. With the help of this modular test system, relevant data can be obtained concerning the efficacy of therapies in tumours of different molecular subsets and different tumour stages as well as for the optimization of novel therapy strategies like immunotherapies. In the future this can contribute to improve the preclinical screening and thereby to reduce the high attrition rates in pharmaceutical industry as well as the amount of animal experiments.
Tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-like weak inducer of apoptosis (TWEAK) is a member of the TNF superfamily (TNFSF) and is as such initially expressed as type II class transmembrane glycoprotein from which a soluble ligand form can be released by proteolytic processing. While the expression of TWEAK has been detected at the mRNA level in various cell lines and cell types, its cell surface expression has so far only been documented for dendritic cells, monocytes and interferon-γ stimulated NK cells. The fibroblast growth factor-inducible-14 (Fn14) is a TRAF2-interacting receptor of the TNF receptor superfamily (TNFRSF) and is the only receptor for TWEAK. The expression of Fn14 is strongly induced in a variety of non-hematopoietic cell types after tissue injury. The TWEAK/Fn14 system induces pleiotropic cellular activities such as induction of proinflammatory genes, stimulation of cellular angiogenesis, proliferation, differentiation, migration and in rare cases induction of apoptosis. On the other side, Toll-like receptor3 (TLR3) is one of DNA- and RNA-sensing pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), plays a crucial role in the first line of defense against virus and invading foreign pathogens and cancer cells. Polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid poly(I:C) is a synthetic analog of dsRNA, binds to TLR3 which acts through the adapter TRIF/TICAM1, leading to cytokine secretion, NF-B activation, IRF3 nuclear translocation, inflammatory response and may also elicit the cell death. TWEAK sensitizes cells for TNFR1-induced apoptosis and necroptosis by limiting the availability of protective TRAF2-cIAP1 and TRAF2-cIAP2 complexes, which interact with the TNFR1-binding proteins TRADD and RIPK1. In accordance with the fact that poly(I:C)-induced signaling also involves these proteins, we found enhanced necroptosis-induction in HaCaT and HeLa-RIPK3 by poly(I:C) in the presence of TWEAK (Figure 24). Analysis of a panel of TRADD, FADD, RIPK1 and caspase-8 knockout cells revealed furthermore similarities and differences in the way how these molecules act in cell death signaling by poly(I:C)/TWEAK and TNF and TRAIL. RIPK1 turned out to be essential for poly(I:C)/TWEAK-induced caspase-8-mediated apoptosis but was dispensable for these responses in TNF and TRAIL signaling. Lack of FADD protein abrogated TRAIL- but not TNF- and poly(I:C)-induced necroptosis. Moreover, we observed that both long and short FLIP rescued HaCaT and HeLa-RIPK3 cells from poly(I:C)-induced apoptosis or necroptosis.
To sum up, our results demonstrate that TWEAK, which is produced by interferon stimulated myeloid cells, controls the induction of apoptosis and necroptosis by the TLR3 ligand poly(I:C) and may thus contribute to cancer or anti-viral immunity treatment.
The etiology of anxiety disorders is multifactorial with contributions from both
genetic and environmental factors. Several susceptibility genes of anxiety disorders or
anxiety-related intermediate phenotypes have been identified, including the
serotonin transporter gene (5-HTT) and the neuropeptide S receptor gene (NPSR1),
which have been shown to modulate responses to distal and acute stress experiences.
For instance, gene-environment interaction (GxE) studies have provided evidence
that both 5-HTT and NPSR1 interact with environmental stress, particularly
traumatic experiences during childhood, in the moderation of anxiety traits, and
both 5-HTT and NPSR1 have been implicated in hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis reactivity – an intermediate phenotype of mental disorders – in response
to acute stress exposure. The first part of this thesis aimed to address the interplay of
variations in both 5-HTT and NPSR1 genes and distal stress experiences, i.e.
childhood trauma, in the moderation of anxiety-related traits, extended by
investigation of the potentially protective effect of positive influences, i.e. elements of
successful coping such as general self-efficacy (GSE), on a GxE risk constellation by
introducing GSE as an indicator of coping ability (“C”) as an additional dimension in
a GxExC approach conferring – or buffering – vulnerability to anxiety. Increased
anxiety was observed in 5-HTTLPR/rs25531 LALA genotype and NSPR1 rs324981 AA
genotype carriers, respectively, with a history of childhood maltreatment but only in
the absence of a person’s ability to cope with adversity, whereas a dose-dependent
effect on anxiety traits as a function of maltreatment experiences irrespective of
coping characteristics was observed in the presence of at least one 5-HTT S/LG or
NSPR1 T allele, respectively. The second part of this thesis addressed the respective
impact of 5-HTT and NPSR1 variants on the neuroendocrine, i.e. salivary cortisol
response to acute psychosocial stress by applying the Maastricht Acute Stress Test
(MAST). A direct effect of NPSR1 – but not 5-HTT – on the modulation of acute
stress reactivity could be discerned, with carriers of the more active NPSR1 T allele
Summary
III
displaying significantly higher overall salivary cortisol levels in response to the MAST
compared to AA genotype carriers.
In summary, study 1 observed a moderating effect of GSE in interaction with
childhood maltreatment and 5-HTT and NPSR1, respectively, in an extended GxExC
model of anxiety risk, which may serve to inform targeted preventive interventions
mitigating GxE risk constellations and to improve therapeutic interventions by
strengthening coping ability as a protective mechanism to promote resilient
functioning. In study 2, a modulation of HPA axis function, considered to be an
endophenotype of stress-related mental disorders, by NPSR1 gene variation could be
discerned, suggesting neuroendocrine stress reactivity as an important potential
intermediate phenotype of anxiety given findings linking NPSR1 to dimensional and
categorical anxiety. Results from both studies may converge within the framework of
a multi-level model of anxiety risk, integrating neurobiological, neuroendocrine,
environmental, and psychological factors that act together in a highly complex
manner towards increasing or decreasing anxiety risk.
G protein-coupled receptor research looks out for new technologies to elucidate the complex
processes of receptor activation, function and downstream signaling with spatiotemporal
resolution, preferably in living cells and organisms. A thriving approach consists in making use
of the unsurpassed properties of light, including its high precision in space and time, noninvasiveness
and high degree of orthogonality regarding biological processes. This is realized
by the incorporation of molecular photoswitches, which are able to effectively respond to light,
such as azobenzene, into the structure of a ligand of a given receptor. The muscarinic
acetylcholine receptors belong to class A GPCRs and have received special attention in this
regard due to their role as a prototypic pharmacological system and their therapeutic potential.
They mediate the excitatory and inhibitory effects of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine and
thus regulate diverse important biological processes, especially many neurological functions in
our brain.
In this work, the application of photopharmacological tool compounds to muscarinic receptors
is presented, consisting of pharmacophores extended with azobenzene as light-responsive
motif. Making use of the dualsteric concept, such photochromic ligands can be designed to bind
concomitantly to the orthosteric and allosteric binding site of the receptor, which is
demonstrated for BQCAAI (M1) and PAI (M2) and may lead to subtype- and functionalselective
photoswitchable ligands, suitable for further ex vivo and in vivo studies.
Moreover, photoswitchable ligands based on the synthetic agonist iperoxo were investigated
extensively with regard to their photochemical behavior and pharmacological profile, outlining
the advantages and challenges of using red-shifted molecular photoswitches, such as tetraortho-
fluoro azobenzene. For the first time on a GPCR it was examined, which impact the
different substitution pattern has on both the binding and the activity on the M1 receptor. Results
show that substituted azobenzenes in photopharmacological compounds (F4-photoiperoxo and
F4-iper-azo-iper) not just represent analogs with other photophysical properties but can exhibit
a considerably different biological profile that has to be investigated carefully.
The achievements gained in this study can give important new insights into the binding mode
and time course of activation processes, enabling precise spatial and temporal resolution of the
complex signaling pathway of muscarinic receptors. Due to their role as exemplary model
system, these findings may be useful for the investigation into other therapeutically relevant
GPCRs.
Die Risikobewertung von Chemikalien ist für die öffentliche Gesundheit von entschei-dender Bedeutung, weshalb strenge Testverfahren zu deren toxikologischer Begutach-tung angewandt werden. Die ursprünglich tierbasierten Testverfahren werden aufgrund von neuen wissenschaftlichen Erkenntnissen und wegen ökonomischer Ineffizienz sowie ethischer Fragwürdigkeit immer mehr durch alternative Methoden ohne Tiermodelle ersetzt. Für den toxikologischen Endpunkt der Augenreizung wurden bereits die ersten alternativen Testsysteme auf der Basis von ex vivo- oder in vitro-Modellen entwickelt. Jedoch ist bis dato kein alternatives Testsystem in der Lage, das gesamte Spektrum der verschiedenen Kategorien der Augenreizungen nach dem global harmonisierten System zur Einstufung und Kennzeichnung von Chemikalien (GHS) vorherzusagen und damit den tierbasierten Draize-Augenreizungstest vollends zu ersetzen. Gründe hierfür sind fehlende physiologische Merkmale im Modell sowie eine destruktive Analysemethode.
Aufgrund dessen wurden in dieser Studie die Hypothesen getestet, ob ein verbessertes In-vitro-Modell oder eine zerstörungsfreie, hochsensitive Analysemethode die Vorher-sagekraft des Augenreizungstests verbessern können. Dafür wurden zunächst neue Mo-delle aus humanen Hornhaut- und Hautepithelzellen entwickelt. Die Modelle aus pri-mären cornealen Zellen zeigten eine gewebespezifische Expression der Marker Zytokera-tin 3 und 12 sowie Loricrin. In beiden Modellen konnte durch die Verkürzung der Kul-turdauer die Ausbildung einer Hornschicht verhindert werden. Die Modelle wiesen dadurch eine sensiblere Barriere vergleichbar der nativen Cornea auf. Darüber hinaus konnte durch die chemische Quervernetzung mit Polyethylenglykolsuccinimidylglutara-tester ein transparentes, nicht kontrahierendes Stroma-Äquivalent etabliert werden. Der Stroma-Ersatz konnte zur Generierung von Hemi- und Voll-Cornea-Äquivalenten einge-setzt werden und lieferte somit erste Ansatzpunkte für die Rekonstruktion der nativen Hornhaut.
Parallel dazu konnte ein zerstörungsfreies Analyseverfahren basierend auf der Impe-danzspektroskopie entwickelt werden, das wiederholte Messungen der Gewebeintegri-tät zulässt. Zur verbesserten Messung der Barriere in dreidimensionalen Modelle wurde hierfür ein neuer Parameter, der transepitheliale elektrische Widerstand (TEER) bei der Frequenz von 1000 Hz, der TEER1000 Hz definiert, der eine genauere Aussage über die Integrität der Modelle zulässt. Durch die Kombination der entwickelten cornealen Epithelzellmodelle mit der TEER1000 Hz-Messung konnte die Prädikitivität des Augenrei-zungstests auf 78 - 100 % erhöht werden. Von besonderer Bedeutung ist dabei, dass die nicht destruktive Messung des TEER1000 Hz zum ersten Mal erlaubte, die Persistenz von Irritationen durch wiederholte Messungen in einem in vitro-Modell zu erkennen und somit die GHS-Kategorie 1 von GHS-Kategorie 2 zu unterscheiden. Der wissenschaftli-che Gewinn dieser Forschungsarbeit ist ein neues Testverfahren, das alle GHS-Kategorien in einem einzigen in vitro-Test nachweisen und den Draize-Augenreizungstest gänzlich ersetzen kann.
The respiratory system is amongst the most important compartments in the human body. Due to its connection to the external environment, it is one of the most common portals of pathogen entry. Airborne pathogens like measles virus (MV) carried in liquid droplets exhaled from the infected individuals via a cough or sneeze enter the body from the upper respiratory tract and travel down to the lower respiratory tract and reach the alveoli. There, pathogens are captured by the resident dendritic cells (DCs) or macrophages and brought to the lymph node where immune responses or, as in case of MV, dissemination via the hematopoietic cell compartment are initiated. Basic mechanisms governing MV exit from the respiratory tract, especially virus transmission from infected immune cells to the epithelial cells have not been fully addressed before. Considering the importance of these factors in the viral spread, a complex close-to-in-vivo 3D human respiratory tract model was generated. This model was established using de-cellularized porcine intestine tissue as a biological scaffold and H358 cells as targets for infection. The scaffold was embedded with fibroblast cells, and later on, an endothelial cell layer seeded at the basolateral side. This provided an environment resembling the respiratory tract where MV infected DCs had to transmigrate through the collagen scaffold and transmit the virus to epithelial cells in a Nectin-4 dependent manner. For viral transmission, the access of infected DCs to the recipient epithelial cells is an essential prerequisite and therefore, this important factor which is reflected by cell migration was analyzed in this 3D system.
The enhanced motility of specifically MV-infected DCs in the 3D models was observed, which occurred independently of factors released from the other cell types in the models. Enhanced motility of infected DCs in 3D collagen matrices suggested infection-induced cytoskeletal remodeling, as also verified by detection of cytoskeletal polarization, uropod formation. This enforced migration was sensitive to ROCK inhibition revealing that MV infection induces an amoeboid migration mode in DCs. In support of this, the formation of podosome structures and filopodia, as well as their activity, were reduced in infected DCs and retained in their uninfected siblings. Differential migration modes of uninfected and infected DCs did not cause differential maturation, which was found to be identical for both populations. As an underlying mechanism driving this enforced migration, the role of sphingosine kinase (SphK) and sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) was studied in MV-exposed cultures. It was shown in this thesis that MV-infection increased S1P production, and this was identified as a contributing factor as inhibition sphingosine kinase activity abolished enforced migration of MV-infected DCs. These findings revealed that MV infection induces a fast push-and-squeeze amoeboid mode of migration, which is supported by SphK/S1P axis. However, this push-and-squeeze amoeboid migration mode did not prevent the transendothelial migration of MV-infected DCs.
Altogether, this 3D system has been proven to be a suitable model to study specific parameters of mechanisms involved in infections in an in vivo-like conditions.
Herein described are the isolation, structural elucidation, and biological evaluation of highly thrilling monomeric and dimeric new naphthylisoquinoline alkaloids from A. ealaensis. The separation, chiral resolution, and characterization of a series of stereoisomeric 2,3-dihydrobenzofuran neolignans are also reported. The analytical and phytochemical analysis on two Congolese antimalarial herbal drugs is part of the last chapter of the results. In this last case, major concerns on widely used Congolese herbal drugs are discussed.
Jeder Zwanzigste im Alter von über 60 Jahren ist von einer Demenzerkrankung betroffen. Mit zunehmendem Alter steigt der Anteil Betroffener drastisch. Hierbei ist die Alzheimer-Demenz (AD) der häufigste Subtyp der Demenzerkrankungen. Symptomatisch ist diese Erkrankung vorwiegend charakterisiert durch ein Nachlassen der Gedächtnisfunktionen; neuropathologisch weisen Patienten mit AD neurofibrilläre Bündel von Tau-Protein-Ablagerungen, Amyloid-β (Aβ) Plaques sowie einen verringerten zerebralen Blutfluss auf.
Aktuell gibt es noch keine Behandlungsmöglichkeit, um die Erkrankung deutlich zu verlangsamen oder zu stoppen. Bereits Jahrzehnte vor Diagnosestellung der AD beginnen die pathologischen Mechanismen. Aktuelle Behandlungsmethoden setzen jedoch häufig erst nach Diagnosestellung einer AD an, also zu einem Zeitpunkt, an dem das Gehirn schon eine deutliche Neurodegeneration aufweist. Die Untersuchung von Risikogruppen zur Identifikation von frühen Biomarkern und nebenwirkungsarmen Behandlungsmethoden bietet ein großes Potential, um die Erkrankung möglichst früh entdecken und verlangsamen oder vielleicht sogar stoppen zu können. Risikogruppen im späteren Lebensabschnitt sind beispielsweise Träger des genetischen Hauptrisikofaktors Apolipoprotein-E4 (APOE4), Patienten mit einer subjektiven kognitiven Beeinträchtigung sowie Patienten mit einer objektiven leichten kognitiven Beeinträchtigung (engl. mild cognitive impairment; MCI).
Die Untersuchung der hämodynamischen Reaktion mittels funktioneller Nahinfrarotspektroskopie (fNIRS) ist aufgrund der einfachen und kostengünstigen Einsetzbarkeit dieser Methodik besonders praktikabel. Auch der wiederholte Befund einer reduzierten hämodynamischen Reaktion bei Patienten mit AD scheint vielversprechend. Untersuchungen mit AD-Risikogruppen gibt es bisher jedoch nur wenige; zudem weisen diese uneindeutige Befunde auf.
Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit ist daher die Untersuchung der hämodynamischen Reaktion bei den Risikogruppen ‚APOE4‘ und ‚MCI‘ im Vergleich zu gesunden Kontrollen während Wortflüssigkeitsaufgaben, die mittels fNIRS bereits gut etablierte Aufgaben darstellen. Des Weiteren wird in der vorliegenden Arbeit die Wirkung einer nebenwirkungsarmen Behandlungsmethode im Vergleich zu einer sham-Behandlung bei der Risikogruppe ‚subjektive kognitive Beeinträchtigung‘ untersucht. Bei dieser Behandlungsmethode handelt es sich um ein mittels transkranieller Gleichstromstimulation (engl. transcranial direct current stimulation; tDCS) augmentiertes kognitives Training.
Es zeigt sich für die Risikogruppe APOE4 bei gleicher Leistung im Vergleich zu Trägern anderer Allelvarianten eine verminderte hämodynamische Reaktion im typischerweise aufgabenspezifisch genutzten inferioren frontalen Gyrus. Parallel dazu weist der mediale frontale Gyrus, ein Teil des frontoparietalen Kontrollsystems, eine verstärkte hämodynamische Reaktion auf. Bei der Risikogruppe MCI zeigt sich neben einer schlechteren Testleistung eine verminderte hämodynamische Reaktion des infe-rioren frontotemporalen Kortex, welcher den inferioren frontalen Gyrus umfasst. Das tDCS-augmentierte kognitive Training bewirkt nicht nur einen gruppenunspezifischen Anstieg der hämodynamischen Reaktion im inferioren frontotemporalen Kortex, die tDCS verstärkt diesen Effekt im Vergleich zur sham-Stimulation noch zusätzlich. Dies geht jedoch nicht mit einer Veränderung der Testleistung einher.
Insgesamt deuten die Ergebnisse darauf hin, dass eine reduzierte hämodyna-mische Reaktion bereits in frühen Krankheitsstadien der AD detektierbar ist und dies möglicherweise als Biomarker für eine frühzeitige Detektion und Behandlung genutzt werden könnte. Des Weiteren bietet die tDCS für frühe Krankheitsstadien der AD das Potential einer nebenwirkungsarmen Behandlungsmethode.
In addition to bradykinesia and tremor, patients with Parkinson’s disease (PD) are known to exhibit non-motor symptoms such as apathy and hypomimia but also impulsivity in response to dopaminergic replacement therapy. Moreover, a plethora of studies observe differences in electrocortical and autonomic responses to both visual and acoustic affective stimuli in PD subjects compared to healthy controls. This suggests that the basal ganglia (BG), as well as the hyperdirect pathway and BG thalamocortical circuits, are involved in affective processing. Recent studies have shown valence and dopamine-dependent changes in synchronization in the subthalamic nucleus (STN) in PD patients during affective tasks. This thesis investigates the role of dopamine, valence, and laterality in STN electrophysiology by analyzing event-related potentials (ERP), synchronization, and inter-hemispheric STN connectivity. STN recordings were obtained from PD patients with chronically implanted electrodes for deep brain stimulation during a passive affective picture presentation task. The STN exhibited valence-dependent ERP latencies and lateralized ‘high beta’ (28–40 Hz) event-related desynchronization. This thesis also examines the role of dopamine, valence, and laterality on STN functional connectivity with the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and the amygdala. The activity of these limbic structures was reconstructed using simultaneously recorded electroencephalographic signals. While the STN was found to establish early coupling with both structures, STN-ACC coupling in the ‘alpha’ range (7–11 Hz) and uncoupling in the ‘low beta’ range (14–21 Hz) were lateralized. Lateralization was also observed at the level of synchrony in both reconstructed sources and for ACC ERP amplitude, whereas dopamine modulated ERP latency in the amygdala. These results may deepen our current understanding of the STN as a limbic node within larger emotional-motor networks in the brain.
Protein kinase D1 deletion in adipocytes enhances energy dissipation and protects against adiposity
(2019)
Adaptation to alterations in nutrient availability ensures the survival of organisms. In vertebrates, adipocytes play a decisive role in this process due to their ability to store large amounts of excess nutrients and release them in times of food deprivation. In todays western world, a rather unlimited excess of nutrients leads to high-caloric food consumption in humans. Nutrient overload together with a decreased energy dissipation result in obesity as well as associated diseases such as insulin resistance, diabetes, and liver steatosis. Obesity causes a hormonal imbalance, which in combination with altered nutrient levels can aberrantly activate G-protein coupled receptors utilizing diacylglycerol (DAG) as secondary messenger. Protein kinase D (PKD) 1 is a DAG effector integrating multiple hormonal and nutritional inputs. Nevertheless, its physiological role in adipocytes has not been investigated so far. In this thesis, evidence is provided that the deletion of PKD1 in adipocytes suppresses lipogenesis as well as the accumulation of triglycerides. Furthermore, PKD1 depletion results in increased mitochondrial biogenesis as well as decoupling activity. Moreover, PKD1 deletion promotes the expression of the β3-adrenergic receptor (ADRB3) in a CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein (C/EBP)-α and δ-dependent manner. This results in elevated expression levels of beige markers in adipocytes in the presence of a β-agonist. Contrarily, adipocytes expressing a constitutive active form of PKD1 present a reversed phenotype. Additionally, PKD1 regulates adipocyte metabolism in an AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK)-dependent manner by suppressing its activity through phosphorylation of AMPK α1/α2 subunits. Thus, PKD1 deletion results in an enhanced activity of the AMPK complex. Consistent with the in vitro findings, mice lacking PKD1 in adipocytes demonstrate a resistance to high-fat diet-induced obesity due to an elevated energy expenditure caused by trans-differentiation of white into beige adipocytes. Moreover, deletion of PKD1 in murine adipocytes improves systemic insulin sensitivity and ameliorates liver steatosis. Finally, PKD1 levels positively correlate with HOMA-IR as well as insulin levels in human subjects. Furthermore, inhibition of PKD1 in human adipocytes leads to metabolic alterations, which are comparable to the alterations seen in their murine counterparts. Taken together, these data demonstrate that PKD1 suppresses energy dissipation, drives lipogenesis, and adiposity. Therefore, increased energy dissipation induced by several complementary mechanisms upon PKD1 deletion might represent an attractive strategy to treat obesity and its related complications.
Bacterial meningitis occurs when blood-borne bacteria are able to penetrate highly specialized brain endothelial cells (BECs) and gain access to the meninges. Neisseria meningitidis (Nm) is a human-exclusive pathogen for which suitable in vitro models are severely lacking. Until recently, modeling BEC-Nm interactions has been almost exclusively limited to immortalized human cells that lack proper BEC phenotypes. Specifically, these in vitro models lack barrier properties, and continuous tight junctions. Alternatively, humanized mice have been used, but these must rely on known interactions and have limited translatability. This motivates the need to establish novel human-based in vitro BEC models that have barrier phenotypes to research Nm-BEC interactions. Recently, a human induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) model of BECs has been developed that possesses superior BEC phenotypes and closely mimics the in vivo blood vessels present at the blood-meningeal barrier.
Here, iPSC-BECs were tested as a novel cellular model to study Nm-host pathogen interactions, with focus on host responses to Nm infection. Two wild type strains and three mutant strains of Nm were used to confirm that these followed similar phenotypes to previously described models. Importantly, the recruitment of the recently published pilus adhesin receptor CD147 underneath meningococcal microcolonies could be verified in iPSC-BECs. Nm was also observed to significantly increase the expression of pro-inflammatory and neutrophil-specific chemokines IL6, CXCL1, CXCL2, CXCL8, and CCL20, at distinct time points of infection, and the secretion of IFN γ and RANTES by iPSC-BECs. Nm was directly observed to disrupt tight junction proteins ZO-1, Occludin, and Claudin-5 at late time points of infection, which became frayed and/or discontinuous upon infection. This destruction is preceded by, and might be dependent on, SNAI1 activation (a transcriptional repressor of tight junction proteins). In accordance with tight junction loss, a sharp loss in trans-endothelial electrical resistance, and an increase in sodium fluorescein permeability was observed at late infection time points. Notably, bacterial transmigration correlated with junctional disruption, indicating that the paracellular route contributes for bacterial crossing of BECs. Finally, RNA-Sequencing (RNA-Seq) of sorted, infected iPSC-BECs was established through the use of fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) techniques following infection. This allowed the detection of expression data of Nm-responsive host genes not previously described thus far to play a role during meningitidis.
In conclusion, here the utility of iPSC-BECs in vitro to study Nm infection could be demonstrated. This is the first BEC in vitro model to express all major BEC tight junctions and to display high barrier potential. Altogether, here this model provides novel insights into Nm pathogenesis, including an impact of Nm on barrier properties and tight junction complexes and suggests that the paracellular route contributes to Nm traversal of BECs.
Chlamydia trachomatis (Ct) is an obligate intracellular human pathogen. It causes blinding trachoma and sexually transmitted disease such as chlamydia, pelvic inflammatory disease and lymphogranuloma venereum. Ct has a unique biphasic development cycle and replicates in an intracellular vacuole called inclusion. Normally it has two forms: the infectious form, elementary body (EB); and the non-infectious form, reticulate body (RB). Ct is not easily amenable to genetic manipulation. Hence, to understand the infection process, it is crucial to study how the metabolic activity of Ct exactly evolves in the host cell and what roles of EB and RB play differentially in Ct metabolism during infection. In addition, Ct was found regularly coinfected with other pathogens in patients who got sexually transmitted diseases (STDs). A lack of powerful methods to culture Ct outside of the host cell makes the detailed molecular mechanisms of coinfection difficult to study.
In this work, a genome-scale metabolic model with 321 metabolites and 277 reactions was first reconstructed by me to study Ct metabolic adaptation in the host cell during infection. This model was calculated to yield 84 extreme pathways, and metabolic flux strength was then modelled regarding 20hpi, 40hpi and later based on a published proteomics dataset. Activities of key enzymes involved in target pathways were further validated by RT-qPCR in both HeLa229 and HUVEC cell lines. This study suggests that Ct's major active pathways involve glycolysis, gluconeogenesis, glycerolphospholipid biosynthesis and pentose phosphate pathway, while Ct's incomplete tricarboxylic acid cycle and fatty acid biosynthesis are less active. EB is more activated in almost all these carbohydrate pathways than RB. Result suggests the survival of Ct generally requires a lot of acetyl-CoA from the host. Besides, both EB and RB can utilize folate biosynthesis to generate NAD(P)H but may use different pathways depending on the demands of ATP. When more ATP is available from both host cell and Ct itself, RB is more activated by utilizing energy providing chemicals generated by enzymes associated in the nucleic acid metabolism. The forming of folate also suggests large glutamate consumption, which is supposed to be converted from glutamine by the glutamine-fructose-6-phosphate transaminase (glmS) and CTP synthase (pyrG).
Then, RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) data analysis was performed by me in a coinfection study. Metatranscriptome from patient RNA-seq data provides a realistic overview. Thirteen patient samples were collected and sequenced by our collaborators. Six male samples were obtained by urethral swab, and seven female samples were collected by cervicovaginal lavage. All the samples were Neisseria gonorrhoeae (GC) positive, and half of them had coinfection with Ct. HISAT2 and Stringtie were used for transcriptomic mapping and assembly respectively, and differential expression analysis by DESeq2, Ballgown and Cuffdiff2 are parallelly processed for comparison. Although the measured transcripts were not sufficient to assemble Ct's transcriptome, the differential expression of genes in both the host and GC were analyzed by comparing Ct positive group (Ct+) against Ct-uninfected group. The results show that in the Ct+ group, the host MHC class II immune response was highly induced. Ct infection is associated with the regulation of DNA methylation, DNA double-strand damage and ubiquitination. The analysis also shows Ct infection enhances host fatty acid beta oxidation, thereby inducing mROS, and the host responds to reduce ceramide production and glycolysis. The coinfection upregulates GC's own ion transporters and amino acid uptake, while it downregulates GC's restriction and modification systems. Meanwhile, GC has the nitrosative and oxidative stress response and also increases the ability for ferric uptake especially in the Ct+ group compared to Ct-uninfected group.
In conclusion, methods in bioinformatics were used here in analyzing the metabolism of Ct itself, and the responses of the host and GC respectively in a coinfection study with and without Ct. These methods provide metabolic and metatranscriptomic details to study Ct metabolism during infection and Ct associated coinfection in the human microbiota.
Die Implantation eines Medizinprodukts in den menschlichen Körper ruft eine Immunreaktion hervor, die zur fibrösen Einkapselung führen kann. Makrophagen in direktem Kontakt mit der Oberfläche des Implantats erfassen sensorisch den Fremdkörper und übersetzten das Signal in die Freisetzung zahlreicher löslicher Mediatoren. Das generierte Entzündungsmilieu moduliert die Heilungsreaktion und kann zur Anreicherung von Fibroblasten sowie zur Erhöhung der Matrixsyntheserate in der Wundumgebung führen. Eine dichte fibröse Kapsel um ein Medizinprodukt beeinträchtigt den Ersatz von Körperstrukturen, das Unterstützen physiologischer Körperfunktionen sowie die Effizienz einer medizinischen Therapie. Zur Identifizierung potenzieller Biomaterialkandidaten mit optimalen Eigenschaften ist jedoch eine evidenzbasierte Entscheidungsfindung notwendig und diese wiederum muss durch geeignete Testmethoden unterstützt werden.
Zur Erfassung lokaler Effekte nach Implantation eines Biomaterials begründet die Komplexi-tät der ablaufenden Fremdkörperreaktion die Anwendung von Tiermodellen als Goldstandard. Die Eingliederung von in vitro Modellsystemen in standardisierte Testverfahren scheitert oft an der Verfügbarkeit validierter, verlässlicher und reproduzierbarer Methoden. Demnach ist kein standardisiertes in vitro Testverfahren beschrieben, das die komplexen dreidimensionalen Gewebsstrukturen während einer Fremdkörperreaktion abbildet und sich zur Testung über längere Kontaktphasen zwischen Blutkomponenten und Biomaterialien eignet. Jedoch können in vitro Testungen kosten- und zeiteffizienter sein und durch die Anwendung humaner Zellen eine höhere Übertragbarkeit auf den Menschen aufweisen. Zusätzlich adressiert die Präferenz zu in vitro Testmethoden den Aspekt „Reduzierung“ der 3R-Prinzipien „Replacement, Reduction, Refinement“ (Ersatz, Reduzierung, Verbesserung) von Russel und Burch (1959) zu einer bewussten und begründeten Anwendung von Tiermodellen in der Wissenschaft. Ziel von diesem Forschungsvorhaben war die Entwicklung von humanen in vitro Modellsystemen, die den Kontakt zu Blutkomponenten sowie die Reaktion des umliegenden Bindegewebes bei lokaler Implantation eines Biomaterials abbilden. Referenzmaterialien, deren Gewebsantwort nach Implantation in Tiere oder den Menschen bekannt ist, dienten als Validierungskriterium für die entwickelten Modellsysteme. Die Anreicherung von Zellen sowie die Bildung extrazellulärer Matrix in der Wundumgebung stellen wichtige Teilprozesse während einer Fremdkörperreaktion dar. Für beide Teilprozesse konnte in einem indirekten zellbasierten Modellsystem der Einfluss einer zellvermittelten Konditionierung wie die Freisetzung von löslichen Mediatoren durch materialadhärente Makrophagen auf die gerichtete Wanderung von Fibroblasten sowie den Umbau eines dreidimensionalen Bindegewebsmodells aufgezeigt werden.
Des Weiteren ließ sich das Freisetzungsprofil von Zytokinen durch materialständige Makrophagen unter verschiedenen Testbedingungen wie der Kontamination mit LPS, der Oberflächenbehandlung mit humanem Blutplasma und der Gegenwart von IL-4 bestimmen. Die anschließende vergleichende statistische Modellierung der generierten komplexen multifaktoriellen Datenmatrix ermöglichte die Übersetzung in eine Biomaterialbewertung. Dieses entwickelte Testverfahren eignete sich einerseits zur Validierung von in vitro Testbedingungen sowie andererseits zur Bewertung von Biomaterialien. Darüber hinaus konnte in einem dreidimensionalen Fremdkörpermodell die komplexe dreidimensionale Struktur der extrazellulären Matrix in einer Wunde durch die Kombination unterschiedlicher Zell- und Matrixkomponenten biomimetisch nachgebaut werden. Diese neuartigen dreidimensionalen Fremdkörpermodelle ermöglichten die Testung von Biomaterialien über längere Testphasen und können in anschließenden Studien angewandt werden, um dynamische Prozesse zu untersuchen. Zusammenfassend konnten in dieser Arbeit drei unterschiedliche Teststrategien entwickelt werden, die (I) die Bewertung von Teilprozessen ermöglichen, (II) die Identifizierung verlässlicher Testbedingungen unterstützen und (III) biomimetisch ein Wundgewebe abbilden. Wesentlich ist, dass biomimetisch ein dreidimensionales Gewebemodell entwickelt werden konnte, das eine verlässliche Unterscheidungskapazität zwischen Biomaterialien aufweist.
Functional analysis of polarization and podosome formation of murine and human megakaryocytes
(2019)
In mammals, blood platelets are produced by large bone marrow (BM) precursor cells, megakaryocytes (MK) that extend polarized cell protrusions (proplateles) into BM sinusoids. Proplatelet formation (PPF) requires substantial cytoskeletal rearrangements that have been shown to involve the formation of podosomes, filamentous actin (F-actin) and integrin-rich structures. However, the exact molecular mechanisms regulating MK podosome formation, polarization and migration within the BM are poorly defined. According to current knowledge obtained from studies with other cell types, these processes are regulated by Rho GTPase proteins like RhoA and Cdc42.
In this thesis, polarization and podosome formation were investigated in MKs from genetically modified mice, as well as the cell lines K562 and Meg01 by pharmacological modulation of signaling pathways.
The first part of this thesis describes establishment of the basic assays for investigation of MK polarization. Initial data on polarization of the MK-like erythroleukemia cell line K562 revealed first insights into actin and tubulin dynamics of wild type (WT) and RhoA knock-out (RhoA-/-) K562 cells. Phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA)-induction of K562 cells led to the expected MK-receptor upregulation but also RhoA depletion and altered polarization patterns.
The second part of this thesis focuses on podosome formation of MKs. RhoA is shown to be dispensable for podosome formation. Cdc42 is revealed as an important, but not essential regulator of MK spreading and podosome formation. Studies of signaling pathways of podosome formation reveal the importance of the tyrosine kinases Src, Syk, as well as glycoprotein (GP)VI in MK spreading and podosome formation.
This thesis provides novel insights into the mechanisms underlying polarization and podosome formation of MKs and reveals new, important information about cytoskeletal dynamics of MKs and potentially also platelets.
Das Multiple Myelom muss trotz stetiger Fortschritte im Hinblick auf die verfügbaren Therapieoptionen und die Krankheitsprognose weiterhin im Wesentlichen als eine unheilbare Erkrankung angesehen werden. Dies kann vor allem auf die große inter- und intraindividuelle Heterogenität des MM zurückgeführt werden, welche die Entwicklung gezielter molekularer Therapiestrategien erheblich erschwert. Hierbei stellen loss-of-function- Experimente, welche die Identifikation einzelner oder mehrerer potenziell therapeutisch relevanter Zielstrukturen durch die (kombinierte) Depletion von Proteinen ermöglichen, eine wichtige Säule dar, für deren Durchführung verschiedene Systeme mit jeweils eigenen Vor- und Nachteilen zur Verfügung stehen. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit konnte die Etablierung eines auf RNA-Interferenz basierenden stabilen und induzierbaren Knockdownsystems durch Elektroporation von MM Zelllinien mit Einzel- und Mehrfach-shRNA-Vektoren abgeschlossen werden. Die Transfektion von tet-Repressor-exprimierenden Zellinien mit einer oder mehreren shRNAExpressionskassetten innerhalb eines Plasmidvektors ermöglicht durch die vollständige Repression der shRNA-Transkription im nicht-induzierten Zustand die Selektion erfolgreich transponierter Zellen ohne Effekt-vermittelte Bias und die Generierung großer Zellmengen für Versuchsreihen in vergleichsweise kurzer Zeit. Die Induktion der verschiedenen in dieser Arbeit evaluierten Einzel- und Mehrfach-shRNA-Konstrukte gegen (Kombinationen von) Zielstrukturen im Ras/MAPK- sowie im NFκB-Signalsystem mittels Doxyzyklin als Induktionsagens zeigte durchweg deutliche und den Erwartungen aus transienten Experimenten entsprechende Knockdownergebnisse. Auch die Resultate hinsichtlich funktioneller Readouts und zellphysiologischer Effekte der induzierten Knockouts stehen im Einklang mit vorangegangenen Experimenten und bestätigen somit die Äquivalenz des stabilen induzierbaren Systems zu transienten Ansätzen auf RNAi-Basis oder zu pharmakologischen Inhibitoren. Der hierbei erzielte hypomorphe Phänotyp innerhalb einer polyklonalen Zellpopulation bildet die Realität einer medikamentösen Blockade einer oder weniger Zielstrukturen einer heterogenen MM Tumorpopulation näherungsweise ab, weshalb das vorgestellte System ein hilfreiches, kosteneffizientes und leicht zu handhabendes Werkzeug für die Identifikation potenziell relevanter Zielstrukturen für molekulare Therapieansätze im Multiplen Myelom darstellt
Protein kinase A (PKA) is the main effector of cyclic-adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) and plays an important role in steroidogenesis and proliferation of adrenal cells. In a previous study we found two mutations (L206R, 199_200insW) in the main catalytic subunit of protein kinase A (PKA C) to be responsible for cortisol-producing adrenocortical adenomas (CPAs). These mutations interfere with the formation of a stable holoenzyme, thus causing constitutive PKA activation. More recently, we identified additional mutations affecting PKA C in CPAs associated with overt Cushing syndrome: S213R+insIILR, 200_201insV, W197R, d244 248+E249Q, E32V.
This study reports a functional characterization of those PKA Cmutations linked to CPAs of Cushing’s patients. All analyzed mutations except for E32V showed a reduced interaction with at least one tested regulatory (R) subunit. Interestingly the results of the activity differed among the mutants and between the assays employed. For three mutants (L206R, 199_200insW, S213R+insIILR), the results showed enhanced translocation to the nucleus. This was also observed in CRISPR/Cas9 generated PRKACA L206R mutated HEK293T cells. The enhanced nuclear translocation of this mutants could be due to the lack of R subunit binding, but also other mechanisms could be at play. Additionally, I used an algorithm, which predicted an effect of the mutation on substrate specificity for four mutants (L206R, 199_200insW, 200_201insV, d244 248+E249Q). This was proven using phosphoproteomics for three mutants (L206R, 200_201insV, d244 248+E249Q). In PRKACA L206R mutated CPAs this change in substrate specificity also caused hyperphosphorylation of H1.4 on serine 36, which has been reported to be implicated in mitosis. Due to these observations, I hypothesized, that there are several mechanisms of action of PRKACA mutations leading to increased cortisol secretion and cell proliferation in adrenal cells: interference with the formation of a stable holoenzyme, altered subcellular localization and a change in substrate specificity. My data indicate that some PKA C mutants might act via just one, others by a combination of these mechanisms. Altogether, these findings indicate that several mechanisms contribute to the development of CPAs caused by PRKACA mutations. Moreover, these findings provide a highly illustrative example of how alterations in a protein kinase can cause a human disease.
The Myb-MuvB (MMB) multiprotein complex is a master regulator of cell cycle-dependent gene expression. Target genes of MMB are expressed at elevated levels in several different cancer types and are included in the chromosomal instability (CIN) signature of lung, brain, and breast tumors.
This doctoral thesis showed that the complete loss of the MMB core subunit LIN9 leads to strong proliferation defects and nuclear abnormalities in primary lung adenocarcinoma cells. Transcriptome profiling and genome-wide DNA-binding analyses of MMB in lung adenocarcinoma cells revealed that MMB drives the expression of genes linked to cell cycle progression, mitosis, and chromosome segregation by direct binding to promoters of these genes. Unexpectedly, a previously unknown overlap between MMB-dependent genes and several signatures of YAP-regulated genes was identified. YAP is a transcriptional co-activator acting downstream of the Hippo signaling pathway, which is deregulated in many tumor types. Here, MMB and YAP were found to physically interact and co-regulate a set of mitotic and cytokinetic target genes, which are important in cancer. Furthermore, the activation of mitotic genes and the induction of entry into mitosis by YAP were strongly dependent on MMB. By ChIP-seq and 4C-seq, the genome-wide binding of MMB upon YAP overexpression was analyzed and long-range chromatin interaction sites of selected MMB target gene promoters were identified. Strikingly, YAP strongly promoted chromatin-association of B-MYB through binding to distal enhancer elements that interact with MMB-regulated promoters through chromatin looping.
Together, the findings of this thesis provide a so far unknown molecular mechanism by which YAP and MMB cooperate to regulate mitotic gene expression and suggest a link between two cancer-relevant signaling pathways.
Regulation of gene expression by the control of transcription is essential for any cell to adapt to the environment and survive. Transcription regulators, i.e. sequence-specific DNA binding proteins that regulate gene expression, are central elements within the gene networks of most organisms. Transcription regulators are grouped into distinct families based on structural features that determine, to a large extent, the DNA sequence(s) that they can recognise and bind. Less is known, however, about how the DNA binding preferences can diversify within transcription regulator families during evolutionary timescales, and how such diversification can affect the biology of the organism.
In this dissertation I study the SREBP (sterol regulatory element binding protein) family of transcriptional regulators in yeasts, and in Candida albicans in particular, as an experimental system to address these questions. The SREBPs are conserved from fungi to humans and represent a subgroup of basic helix-loop-helix DNA binding proteins. Early chromatin immunoprecipitation experiments with SREBPs from humans and yeasts showed that these proteins bound in vivo to the canonical DNA sequence, termed E-box, most basic helix-loop-helix proteins bind to. By contrast, most recent analysis carried out with less-studied fungal SREBPs revealed a non-canonical DNA motif to be the most overrepresented sequence in the bound regions.
This study aims to establish the intrinsic DNA binding preferences of key branches of this family and to determine how the divergence in DNA binding affinities originated. To this end, I combined phylogenetic and ancestral reconstruction with extensive biochemical characterisation of key SREBP proteins. The results indicated that while the most-studied SREBPs (in mammals) indeed show preference for the E-box, a second branch of the family preferentially binds the non-E-box, and a third one is able to bind both sequences with similar affinity. The preference for one or the other DNA sequence is an intrinsic property of each protein because their purified DNA binding domain was sufficient to recapitulate their in vivo binding preference. The ancestor that gave rise to these two different types of SREBPs (the branch that binds E-box and the one that binds non-E-box DNA) appears to be a protein with a broader DNA binding capability that had a slight preference for the non-canonical motif. Thus, the results imply these two branches originated by either enhancing the original ancestral preference for non-E-box or tilting it towards the E-box DNA and flipping the preference for this sequence.
The main function associated with members of the SREBP family in most eukaryotes is the control of lipid biosynthesis. I have further studied the function of these proteins in the lineage that encompasses the human associated yeast C. albicans. Strikingly, the three SREBPs present in the fungus’ genome contribute to the colonisation of the mammalian gut by regulating cellular processes unrelated to lipid metabolism. Here I describe that two of the three C. albicans SREBPs form a regulatory cascade that regulates morphology and cell wall modifications under anaerobic conditions, whereas the third SREBP has been shown to be involved in the regulation of glycolysis genes.
Therefore, I posit that the described diversification in DNA binding specificity in these proteins and the concomitant expansion of targets of regulation were key in enabling this fungal lineage to associate with animals.
Das Verständnis der molekularen Mechanismen, die einer malignen Erkrankung zugrunde liegen, ist der Schlüssel zur Entwicklung zielgerichteter und effektiver therapeutischer Möglichkeiten. Für das LIM und SH3 Domänen Protein 1, LASP1, konnte im Kontext zahl-reicher Tumorerkrankungen wie dem Mamma-Karzinom, dem Prostata-Karzinom oder dem Ovarial-Karzinom eine Überexpression ebenso wie eine Korrelation mit Aggressivität und Prognose der Tumorerkrankung gezeigt werden. Bisher war eine Relevanz von LASP1 jedoch nur für solide Tumorerkrankungen nachgewiesen worden. Kürzlich allerdings wurde lasp1 als eines von 6 Genen identifiziert, die eine exaktere Vorhersage von Krankheitsprogress und -rezidiv bei Patienten mit einer chronischen myeloischen Leukämie (CML) zulassen sollen. Zudem konnte, wie bereits bei zahlreichen anderen, soliden Tumorerkrankungen, eine signifikante Überexpression des lasp1-Gens in CML-Zellen nachgewiesen werden.Basierend auf diesen neuen Erkenntnissen beschäftigte ich mich im Rahmen dieser Arbeit mit der Frage, welche Funktion LASP1 im Netz der einer CML zugrunde liegenden, molekularen Mechanismen übernimmt. Mittels verschiedener Interaktionsassays konnte LASP1 als ein neuer, phosphorylierungs-abhängiger Bindungspartner von CrkL, dem wohl prominentesten Substrat der BCR-ABL-Kinase, identifiziert werden. Dabei impliziert das Attribut „phosphorylierungs-abhängig“ sowohl den Phosphorylierungsstatus von LASP1 als auch des Interaktionspartners CrkL. Wie in Vorarbeiten gezeigt, stellt das Tyrosin 171 in der Aminosäurensequenz von LASP1 eine Phosphorylierungsstelle für die BCR-ABL-Kinase dar; mit LASP1 wurde somit auch ein neues Substrat dieser konstitutiv aktiven Tyrosinkinase entdeckt. Phosphoryliert an Tyrosin 171 kann LASP1 an die SH2-Domäne von CrkL, genauer an das FLVR-Motif innerhalb dieser, binden. Jedoch selbst an Tyrosin 207 durch die BCR-ABL-Kinase phosphoryliert, blockiert CrkL die eigene SH2-Domäne durch intramolekulare Wechselwirkungen für andere Protein-Protein-Interaktionen in gewissem Umfang. Diese neu gewonnenen Erkenntnisse liefern ein weiteres Puzzlestück zum Verständnis des molekularen Netzwerks, das einer CML-Erkrankung zugrunde liegt und tragen so dazu bei, die Therapieoptionen dieser stetig zu verbessern.
Behavioral adaptation to environmental changes is crucial for animals’ survival. The prediction of the outcome of one owns action, like finding reward or avoiding punishment, requires recollection of past experiences and comparison with current situation, and adjustment of behavioral responses. The process of memory acquisition is called learning, and the Drosophila larva came up to be an excellent model organism for studying the neural mechanisms of memory formation. In Drosophila, associative memories are formed, stored and expressed in the mushroom bodies. In the last years, great progress has been made in uncovering the anatomical architecture of these brain structures, however there is still a lack of knowledge about the functional connectivity.
Dopamine plays essential roles in learning processes, as dopaminergic neurons mediate information about the presence of rewarding and punishing stimuli to the mushroom bodies. In the following work, the function of a newly identified anatomical connection from the mushroom bodies to rewarding dopaminergic neurons was dissected. A recurrent feedback signaling within the neuronal network was analyzed by simultaneous genetic manipulation of the mushroom body Kenyon cells and dopaminergic neurons from the primary protocerebral anterior (pPAM) cluster, and learning assays were performed in order to unravel the impact of the Kenyon cells-to-pPAM neurons feedback loop on larval memory formation.
In a substitution learning assay, simultaneous odor exposure paired with optogenetic activation of Kenyon cells in fruit fly larvae in absence of a rewarding stimulus resulted in formation of an appetitive memory, whereas no learning behavior was observed when pPAM neurons were ablated in addition to the KC activation. I argue that the activation of Kenyon cells may induce an internal signal that mimics reward exposure by feedback activation of the rewarding dopaminergic neurons. My data further suggests that the Kenyon cells-to-pPAM communication relies on peptidergic signaling via short neuropeptide F and underlies memory stabilization.
Die Phosphoglykolat-Phosphatase PGP (früher auch als AUM bezeichnet) wurde in unserem Labor als Mitglied der HAD-Typ-Phosphatasen identifiziert. Die genetische Inaktivierung des Enzyms im gesamten Mausorganismus führt ab E8.5 zu einer Wachstumsverzögerung muriner Embryonen und bis E12.5 schließlich zu deren Tod. Im Gegensatz dazu sind Mäuse mit einer PGP-Inaktivierung in hämatopoetischen Zellen und im Endothel lebensfähig und phänotypisch unauffällig. Neue Erkenntnisse schreiben dem Enzym neben einer Aktivität gegenüber Phosphoglykolat auch Aktivitäten gegenüber Glycerin-3-phosphat (G3P), P-Erythronat und P-Lactat zu. Da diese Phosphatase-Aktivitäten Auswirkungen auf den Lipidstoffwechsel nahelegen, wurde in der vorliegenden Arbeit mittels massenspektrometrischer Methoden der Einfluss der Phosphoglykolat-Phosphatase auf den Metabolismus von Signal-, Membran- und Speicherlipiden in murinen Embryonen und Lymphozyten untersucht.
Nach Inaktivierung der PGP im gesamten Organismus wurden in E8.5-Embryonen erhöhte Diacylglycerin (DG)-, Triacylglycerin (TG)- und Sphingomyelin (SM)-Spiegel gemessen, während niedrigere Phosphatidylcholin (PC)-Level vorlagen.
In PGP-inaktivierten Lymphozyten waren G3P-, DG-, TG-, PC- und SM-Level nicht verändert. Dafür kam es zu signifikanten Erhöhungen der Phosphatidylglycerol (PG*)- und Cardiolipin (CL)-Spiegel.
Zusammenfassend konnte gezeigt werden, dass die PGP in unterschiedlichen Geweben differenzielle Effekte auf die Spiegel verschiedener Lipide hat. Dies deckt neue Funktionen der PGP für die Regulation des Lipidmetabolismus auf. Die vorliegende Arbeit stellt somit die Grundlage für weitere Untersuchungen über die genauen Ursachen und Folgen dieser Regulation dar und lässt auf eine wichtige Rolle der PGP als metabolische Phosphatase im Organismus schließen.
Characterization of novel rhodopsins with light-regulated cGMP production or cGMP degradation
(2019)
Photoreceptors are widely occurring in almost all kingdoms of life. They mediate the first step in sensing electromagnetic radiation of different wavelength. Absorption spectra are found within the strongest radiation from the sun and absorption usually triggers downstream signaling pathways. Until now, mainly 6 classes of representative photoreceptors are known: five water-soluble proteins, of these three classes of blue light-sensitive proteins including LOV (light-oxygen-voltage), BLUF (blue-light using FAD), and cryptochrome modules with flavin (vitamin B-related) nucleotides as chromophore; while two classes of yellow and red light-sensitive proteins consist of xanthopsin and phytochrome, respectively. Lastly, as uniquely integral membrane proteins, the class of rhodopsins can usually sense over a wide absorption spectrum, ranging from ultra-violet to green and even red light. Rhodopsins can be further divided into two types, i.e., microbial (type I) and animal (type II) rhodopsins. Rhodopsins consist of the protein opsin and the covalently bound chromophore retinal (vitamin A aldehyde). In this thesis, I focus on identification and characterization of novel type I opsins with guanylyl cyclase activity from green algae and a phosphodiesterase opsin from the protist Salpingoeca rosetta.
Until 2014, all known type I and II rhodopsins showed a typical structure with seven transmembrane helices (7TM), an extracellular N-terminus and a cytosolic C-terminus. The proven function of the experimentally characterized type I rhodopsins was membrane transport of ions or the coupling to a transducer which enables phototaxis via a signaling chain. A completely new class of type I rhodopsins with enzymatic activity was identified in 2014. A light-activated guanylyl cyclase opsin was discovered in the fungus Blastocladiella emersonii which was named Cyclop (Cyclase opsin) by Gao et al. (2015), after heterologous expression and rigorous in-vitro characterization. BeCyclop is the first opsin for which an 8 transmembrane helices (8TM) structure was demonstrated by Gao et al. (2015). Earlier (2004), a novel class of enzymatic rhodopsins was predicted to exist in C. reinhardtii by expressed sequence tag (EST) and genome data, however, no functional data were provided up to now. The hypothetical rhodopsin included an N-terminal opsin domain, a fused two-component system with histidinekinase and response regulator domain, and a C-terminal guanylyl cyclase (GC) domain. This suggested that there could be a biochemical signaling cascade, integrating light-induction and ATP-dependent phosphate transfer, and as output the light-sensitive cGMP production.
One of my projects focused on characterizing two such opsins from the green algae Chlamydomonas reinhardtii and Volvox carteri which we then named 2c-Cyclop (two-component Cyclase opsin), Cr2c-Cyclop and Vc2c-Cyclop, respectively. My results show that both 2c-Cyclops are light-inhibited GCs. Interestingly, Cr2c-Cyclop and Vc2c-Cyclop are very sensitive to light and ATP-dependent, whereby the action spectra of Cr2c-Cyclop and Vc2c-Cyclop peak at ~540 nm and ~560 nm, respectively. More importantly, guanylyl cyclase activity is dependent on continuous phosphate transfer between histidine kinase and response regulator. However, green light can dramatically block phosphoryl group transfer and inhibit cyclase activity. Accordingly, mutation of the retinal-binding lysine in the opsin domain resulted in GC activity and lacking light-inhibition.
A novel rhodopsin phosphodiesterase from the protist Salpingoeca rosetta (SrRhoPDE) was discovered in 2017. However, the previous two studies of 2017 claimed a very weak or absent light-regulation. Here I give strong evidence for light-regulation by studying the activity of SrRhoPDE, expressed in Xenopus laevis oocytes, in-vitro at different cGMP concentrations. Surprisingly, hydrolysis of cGMP shows a ~100-fold higher turnover than that of cAMP. Light can enhance substrate affinity by decreasing the Km value for cGMP from 80 μM to 13 μM, but increases the maximum turnover only by ~30%. In addition, two key single mutants, SrRhoPDE K296A or K296M, can abolish the light-activation effect by interrupting a covalent bond of Schiff base type to the chromophore retinal. I also demonstrate that SrRhoPDE shows cytosolic N- and C- termini, most likely via an 8-TM structure. In the future, SrRhoPDE can be a potentially useful optogenetic tool for light-regulation of cGMP concentration, possibly after further improvements by genetic engineering.
Natrium-Glukose Transporter (SGLT) gehören zur „solute carrier 5“ (SLC5) Familie, die sich durch einen sekundär aktiven, natriumabhängigen Transport von Zuckern und an-deren Molekülen nach intrazellulär auszeichnen. Die durch das Gen SLC5A4 kodierte Isoform SGLT3 transportiert dagegen keinen Zucker, sondern verhält sich als Glukosesensor, der nach Bindung seiner Liganden eine Membrandepolarisation induziert. In genomweiten Exomsequenzierungsstudien (whole exome sequencing, WES) mehrerer erweiterter Stammbäume mit hoher Prävalenz des Aufmerksamkeitsdefizit-/Hyperaktivitätssyndroms (ADHS) wurde im Vorfeld eine ATG-Tripletdeletion in SLC5A4 identifiziert, die zum Verlust einer Aminosäure (ΔM500) in SGLT3 führt und zumindest partiell mit dem klinischen Phänotyp kosegregiert.
In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde die zentralnervöse Expression von SGLT3 auf RNA- Ebene mittels Reverse-Transkriptase PCR sowie real-time PCR aus humanen Gesamt-RNAs nachgewiesen. Dabei konnte eine ubiquitäre Expression im Gehirn mit relativ erhöhter Expression unter anderem in Striatum und Hypothalamus, deren Dysfunktion in der Pathogenese des ADHS impliziert wurde, gezeigt werden. Da Mutationen in homologen Domänen der eng strukturverwandten Isoformen SGLT1 und SGLT2 sowohl intestinale als auch renale Funktionen schwer beeinträchtigen, wurden in dieser Arbeit funktionelle Charakteristika sowohl des wildtypischen als auch der ΔM500 und der benachbarten ΔI501 Deletionsvariante von SGLT3 mittels Zwei-Elektroden Spannungs- und Stromklemme in entsprechend cRNA-injizierten Xenopus laevis Oozyten untersucht. Der hochpotente SGLT3-spezifische Iminozuckeragonist 1-Desoxynojirimycin (DNJ) induzierte an SGLT3-exprimierenden Oozyten in sauren Bedingungen etwa dreifach größere Kationeneinströme als D-Glukose, was sowohl im Spannungsklemmen-, und anhand einer entsprechenden Membrandepolarisation im Stromklemmenmodus gezeigt wurde. Die mit der ΔM500 bzw. ΔI501 Variante injizierten Oozyten dagegen zeigten in den maximalen Aktivierungsbedingungen um 92% bzw. 96% (p<0,01) reduzierte Kationeneinströme, sodass diese als hochgradig schädliche „Loss of Function“ Mutationen in SGLT3 charakterisiert wurden. Dieser Befund wurde mittels bioinformatischer in-silico Effektvorhersage validiert.
Um Konsequenzen der Sequenzalteration auf den Membraneinbau der Transporter zu untersuchen, wurden die mit einem gelb fluoreszierenden Farbstoff (YFP) markierten Transporter in Oozytenmembranen mittels Laser-Scanning Mikroskop nachgewiesen und die jeweiligen Mengen der Konstrukte anhand der Fluoreszenzintensitäten quantifiziert. Dabei zeigte sich eine um 53% bzw. 42% (p<0,01) reduzierte Menge der mutierten Konstrukte ΔM500 bzw. ΔI501 in der Membran, was zusätzliche schädliche Effekte der Mutationen auf das sogenannte Membrantargeting der Transporter belegt.
Zusammenfassend demonstrieren die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit, dass die ΔM500 Variante von SGLT3, welcher in ADHS-relevanten Hirnarealen exprimiert wird, dessen sub-stratinduzierte Natriumleitfähigkeit aufhebt und den Membraneinbau beeinträchtigen könnte, was in Wechselwirkung mit anderen genetischen ADHS Risikovarianten das Risiko für ADHS in Mutationsträgern beeinflussen kann.
Cardiovascular diseases represent the leading cause of death worldwide, with myocardial infarction and strokes being the most common complications. In both cases, the appearance of an enlarged artery wall as a consequence of a growing plaque is responsible for the disturbance of the blood flow. The formation of plaques is driven by a chronic inflammatory condition known as atherosclerosis, characterized by an initial step of endothelial cell (EC) dysfunction followed by the recruitment of circulating immune cells into the tunica intima of the vessel. Accumulation of lipids and cells lead to the formation of atheromatous plaques that will define the cardiovascular outcome of an individual.
The role of the immune system in the progression of atherosclerosis has been widely recognized. By far, macrophages constitute the most abundant cell type in lesions and are known to be the major source of the lipid-laden foam cell pool during the course of the disease. However, other immune cells types, including T cells, dendritic cells (DCs) or mast cells, among others, have been described to be present in human and mouse plaques. How these populations can modulate the atherogenic process is dependent on their specialized function.
DCs constitute a unique population with the ability to bridge innate and adaptive immune responses, mainly by their strong capacity to present antigens bound to a major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecule. Given their ability to polarize T cells and secrete cytokines, their role in atherosclerosis has gained attention for the development of new therapeutic approaches that could impact lesion growth. Hence, knowing the effect of a specific subset is an initial key step to evaluate its potential for clinical purposes. For example, the basic leucine zipper ATF-like 3 transcription factor (Batf3) controls the development of conventional dendritic cells type 1 (cDCs1), characterized by the expression of the surface markers CD8 and CD103. Initially, they were described to promote both T-helper 1 (Th1) and regulatory T cell (Treg) responses, known to accelerate and to protect against atherosclerosis, respectively. The first part of this thesis aimed to elucidate the potential role of Batf3-dependent DCs in atherosclerosis and concluded that even though systemic immune responses were mildly altered they do not modify the course of the disease and may not represent an attractive candidate for clinical studies.
DCs also have the ability to impact lesion growth through the release of a broad range of cytokines, which can either directly impact atherosclerotic plaques by modulating resident cells, or by further polarizing T cell responses. Among others, interleukin (IL) 23, a member of the IL-12 family of cytokines, has received much attention during the past year due to its connection to autoimmunity.
IL-23 is known to induce pathogenicity of Th17 cells and is responsible for the development of several autoimmune diseases including multiple sclerosis, psoriasis or rheumatoid arthritis. Interestingly, these patients often present with an accelerated course of atherosclerosis and thus, are at higher risk of developing cardiovascular events. Several epidemiological studies have pointed toward a possible connection between IL-23 and its receptor IL-23R in atherosclerosis, although their exact contribution remains to be elucidated. The second part of this thesis showed that resident antigen-presenting cells (APCs) in the aorta produced IL-23 during the steady state but this secretion was greatly enhanced after incubation with oxidized low-density lipoprotein (oxLDL). Furthermore, disruption of the IL-23R signaling led to decreased relative necrotic plaque area in lesions of Ldlr-/-Il23r-/- mice fed a high-fat diet (HFD) for 6 and 12 weeks compared to Ldlr-/- controls. A proposed mechanism involves that increased IL-23 production in the context of atherosclerosis may promote the pathogenicity of IL-23-responding T cells, especially IL-23R+ γδ T cells in the aortic root. Response to IL-23 might increase the release of granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) and IL-17 and alter the pro- and anti-inflammatory balance of cytokines in the aortic root. Altogether, these data showed that the IL-23 / IL-23R axis play a role in plaque stability.
Herzschrittmachersysteme sind eine weitverbreitete Möglichkeit Herz-Kreislauf-Erkrankungen zu behandeln. Wegen der natürlichen Reaktion des Immunsystems auf Fremdkörper, erfolgt aber eine fortschreitende Verkapselung der Herzschrittmacherelektrode. Die Folge ist eine ansteigende Verminderung der Stimulationseffizienz durch Erhöhung der Anregungsschwelle. Die Integration der Elektrode in das Gewebe ist dabei mangelhaft und wird bestimmt durch Implantateigenschaften wie Größe, Flexibilität und Dimensionalität. Um die Integration zu verbessern, stellen dreidimensionale (3D) bzw. gewebeartige Elektroden eine Alternative zu den derzeit verwendeten planaren Metallelektroden dar. Zur Entwicklung einer leitfähigen, 3D und faserförmigen Elektrode wurden in dieser Arbeit Kohlenstoff-Nanofaser-Scaffolds über Elektrospinnen hergestellt. Durch die Modifikation des Fasergerüstes mit Natriumchlorid (NaCl) während der Scaffoldherstellung, konnte das Fasernetzwerk aufgelockert und Poren generiert werden. Die Kohlenstofffaser-Elektroden zeigten einen effizienten Energieübertrag, welcher vergleichbar mit heutigen Titannitrid (TiN) -Elektroden ist. Die Auflockerung des Fasergewebes hatte eine verbesserte Flexibilität des Faserscaffolds zu Folge. Neben der Flexibilität, konnte auch die Infiltration von Zellen in das poröse Faserscaffold erheblich verbessert werden. Dabei konnten Fibroblasten durch das gesamte Scaffold migrieren. Die Kompatibilität mit kardialen Zellen, die Grundvoraussetzung von Herzschrittmacherelektroden, wurde in vitro nachgewiesen. Durch die Kombination aus dem 3D-Elektrodengerüst mit einer Co-Kultur aus humanen Kardiomyozyten, mesenchymalen Stammzellen und Fibroblasten, erfolgte eine Einbettung der Elektrode in funktionelles kardiales Gewebe. Dadurch konnte ein lebender Gewebe-Elektroden-Hybrid generiert werden, welcher möglicherweise die Elektrode vor Immunzellen in vivo abschirmen kann. Eine Zusammenführung der hybriden Elektrode mit einen Tissue-Engineerten humanen kardialen Patch in vitro, führte zu Bildung einer nahtlosen Elektronik-Gewebe-Schnittstelle. Die fusionierte Einheit wurde abschließend auf ihre mechanische Belastbarkeit getestet und konnte über einen Elektroden-Anschluss elektrisch stimuliert werden.
Disruptions in brain serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) signaling pathways have been associated with etiology and pathogenesis of various neuropsychiatric disorders, but specific neural mechanisms of 5-HT function are yet to be fully elucidated. Tryptophan hydroxylase 2 (TPH2) is the rate-limiting enzyme for brain 5-HT synthesis. Therefore, in this study a tamoxifen (Tam)-inducible cre-mediated conditional gene (Tph2) knockout in adult mouse brain (Tph2icKO) has been established to decipher the specific role of brain 5-HT in the regulation of behavior in adulthood.
Immunohistochemistry and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) were used first to test the efficacy of Tam-inducible inactivation of Tph2 and consequential reduction of 5-HT in adult mouse brain. Tam treatment resulted in ≥90% reduction in the number of 5-HT immuno-reactive cells in the anterior raphe nuclei. HPLC revealed a significant reduction in concentration of 5-HT and its metabolite 5-hydroxyindole acetic acid (5-HIAA) in selected brain regions of Tph2icKO, indicating the effectiveness of the protocol used.
Second, standard behavioral tests were used to assess whether reduced brain 5-HT concentrations could alter anxiety-, fear- and depressive-like behavior in mice. No altered anxiety- and depressive-like behaviors were observed in Tph2icKO compared to control mice (Tph2CON) in all indices measured, but Tph2icKO mice exhibited intense and sustained freezing during context-dependent fear memory retrieval. Tph2icKO mice also exhibited locomotor hyperactivity in the aversive environments, such as the open field, and consumed more food and fluid than Tph2CON mice.
Lastly, the combined effect of maternal separation (MS) stress and adult brain 5-HT depletion on behavior was assessed in male and female mice. Here, MS stress, 5-HT depletion and their interaction elicited anxiety-like behavior in a sex-dependent manner. MS reduced exploratory behavior in both male and female mice. Reduced 5-HT enhanced anxiety in female, but not in male mice.
Furthermore, expression of genes related to the 5-HT system and emotionality (Tph2, Htr1a, Htr2a, Maoa and Avpr1a) was assessed by performing a quantitative real-time PCR. In Tph2icKO mice there was a reduction in expression of Tph2 in the raphe nuclei of both male and female mice. Interaction between MS stress and 5-HT deficiency was detected showing increased Htr2a and Maoa expression in raphe and hippocampus respectively of female mice. In male mice, MS stress and 5-HT depletion interaction effects reduced Avpr1a expression in raphe, while the expression of Htr1a, Htr2a and Maoa was differentially altered by 5-HT depletion and MS in various brain regions.
The role of multicellularity as the predominant microbial lifestyle has been affirmed by studies on the genetic regulation of biofilms and the conditions driving their formation. Biofilms are of prime importance for the pathology of chronic infections of the opportunistic human pathogen Staphylococcus aureus.
The recent development of a macrocolony biofilm model in S. aureus opened new opportunities to study evolution and physiological specialization in biofilm communities in this organism. In the macrocolony biofilm model, bacteria form complex aggregates with a sophisticated spatial organization on the micro- and macroscale. The central positive and negative regulators of this organization in S. aureus are the alternative sigma factor σB and the quorum sensing system Agr, respectively. Nevertheless, nothing is known on additional factors controlling the macrocolony morphogenesis.
In this work, the genome of S. aureus was screened for novel factors that are required for the development of the macrocolony architecture. A central role for basic metabolic pathways was demonstrated in this context as the macrocolony architecture was strongly altered by the disruption of nucleotide and carbohydrate synthesis. Environmental signals further modulate macrocolony morphogenesis as illustrated by the role of an oxygen-sensitive gene regulator, which is required for the formation of complex surface structures. A further application of the macrocolony biofilm model was demonstrated in the study of interstrain interactions. The integrity of macrocolony communities was macroscopically visibly disturbed by competitive interactions between clinical isolates of S. aureus.
The results of this work contribute to the characterization of the macrocolony biofilm model and improve our understanding of developmental processes relevant in staphylococcal infections. The identification of anti-biofilm effects exercised through competitive interactions could lead to the design of novel antimicrobial strategies targeting multicellular bacterial communities.
This dissertation highlights various aspects of basic social attention by choosing versatile approaches to disentangle the precise mechanisms underlying the preference to focus on other human beings. The progressive examination of different social processes contrasted with aspects of previously adopted principles of general attention. Recent research investigating eye movements during free exploration revealed a clear and robust social bias, especially for the faces of depicted human beings in a naturalistic scene. However, free viewing implies a combination of mechanisms, namely automatic attention (bottom-up), goal-driven allocation (top-down), or contextual cues and inquires consideration of overt (open exploration using the eyes) as well as covert orienting (peripheral attention without eye movement). Within the scope of this dissertation, all of these aspects have been disentangled in three studies to provide a thorough investigation of different influences on social attention mechanisms.
In the first study (section 2.1), we implemented top-down manipulations targeting non-social features in a social scene to test competing resources. Interestingly, attention towards social aspects prevailed, even though this was detrimental to completing the requirements. Furthermore, the tendency of this bias was evident for overall fixation patterns, as well as fixations occurring directly after stimulus onset, suggesting sustained as well as early preferential processing of social features. Although the introduction of tasks generally changes gaze patterns, our results imply only subtle variance when stimuli are social. Concluding, this experiment indicates that attention towards social aspects remains preferential even in light of top-down demands.
The second study (section 2.2) comprised of two separate experiments, one in which we investigated reflexive covert attention and another in which we tested reflexive as well as sustained overt attention for images in which a human being was unilaterally located on either the left or right half of the scene. The first experiment consisted of a modified dot-probe paradigm, in which peripheral probes were presented either congruently on the side of the social aspect, or incongruently on the non-social side. This was based on the assumption that social features would act similar to cues in traditional spatial cueing paradigms, thereby facilitating reaction times for probes presented on the social half as opposed to the non-social half. Indeed, results reflected such congruency effect. The second experiment investigated these reflexive mechanisms by monitoring eye movements and specifying the location of saccades and fixations for short as well as long presentation times. Again, we found the majority of initial saccades to be congruently directed to the social side of the stimulus. Furthermore, we replicated findings for sustained attention processes with highest fixation densities for the head region of the displayed human being.
The third study (section 2.3), tackled the other mechanism proposed in the attention dichotomy, the bottom-up influence. Specifically, we reduced the available contextual information of a scene by using a gaze-contingent display, in which only the currently fixated regions would be visible to the viewer, while the remaining image would remain masked. Thereby, participants had to voluntarily change their gaze in order to explore the stimulus. First, results revealed a replication of a social bias in free-viewing displays. Second, the preference to select social features was also evident in gaze-contingent displays. Third, we find higher recurrent gaze patterns for social images compared to non-social ones for both viewing modalities. Taken together, these findings imply a top-down driven preference for social features largely independent of contextual information.
Importantly, for all experiments, we took saliency predictions of different computational algorithms into consideration to ensure that the observed social bias was not a result of high physical saliency within these areas. For our second experiment, we even reduced the stimulus set to those images, which yielded lower mean and peak saliency for the side of the stimulus containing the social information, while considering algorithms based on low-level features, as well as pre-trained high-level features incorporated in deep learning algorithms.
Our experiments offer new insights into single attentional mechanisms with regard to static social naturalistic scenes and enable a further understanding of basic social processing, contrasting from that of non-social attention. The replicability and consistency of our findings across experiments speaks for a robust effect, attributing social attention an exceptional role within the general attention construct, not only behaviorally, but potentially also on a neuronal level and further allowing implications for clinical populations with impaired social functioning.
Besides a growing tendency for delayed parenthood, sedentary lifestyle coupled with overnutrition has dramatically increased worldwide over the last few decades. Epigenetic mechanisms can help us understand the epidemics and heritability of complex traits like obesity to a significant extent. Majority of the research till now has focused on determining the impact of maternal factors on health and disease risk in the offspring(s).
This doctoral thesis is focused on deciphering the potential effects of male aging and obesity on sperm methylome, and consequences/transmission via germline to the next generation. In humans, this was assessed in a unique cohort of ~300 sperm samples, collected after in vitro fertilization/intracytoplasmic sperm injection, as well as in conceived fetal cord blood samples of the children. Furthermore, aging effect on sperm samples derived from a bovine cohort was analyzed.
The study identified that human male aging significantly increased the DNA methylation levels of the promoter, the upstream core element, the 18S, and the 28S regions of ribosomal DNA (rDNA) in sperm. Prediction models were developed to anticipate an individual’s age based on the methylation status of rDNA regions in his sperm. Hypermethylation of alpha satellite and LINE1 repeats in human sperm was also observed with aging. Epimutations, which are aberrantly methylated CpG sites, were significantly higher in sperm of older males compared to the younger ones. These effects on the male germline had a negative impact on embryo quality of the next generation. Consistent with these results, DNA methylation of rDNA regions, bovine alpha satellite, and testis satellite repeats displayed a significant positive correlation with aging sperm samples within the same individual and across different age-grouped bulls.
A positive association between human male obesity/body mass index (BMI) and DNA methylation of the imprinted MEG3 gene and the obesity-related HIF3A gene was detected in sperm. These BMI-induced sperm DNA methylation signatures were transmitted to next generation fetal cord blood (FCB) samples in a gender-specific manner. Males, but not female offsprings exhibited a significant positive correlation between father’s BMI and FCB DNA methylation in the two above-mentioned amplicons. Additionally, hypomethylation of IGF2 with increased paternal BMI was observed in female FCB samples. Parental allele-specific in-depth methylation analysis of imprinted genes using next generation sequencing technology also revealed significant correlations between paternal factors like age and BMI, and the corresponding father’s allele DNA methylation in FCB samples.
Deep bisulphite sequencing of imprinted genes in diploid somatic cord blood cells of offspring detected that the levels of DNA methylation signatures largely depended on the underlying genetic variant, i.e. sequence haplotypes. Allele-specific epimutations were observed in PEG1, PEG5, MEG3, H19, and IGF2 amplicons. For the former three genes, the non-imprinted unmethylated allele displayed more epimutations than the imprinted methylated allele. On the other hand, for the latter two genes, the imprinted allele exhibited higher epimutation rate than that of the non-imprinted allele.
In summary, the present study proved that male aging and obesity impacts the DNA methylome of repetitive elements and imprinted genes respectively in sperm, and also has considerable consequences on the next generation. Nevertheless, longitudinal follow-up studies are highly encouraged to elucidate if these effects can influence the risk of developing abnormal phenotype in the offspring during adulthood.
Activated platelets and coagulation jointly contribute to physiological hemostasis. However, pathological conditions can also trigger unwanted platelet activation and initiation of coagulation resulting in thrombosis and precipitation of ischemic damage of vital organs such as the heart or brain. The specific contribution of procoagulant platelets, positioned at the interface of the processes of platelet activation and coagulation, in ischemic stroke had remained uninvestigated. The first section of the thesis addresses this aspect through experiments conducted in novel megakaryocyte- and platelet-specific TMEM16F conditional KO mice (cKO). cKO platelets phenocopied defects in platelets from Scott Syndrome patients and had severely impaired procoagulant characteristics. This led to decelerated platelet-driven thrombin generation and delayed fibrin formation. cKO mice displayed prolonged bleeding times and impaired arterial thrombosis. However, infarct volumes in cKO mice were comparable to wildtype (WT) mice in an experimental model of ischemic stroke. Therefore, while TMEM16F-regulated platelet procoagulant activity is critical for hemostasis and thrombosis, it is dispensable for cerebral thrombo-inflammation in mice.
The second section describes the generation and initial characterization of a novel knockin mouse strain that expresses human coagulation factor XII (FXII) instead of endogenous murine FXII. These knockin mice had normal occlusion times in an experimental model of arterial thrombosis demonstrating that human FXII is functional in mice. Therefore, these mice constitute a valuable tool for testing novel pharmacological agents against human FXII – an attractive potential target for antithrombotic therapy.
Glycoprotein (GP)VI and C-type lectin-like receptor 2 (CLEC-2)-mediated (hem)immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activation motif (ITAM) signaling represent a major pathway for platelet activation. The last section of the thesis provides experimental evidence for redundant functions between the two members of the Grb2 family of adapter proteins - Grb2 and Gads that lie downstream of GPVI and CLEC-2 stimulation. In vitro and in vivo studies in mice deficient in both Grb2 and Gads (DKO) revealed that DKO platelets had defects in (hem)ITAM-stimulation-specific activation, aggregation and signal transduction that were more severe than the defects observed in single Grb2 KO or Gads KO mice. Furthermore, the specific role of these adapters downstream of (hem)ITAM signaling was essential for maintenance of hemostasis but dispensable for the known CLEC-2 dependent regulation of blood-lymphatic vessel separation.
Das bekapselte, Gram-negative, diplokokkenförmige Bakterium Neisseria meningitidis (Nme) ist ein asymptomatischer Kommensale des oberen Nasenrachenraums im Men-schen. Gerade bei Kindern ist es dem humanspezifischen Pathogen in seltenen Fällen möglich, in den Blutstrom einzuwandern und lebensbedrohliche Krankheitsbilder wie Meningoenzephalitis und Sepsis auszulösen, welche als „Invasive Meningokokkener-krankung“ (IMD) zusammengefasst werden. Jährlich ereignen sich weltweit bis zu 1,2 Mio Fälle von IMD, welche aufgrund des fulminanten Verlaufs und der hohen Letalität gefürchtet sind. In der Bekämpfung der Nme-Sepsis ist das humane Komplementsystem von entscheidender Bedeutung. Vor diesem Hintergrund ist die protektive Rolle des lytischen (Membranangriffskomplex MAK) und opsonisierenden Arms (Opsonine iC3b und C1q) der Komplementkaskade gut dokumentiert. Dagegen ist der Beitrag des in-flammatorischen Arms (Anaphylatoxine C3a und C5a) in der Nme-Sepsis bisher unklar. Aus diesem Grunde wurde mit dieser Arbeit die Rolle des inflammatorischen Arms an-hand des Komplement C5a-Rezeptors 1 (C5aR1) in der Pathophysiologie der Nme-Sepsis am Mausmodell untersucht. Nach Etablierung des murinen, intraperitonealen In-fektionsmodells konnte ein schädlicher Effekt des C5aR1 in der Nme-Sepsis beobachtet werden. Aus der Abwesenheit des C5aR1 resultierte eine höhere Überlebensrate, ein besserer klinischer Zustand, eine niedrigere Bakteriämie und niedrigere Konzentrationen der pro-inflammatorischen Mediatoren IL-6, CXCL-1 und TNF-α. Im Hinblick auf den zellulären Pathomechanismus sprechen Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit dafür, dass der C5aR1 primär eine gesteigerte Freisetzung inflammatorischer Mediatoren durch verschiedene Zellpopulationen triggert (Zytokinsturm), wodurch sekundär Zellparalyse, steigende Bakteriämie und höhere Letalität bedingt sind. Durch Depletionsversuche und Immun-fluoreszenzfärbungen konnte, unabhängig vom C5aR1, eine allgemein protektive Rolle von neutrophilen Granulozyten und Monozyten/Makrophagen in der Nme-Sepsis beo-bachtet werden. Darüber hinaus präsentierte sich der zyklische C5aR1-Antagonist PMX205 als erfolgsversprechende Therapieoption, um Parameter einer murinen Nme-Sepsis zu verbessern. Weitere Untersuchungen sind nötig, um die Wirksamkeit dieser Substanz in der humanen Nme-Sepsis zu erforschen. Zudem könnte das murine, intrape-ritoneale Infektionsmodell zur Klärung der Rolle des C5aR2 in der Nme-Sepsis genutzt werden.
The expression of genetic information into proteins is a key aspect of life. The efficient and exact regulation of this process is essential for the cell to produce the correct amounts of these effector molecules to a given situation. For this purpose, eukaryotic cells have developed many different levels of transcriptional and posttranscriptional gene regulation. These mechanisms themselves heavily rely on interactions of proteins with associated nucleic acids. In the case of posttranscriptional gene regulation an orchestrated interplay between RNA-binding proteins, messenger RNAs (mRNA), and non-coding RNAs is compulsory to achieve this important function.
A pivotal factor hereby are RNA secondary structures. One of the most stable and diverse representatives is the G-quadruplex structure (G4) implicated in many cellular mechanisms, such as mRNA processing and translation. In protein biosynthesis, G4s often act as obstacles but can also assist in this process. However, their presence has to be tightly regulated, a task which is often fulfilled by helicases.
One of the best characterized G4-resolving factors is the DEAH-box protein DHX36. The in vitro function of this helicase is extensively described and individual reports aimed to address diverse cellular functions as well. Nevertheless, a comprehensive and systems-wide study on the function of this specific helicase was missing, so far.
The here-presented doctoral thesis provides a detailed view on the global cellular function of DHX36. The binding sites of this helicase were defined in a transcriptome-wide manner, a consensus binding motif was deviated, and RNA targets as well as the effect this helicase exerts on them were examined. In human embryonic kidney cells, DHX36 is a mainly cytoplasmic protein preferentially binding to G-rich and G4-forming sequence motifs on more than 4,500 mRNAs. Loss of DHX36 leads to increased target mRNA levels whereas ribosome occupancy on and protein output of these transcripts are reduced. Furthermore, DHX36 knockout leads to higher RNA G4 levels and concomitant stress reactions in the cell. I hypothesize that, upon loss of this helicase, translationally-incompetent structured DHX36 target mRNAs, prone to localize in stress granules, accumulate in the cell. The cell reacts with basal stress to avoid cytotoxic effects produced by these mis-regulated and structured transcripts.
The knee joint is a complex composite joint containing the C-shaped wedge-like menisci composed of fibrocartilage. Due to their complex composition and structure, they provide mechanical resilience to the knee joint protecting the articular cartilage. Because of the limited repair potential, meniscal injuries do not only affect the meniscus itself but also lead to altered joint homeostasis and inevitably to secondary osteoarthritis.
The meniscus was characterized focusing on its anatomy, structure and meniscal markers such as aggrecan, collagen type I (Col I) and Col II. The components relevant for meniscus tissue engineering, namely cells, Col I scaffolds, biochemical and biomechanical stimuli were studied. Meniscal cells (MCs) were isolated from meniscus, mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) from bone marrow and dermal microvascular endothelial cells (d-mvECs) from foreskin biopsies. For the human (h) meniscus model, wedge-shape compression of a hMSC-laden Col I gel was successfully established. During three weeks of static culture, the biochemical stimulus transforming growth factor beta-3 (TGF beta-3) led to a compact collagen structure. On day 21, this meniscus model showed high metabolic activity and matrix remodeling as confirmed by matrix metalloproteinases detection. The fibrochondrogenic properties were illustrated by immunohistochemical detection of meniscal markers, significant GAG/DNA increase and increased compressive properties. For further improvement, biomechanical stimulation systems by compression and hydrostatic pressure were designed. As one vascularization approach, direct stimulation with ciclopirox olamine (CPX) significantly increased sprouting of hd-mvEC spheroids even in absence of auxiliary cells such as MSCs. Second, a cell sheet composed of hMSCs and hd-mvECs was fabricated by temperature triggered cell sheet engineering and transferred onto the wedge-shaped meniscus model. Third, a biological vascularized scaffold (BioVaSc-TERM) was re-endothelialized with hd-mvECs providing a viable vascularized network. The vascularized BioVaSc-TERM was suggested as wrapping scaffold of the meniscus model by using two suture techniques, the all-inside-repair (AIR) for the posterior horn, and the outside-in-refixation (OIR) for the anterior horn and the middle part.
This meniscus model for replacing torn menisci is a promising approach to be further optimized regarding vascularization, biochemical and biomechanical stimuli.
In situations of real threat, showing a fear reaction makes sense, thus, increasing the chance to survive. The question is, how could anybody differentiate between a real and an apparent threat? Here, the slogan counts “better safe than sorry”, meaning that it is better to shy away once too often from nothing than once too little from a real threat. Furthermore, in a complex environment it is adaptive to generalize from one threatening situation or stimulus to another similar situation/stimulus. But, the danger hereby is to generalize in a maladaptive manner involving as it is to strong and/or fear too often “harmless” (safety) situations/stimuli, as it is known to be a criterion of anxiety disorders (AD). Fear conditioning and fear generalization paradigms are well suited to investigate fear learning processes. It is remarkable that despite increasing interest in this topic there is only little research on fear generalization. Especially, most research on human fear conditioning and its generalization has focused on adults, whereas only little is known about these processes in children, even though AD is typically developing during childhood. To address this knowledge gap, four experiments were conducted, in which a discriminative fear conditioning and generalization paradigm was used.
In the first two experiments, developmental aspects of fear learning and generalization were of special interest. Therefore, in the first experiment 267 children and 285 adults were compared in the differential fear conditioning paradigm and generalization test. Skin conductance responses (SCRs) and ratings of valence and arousal were obtained to indicate fear learning. Both groups displayed robust and similar differential conditioning on subjective and physiological levels. However, children showed heightened fear generalization compared to adults as indexed by higher arousal ratings and SCRs to the generalization stimuli. Results indicate overgeneralization of conditioned fear as a developmental correlate of fear learning. The developmental change from a shallow to a steeper generalization gradient is likely related to the maturation of brain structures that modulate efficient discrimination between threatening and (ambiguous) safety cues. The question hereby is, at which developmental stage fear generalization gradients of children adapt to the gradients of adults. Following up on this question, in a second experiment, developmental changes in fear conditioning and fear generalization between children and adolescents were investigated. According to experiment 1 and previous studies in children, which showed changes in fear learning with increasing age, it was assumed that older children were better at discriminating threat and safety stimuli. Therefore, 396 healthy participants (aged 8 to 12 years) were examined with the fear conditioning and generalization paradigm. Again, ratings of valence, arousal, and SCRs were obtained. SCRs indicated differences in fear generalization with best fear discrimination in 12-year-old children suggesting that the age of 12 years seems to play an important role, since generalization gradients were similar to that of adults. These age differences were seen in boys and girls, but best discrimination was found in 12-year-old boys, indicating different development of generalization gradients according to sex. This result fits nicely with the fact that the prevalence of AD is higher in women than in men.
In a third study, it was supposed that the developmental trajectory from increased trait anxiety in childhood to manifest AD could be mediated by abnormal fear conditioning and generalization processes. To this end, 394 children aged 8 to 12 years with different scores in trait anxiety were compared with each other. Results provided evidence that children with high trait anxiety showed stronger responses to threat cues and impaired safety signal learning contingent on awareness as indicated by arousal at acquisition. Furthermore, analyses revealed that children with high trait anxiety showed overall higher arousal ratings at generalization. Contrary to what was expected, high trait anxious children did not show significantly more fear generalization than children with low trait anxiety. However, high-trait-anxious (HA) participants showed a trend for a more linear gradient, whereas moderate-trait-anxious (MA) and low-trait-anxious (LA) participants showed more quadratic gradients according to arousal. Additionally, after controlling for age, sex and negative life experience, SCR to the safety stimulus predicted the trait anxiety level of children suggesting that impaired safety signal learning may be a risk factor for the development of AD.
Results provide hints that frontal maturation could develop differently according to trait anxiety resulting in different stimuli discrimination. Thus, in a fourth experiment, 40 typically developing volunteers aged 10 to 18 years were screened for trait anxiety and investigated with the differential fear conditioning and generalization paradigm in the scanner. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) were used to identify the neural mechanisms of fear learning and fear generalization investigating differences in this neural mechanism according to trait anxiety, developmental aspects and sex. At acquisition, HA participants showed reduced activation in frontal brain regions, but at generalization, HA participants showed an increase in these frontal regions with stronger linear increase in activation with similarity to CS+ in HA when compared to LA participants. This indicates that there is a hyper-regulation in adolescents to compensate the higher difficulties at generalization in form of a compensatory mechanism, which decompensates with adulthood and/or may be collapsed in manifest AD. Additionally, significant developmental effects were found: the older the subjects the stronger the hippocampus and frontal activation with resemblance to CS+, which could explain the overgeneralization of younger children. Furthermore, there were differences according to sex: males showed stronger activation with resemblance to CS+ in the hippocampus and frontal regions when compared to females fitting again nicely with the observation that prevalence rates for AD are higher for females than males.
In sum, the studies suggest that investigating developmental aspects of (maladaptive) overgeneralization may lead to better understanding of the mechanisms of manifest anxiety disorders, which could result in development and provision of prevention strategies. Although, there is need for further investigations, the present work gives some first hints for such approaches.
Lungenkrebs ist weltweit für die meisten krebsassoziierten Tode verantwortlich. Ursache dafür ist unter anderem, dass viele Medikamente in der klinischen Anwendung, aufgrund nicht übertragbarer Ergebnisse aus der Präklinik, scheitern. Zur Entwicklung neuer Therapiestrategien werden deshalb Modelle benötigt, welche die in vivo Situation besser widerspiegeln. Besonders wichtig ist es dabei, zu zeigen, für welche Fragestellungen ein neues Testsystem valide Ergebnisse liefert.
In dieser Arbeit ist es mit Hilfe des Tissue Engineering gelungen, ein humanes 3D in vitro Lungentumor-Testsystem weiter zu entwickeln und für verschiedene Fragestellungen zu validieren. Zudem konnten sowohl für die Herstellung als auch für die Behandlung der Tumormodelle SOPs etabliert werden. Hier wurde zunächst beobachtet, dass die Auswerteparameter für die Beurteilung von Behandlungseffekten eine geringe Varianz aufweisen und das 3D Modell deshalb als Testsystem geeignet ist.
Ein Vergleich der Morphologie, des EMT-Status und der Differenzierung der Tumorzelllinien im 3D Modell mit Tumorbiopsaten von Adenokarzinompatienten verdeutlichte, dass die 3D Modelle tumorrelevante Merkmale besitzen. So sind die Zelllinien auf der biologischen Matrix, verglichen mit der jeweiligen 2D Kultur, durch eine reduzierte Proliferationsrate gekennzeichnet, welche eher der in vivo Situation entspricht. Für die Etablierung und Validierung des 3D Modells als Testsystem war es notwendig, klinisch relevante Therapien in dem Modell anzuwenden und die Ergebnisse der Behandlung in vitro mit denen im Patienten zu vergleichen. Dabei konnte zunächst bestätigt werden, dass eine zielgerichtete Therapie gegen den EGFR in dem 3D System zu einer verstärkten Induktion der Apoptose im Vergleich zu 2D führt. Dies entspricht klinischen Beobachtungen, bei denen EGFR-mutierte Patienten gut auf eine Therapie mit Tyrosin-Kinase-Inhibitoren (TKI) ansprechen. Anschließend wurde in dieser Arbeit erstmals in vitro gezeigt, dass die Behandlung mit einem HSP90-Inhibitor bei KRAS-Mutation wie in behandelten Patienten keine eindeutigen Vorteile bringt, diese jedoch in Experimenten der 2D Zellkultur mit den entsprechenden Zelllinien vorhergesagt werden. Die Ergebnisse aus dem in vitro Modell spiegeln damit verschiedene klinische Studien wider und unterstreichen das Potenzial des 3D Lungentumor-Testsystems die Wirkung zielgerichteter Therapien vorherzusagen. Durch die Messung von Signalwegsaktivierungen über Phospho-Arrays und Western Blot konnten in dieser Arbeit Unterschiede zwischen 2D und 3D nach Behandlung gezeigt werden. Diese lieferten die Grundlage für bioinformatische Vorhersagen für Medikamente.
Mit fortschreitender Erkrankung und dem Entstehen invasiver Tumore, die möglicherweise Metastasen bilden, verschlechtert sich die Prognose von Krebspatienten. Zudem entwickeln Patienten, die zunächst auf eine Therapie mit TKI ansprechen, bereits nach kurzer Zeit Resistenzen, die ebenfalls zur Progression des Tumorwachstums führen. Zur Wirkungsuntersuchung von Substanzen in solchen fortgeschrittenen Erkrankungsstadien wurde das bestehende Testsystem erweitert. Zum einen wurde mit Hilfe des Wachstumsfaktors TGF-β1 eine EMT ausgelöst. Hier konnte beobachtet werden, dass sich die Expression verschiedener EMT- und invasionsassoziierter Gene und Proteine veränderte und die Zellen vor allem in dynamischer Kultur verstärkt die Basalmembran der Matrix überquerten. Zum anderen wurde die Ausbildung von Resistenzen gegenüber TKI durch die Generierung von resistenten Subpopulationen aus einer ursprünglich sensitiven Zelllinie und anschließender Kultivierung auf der Matrix abgebildet. Dabei zeigte sich keine der klinisch bekannten Mutationen als ursächlich für die Resistenz, sodass weitere Mechanismen untersucht wurden. Hier konnten Veränderungen in der Signaltransduktion sowie der Expression EMT-assoziierter Proteine festgestellt werden.
Im letzten Teil der Arbeit wurde eine neuartige Behandlung im Bereich der Immuntherapie erfolgreich in dem 3D Modell angewendet. Dafür wurden T-Zellen, die einen chimären Antigen-Rezeptor (CAR) gegen ROR1 tragen, in statischer und dynamischer Kultur zu den Tumorzellen gegeben und der Therapieeffekt mittels histologischer Färbung und der Bestimmung der Apoptose evaluiert. Zusätzlich konnten Eigenschaften der T-Zellen, wie deren Proliferation sowie Zytokinausschüttung quantifiziert und damit eine spezifische Wirkung der CAR transduzierten T-Zellen gegenüber Kontroll-T-Zellen nachgewiesen werden.
Zusammenfassend ist es in dieser Arbeit gelungen, ein humanes 3D Lungentumor-Testsystem für die Anwendung in der präklinischen Entwicklung von Krebsmedikamenten sowie der Grundlagenforschung im Bereich der Tumorbiologie zu etablieren. Dieses Testsystem ist in der Lage relevante Daten zu Biomarker-geleiteten Therapien, zur Behandlung fortgeschrittener Tumorstadien und zur Verbesserung neuartiger Therapiestrategien zu liefern.
Morphological and Functional Ultrashort Echo Time (UTE) Magnetic Resonance Imaging of the Human Lung
(2019)
In this thesis, a 3D Ultrashort echo time (3D-UTE) sequence was introduced in the Self-gated Non-Contrast-Enhanced Functional Lung Imaging (SENCEFUL) framework. The sequence was developed and implemented on a 3 Tesla MR scanner. The 3D-UTE technique consisted of a nonselective RF pulse followed by a koosh ball quasi-random sampling order of the k-space. Measurements in free-breathing and without contrast agent were performed in healthy subjects and a patient with lung cancer.
A gating technique, using a combination of different coils with high signal correlation, was evaluated in-vivo and compared with a manual approach of coil selection. The gating signal offered an estimation of the breathing motion during measurement and was used as a reference to segment the acquired data into different breathing phases.
Gradient delays and trajectory errors were corrected during post-processing using the Gradient Impulse Response Function. Iterative SENSE was then applied to determine the fully sampled data.
In order to eliminate signal changes caused by motion, a 3D image registration was employed, and the results were compared to a 2D image registration method.
Ventilation was assessed in 3D and regionally quantified by monitoring the signal changes in the lung parenchyma. Finally, image quality and quantitative ventilation values were compared to the standard 2D-SENCEFUL technique.
3D-UTE, combined with an automatic gating technique and SENCEFUL MRI, offered ventilation maps with high spatial resolution and SNR. Compared to the 2D method, UTE-SENCEFUL greatly improved the clinical quality of the structural images and the visualization of the lung parenchyma.
Through‐plane motion, partial volume effects and ventilation artifacts were also reduced with a three-dimensional method for image registration.
UTE-SENCEFUL was also able to quantify regional ventilation and presented similar results to previous studies.
Protein quality control systems are critical for cellular proteostasis and survival under stress conditions. The ubiquitin proteasome system (UPS) plays a pivotal role in proteostasis by eliminating misfolded and damaged proteins. However, exposure to the environmental toxin arsenite results in the accumulation of polyubiquitylated proteins, indicating an overload of the UPS. Arsenite stress induces the rapid formation of stress granules (SGs), which are cytoplasmic assemblies of mRNPs stalled in translation initiation. The mammalian proteins ZFAND2A/B (also known as AIRAP and AIRAPL, respectively) bind to the 26S proteasome, and ZFAND2A has been shown to adapt proteasome activity to arsenite stress. They belong to a small subfamily of AN1 type zinc finger containing proteins that also comprises the unexplored mammalian member ZFAND1 and its yeast homolog Cuz1.
In this thesis, the cellular function of Cuz1 and ZFAND1 was investigated. Cuz1/ZFAND1 was found to interact with the ubiquitin-selective, chaperone-like ATPase Cdc48/p97 and with the 26S proteasome. The interaction between Cuz1/ZFAND1 and Cdc48/p97 requires a predicted ubiquitin-like domain of Cuz1/ZFAND1. In vivo, this interaction was strongly dependent on acute arsenite stress, suggesting that it is a part of the cellular arsenite stress response. Lack of Cuz1/ZFAND1 caused a defect in the clearance of arsenite induced SG clearance. ZFAND1 recruits both, the 26S proteasome and p97, to arsenite-induced SGs for their normal clearance. In the absence of ZFAND1, SGs lack the 26S proteasome and p97, accumulate defective ribosomal products and become aberrant. These aberrant SGs persist after arsenite removal and undergo degradation via autophagy. ZFAND1 depletion is epistatic to the expression of pathogenic mutant p97 with respect to SG clearance, suggesting that ZFAND1 function is relevant to the multisystem degenerative disorder, inclusion body myopathy associated with Paget’s disease of bone and frontotemporal dementia and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (IBMPFD/ALS).
Das Sprouty-related, EVH1 domain containing protein 2 (SPRED2) ist ein
inhibitorisches, downstream von Ras wirkendes Protein des MAP-Kinase Signalwegs,
welches entscheidenden Einfluss auf die Regulation von Proliferation, Expression von
Proteinen und der zellulären Homöostase hat. Der kardiale Phänotyp von SPRED2-
defizienten Mäusen zeigt nicht nur eine deutliche linksventrikuläre Hypertrophie,
sondern auch eine erhöhte Fibrosierung des Herzgewebes. Zellulär wird die SPRED2-
Defizienz durch die Akkumulation von vesikulären Strukturen innerhalb der Zelle,
sowie eine markant erhöhte Anzahl von Vesikeln entlang der longitudinalen Reihen
der Mitochondrien gekennzeichnet.
Ziel dieser Arbeit war es, den Charakter dieser vesikulären Strukturen näher zu
beleuchten und festzustellen, in welchem Zusammenhang die subzellulär veränderte
Architektur mit der Hypertrophie der SPRED2-defizienten Tiere steht. Um diese
Fragestellung zu beantworten, wurde zunächst nach einem vesikulären
Degradationsmechanismus gesucht, der in SPRED2-/--Cardiomyocyten betroffen sein
könnte. Die Macroautophagie, im folgenden Autophagie bezeichnet, ist ein solcher
Degradationsmechanismus, bei dem selektiv langlebige Proteine und Zellorganellen
abgebaut werden. Es konnten signifikante Veränderung der Protein-Level an
Schlüsselpositionen der Autophagie identifiziert werden. Das Ubiquitin-aktivierende
(E1) Enzym Homolog Atg7 sowie die Cystein-Protease Atg4B zeigen sich im SPRED2-
KO deutlich reduziert. Ebenso Atg16L, das als essentieller Bestandteil des Atg5-
Atg12-Atg16-Konjugationssystems bei der Konjugation von MAPLC3-II an das
Phospholipid Phosphatidylethanolamin beteiligt ist. Die Autophagie-Rate als
Verhältnis von konjugiertem zu unkonjugiertem MAPLC3 ist ebenfalls reduziert. Die
Akkumulation der autophagischen Vesikel zeigt sich kongruent zu dem erhöhten
Protein-Level der autophagischen Cargo-Rezeptoren SQSTM1 und NBR1, sowie des
lysosomalen Markers CathepsinD. Außer der verringerten Autophagie-Rate zeigt sich
in Einklang mit der Fibrosierung des Herzgewebes eine erhöht aktive Caspase-3 als
Marker für Apoptose. Um die mitochondriale Integrität näher zu beleuchten, wurde die
Menge an reaktiven Sauerstoffspezies (ROS) in Wildtyp und SPRED2-KO untersucht.
Hierbei zeigte sich eine erhöhte Menge an ROS im KO, was ein Hinweis auf eine
Beeinträchtigung der Mitochondrien darstellt.
Letztlich wurde die Hypothese überprüft, ob ein gestörter Transport der Vesikel
durch eine Beeinträchtigung der Motorproteine Dynein und Kinesin vorliegt. In der Tat
zeigte sich die Aktivität der Dynein-ATPase verringert in der Abwesenheit von
SPRED2. Diese Beobachtung wird durch die erhöhten Mengen des vSNARE-Proteins
VTI1b unterstützt, was letztlich die Akkumulation der autophagischen Vesikel mit einer
verringerten Fähigkeit zur Membranfusion und dem ineffizienteren Transport der
Vesikel in Einklang bringt.
Da die gesamten Experimente in einem globalen SPRED2-KO System
durchgeführt wurden, können eventuelle Auswirkungen der beeinflussten hormonellen
Situation der SPRED2-KO Tiere auf den Herzphänotyp nicht final ausgeschlossen
werden. Um die genaue Wirkung einer SPRED2-Defizienz auf das Herzgewebe und
das Herz als Organ zu untersuchen, wurde im Rahmen dieser Arbeit eine SPRED2-
defiziente knockout Mauslinie mit konditionalem Potential generiert, die eine
gesteuerte Deletion von SPRED2 im Herzgewebe erlaubt.
G protein-coupled receptors of the Adhesion family (aGPCRs) comprise the second largest group within the GPCR realm with over 30 mammalian homologs. They contain a unique structure with unusually large extracellular domains (ECDs) holding many structural folds known to mediate cell-cell and cell-matrix interactions. Furthermore, aGPCRs undergo autoproteolytic cleavage at the GPCR proteolysis site (GPS), an integral portion of the GPCR autoproteolysis inducing (GAIN) domain. Thus far, it is largely unknown if and how self-cleavage affects aGPCR activation and signaling and how these signals may shape the physiological function of cells.
Latrophilin, alternatively termed the calcium-independent receptor of α-latrotoxin (CIRL) constitutes a highly conserved, prototypic aGPCR and has been assigned roles in various biological processes such as synaptic development and maturation or the regulation of neurotransmitter release. The Drosophila melanogaster homolog dCIRL is found in numerous sensory neurons including the mechanosensory larval pentascolopidial chordotonal organs (CHOs), which rely on dCIRL function in order to sense mechanical cues and to modulate the mechanogating properties of present ionotropic receptors.
This study reveals further insight into the broad distribution of dCirl expression throughout the larval central nervous system, at the neuromuscular junction (NMJ), as well as subcellular localization of dCIRL in distal dendrites and cilia of chordotonal neurons. Furthermore, targeted mutagenesis which disabled GPS cleavage of dCIRL left intracellular trafficking in larval CHOs unaffected and proved autoproteolysis is not required for dCIRL function in vivo. However, substitution of a threonine residue, intrinsic to a putative tethered agonist called Stachel that has previously been documented for several other aGPCRs, abrogated receptor function. Conclusively, while this uncovered the presence of Stachel in dCIRL, it leaves the question about the biological relevance of the predetermined breaking point at the GPS unanswered. In an independent approach, the structure of the “Inter-RBL-HRM” (IRH) region, the region linking the N-terminal Rhamnose-binding lectin-like (RBL) and the hormone receptor motif (HRM) domains of dCIRL, was analyzed. Results suggest random protein folding, excessive glycosylation, and a drastic expansion of the size of IRH. Therefore, the IRH might represent a molecular spacer ensuring a certain ECD dimension, which in turn may be a prerequisite for proper receptor function.
Taken together, the results of this study are consistent with dCIRL’s mechanoceptive faculty and its role as a molecular sensor that translates mechanical cues into metabotropic signals through a yet undefined Stachel-dependent mechanism.
Immunotherapy with engineered T cells expressing a tumor-specific chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) is under intense preclinical and clinical investigation. This involves a rapidly increasing portfolio of novel target antigens and CAR designs that need to be tested in time- and work-intensive screening campaigns in primary T cells. Therefore, we anticipated that a standardized screening platform, similar as in pharmaceutical small molecule and antibody discovery, would facilitate the analysis of CARs by pre-selecting lead candidates from a large pool of constructs that differ in their extracellular and intracellular modules. Because CARs integrate structural elements of the T cell receptor (TCR) complex and engage TCR-associated signaling molecules upon stimulation, we reasoned that the transcription factors nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) and nuclear factor of activated T cells (NFAT) could serve as surrogate markers for primary T cell function. The nuclear translocation of both transcription factors in primary T cells, which we observed following CAR stimulation, supported our rationale to use NF-κB and NFAT as indicators of CAR-mediated activation in a screening platform.
To enable standardized and convenient analyses, we have established a CAR-screening platform based on the human T cell lymphoma line Jurkat that has been modified to provide rapid detection of NF-κB and NFAT activation. For this purpose, Jurkat cells contained NF-κB and NFAT-inducible reporter genes that generate a duplex output of cyan fluorescent protein (CFP) and green fluorescent protein (GFP), respectively. Upon stimulation of NF-κB/NFAT reporter cells, the expression of both fluorophores could be readily quantified in high-throughput screening campaigns by flow cytometry.
We modified the reporter cells with CD19-specific and ROR1-specific CARs, and we co-cultured them with antigen-positive stimulator cells to analyze NF-κB and NFAT activation. CAR-induced reporter signals could already be detected after 6 hours. The optimal readout window with high-level reporter activation was set to 24 hours, allowing the CAR-screening platform to deliver results in a rapid turnaround time. A reporter cell-screening campaign of a spacer library with CARs comprising a short, intermediate or long IgG4-Fc domain allowed distinguishing functional from non-functional constructs. Similarly, reporter cell-based analyses identified a ROR1-CAR with 4-1BB domain from a library with different intracellular signal modules due to its ability to confer high NF-κB activation, consistent with data from in vitro and in vivo studies with primary T cells. The results of both CAR screening campaigns were highly reproducible, and the time required for completing each testing campaign was substantially shorter with reporter cells (6 days) compared to primary T cells (21 days). We further challenged the reporter cells in a large-scale screening campaign with a ROR1 CAR library comprising mutations in the VH CDR3 sequence of the R11 scFv. This region is crucial for binding the R11 epitope of ROR1, and we anticipated that mutations here would cause a loss of specificity and affinity for most of the CAR variants. This provided the opportunity to determine whether the CAR screening platform was able to retrieve functional constructs from a large pool of CAR variants. Indeed, using a customized pre enrichment and screening strategy, the reporter cells identified a functional CAR variant that was present with a frequency of only 6 in 1.05x10^6.
As our CAR-screening platform enabled the analysis of activating signal modules, it encouraged us to also evaluate inhibitory signal modules that change the CAR mode of action. Such an inhibitory CAR (iCAR) can be used in logic gates with an activating CAR to interfere with T cell stimulation. By selecting appropriate target antigens for iCAR and CAR, this novel application aims to improve the selectivity towards tumor cells, and it could readily be studied using our screening platform. Accordingly, we tested CD19-specific iCARs with inhibitory PD-1 signal module for their suppressive effect on reporter gene activation. In logic gates with CAR or TCR stimulation, a decrease of NF-κB and NFAT signals was only observed when activating and inhibitory receptors were forced into spatial proximity. These results were further verified by experiments with primary T cells.
In conclusion, our reporter cell system is attractive as a platform technology because it is independent of testing in primary T cells, exportable between laboratories, and scalable to enable small- to large-scale screening campaigns of CAR libraries. The pre-selection of appropriate lead candidates with optimal extracellular and intracellular modules can reduce the number of CAR constructs to be investigated in further in vitro and in vivo studies with primary T cells. We are therefore confident that our CAR-screening platform based on NF-κB/NFAT reporter cells will be useful to accelerate translational research by facilitating the evaluation of CARs with novel design parameters.
Studies on the role of platelet serotonin in platelet function, hemostasis, thrombosis and stroke
(2019)
Platelet activation and aggregation are important processes in hemostasis resulting in reduction of blood loss upon vessel wall injury. However, platelet activation can lead to thrombotic events causing myocardial infarction and stroke. A more detailed understanding of the regulation of platelet activation and the subsequent formation of thrombi is essential to prevent thrombosis and ischemic stroke. Cations, platelet surface receptors, cytoskeletal rearrangements, activation of the coagulation cas-cade and intracellular signaling molecules are important in platelet activation and thrombus formation. One such important molecule is serotonin (5 hydroxytryptamin, 5 HT), an indolamine platelet agonist, biochemically derived from tryptophan. 5 HT is secreted from the enterochromaffin cells into the gastrointestinal tract (GI) and blood. Blood borne 5 HT has been proposed to regulate hemostasis by acting as a vaso-constrictor and by triggering platelet signaling through 5 HT2A receptor. Although platelets do not synthetize 5 HT, they take it up from the blood and store it in their dense granules which are secreted upon platelet activation. To identify the molecu-lar composite of the 5 HT uptake system in platelets and elucidate the role of platelet released 5-HT in thrombosis and ischemic stroke, 5 HT transporter knock out mice (5Htt / ) were analyzed in different in vitro and in vivo assays and in a model of is-chemic stroke. In 5Htt / platelets, 5 HT uptake from the blood was completely abol-ished and agonist-induced Ca2+ influx through store operated Ca2+ entry (SOCE), integrin activation, degranulation and aggregation responses to glycoprotein (GP) VI and C type lectin-like receptor 2 (CLEC 2) were reduced. These observed in vitro defects in 5Htt / platelets could be normalized by the addition of exogenous 5 HT. Moreover, reduced 5 HT levels in the plasma, an increased bleeding time and the formation of unstable thrombi were observed ex vivo under flow and in vivo in the abdominal aorta and carotid artery of 5Htt / mice. Surprisingly, in the transient middle cerebral artery occlusion model (tMCAO) of ischemic stroke 5Htt / mice showed near-ly normal infarct volumes and a neurological outcome comparable to control mice. Although secreted platelet 5 HT does not appear to play a crucial role in the devel-opment of reperfusion injury after stroke, it is essential to amplify the second phase of platelet activation through SOCE and thus plays an important role in thrombus stabilization.
To further investigate the role of cations, granules and their contents and regulation of integrin activation in the process of thrombus formation, genetically modified mice were analyzed in the different in vivo thrombosis models. Whereas Tph1 / mice (lacking the enzyme responsible for the production of 5 HT in the periphery), Trpm7KI (point mu-tation in the kinase domain of Trpm7 channel, lacking kinase activity) and Unc13d / /Nbeal2 / mice (lacking α granules and the release machinery of dense granules) showed a delayed thrombus formation in vivo, MagT1y/ mice (lacking a specific Mg2+ transporter) displayed a pro thrombotic phenotype in vivo. Trpm7fl/fl Pf4Cre (lacking the non specific Mg2+ channel) and RIAM / mice (lacking a potential linker protein in integrin “inside out” signaling) showed no alterations in thrombus formation upon injury of the vessel wall.
Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation is a curative therapy for malignant diseases of the haematopoietic system. The patients first undergo chemotherapy or irradiation therapy which depletes the majority of tumour cells before they receive the transplant, consisting of haematopoietic stem cells and mature T cells from a healthy donor. The donor T cells kill malignant cells that have not been eliminated by the conditioning therapy (graft versus leukaemia effect, GvL), and, therefore, are crucially required to prevent relapse of the tumour. However, the donor T cells may also severely damage the patient’s organs causing acute graft versus host disease (aGvHD). In mice, aGvHD can be prevented by interfering with the co-stimulatory CD28 signal on donor T cells. However, experimental models using conventional CD28 knockout mice as T cell donors or αCD28 antibodies have some disadvantages, i.e. impaired T cell development in the thymus of CD28 knockout mice and systemic CD28 blockade with αCD28 antibodies. Thus, it remains unclear how CD28 co-stimulation on different donor T cell subsets contributes to the GvL effect and aGvHD, respectively.
We developed mouse models of aGvHD and the GvL effect that allowed to selectively delete CD28 on certain donor T cell populations or on all donor T cells. CD4+ conventional T cells (Tconv cells), regulatory T cells (Treg cells) or CD8+ T cells were isolated from either Tamoxifen-inducible CD28 knockout (iCD28KO) mice or their wild type (wt) littermates. Allogeneic recipient mice were then transplanted with T cell depleted bone marrow cells and different combinations of iCD28KO and wt T cell subsets. Tamoxifen treatment of the recipients caused irreversible CD28 deletion on the iCD28KO donor T cell population. In order to study the GvL response, BCL-1 tumour cells were injected into the mice shortly before transfer of the T cells.
CD4+ Tconv mediated aGvHD was efficiently inhibited when wt Treg cells were co-transplanted. In contrast, after selective CD28 deletion on donor Treg cells, the mice developed a late and lethal flare of aGvHD, i.e. late-onset aGvHD. This was associated with a decline in iCD28KO Treg cell numbers around day 20 after transplantation. CD28 ablation on either donor CD4+ Tconv cells or CD8+ T cells reduced but did not abrogate aGvHD. Moreover, iCD28KO and wt CD8+ T cells were equally capable of killing allogeneic target cells in vivo and in vitro. Due to this sufficient anti-tumour activity of iCD28KO CD8+ T cells, they had a therapeutic effect in our GvL model and 25% of the mice survived until the end of the experiment (day 120) without any sign of the malignant disease. Similarly, CD28 deletion on all donor T cells induced long-term survival. This was not the case when all donor T cells were isolated from wt donor mice. In contrast to the beneficial outcome after CD28 deletion on all donor T cells or only CD8+ T cells, selective CD28 deletion on donor CD4+ Tconv cells completely abrogated the GvL effect due to insufficient CD4+ T cell help from iCD28KO CD4+ Tconv cells.
This study demonstrates that therapeutic inhibition of the co-stimulatory CD28 signal in either all donor T cells or only in CD8+ T cells might protect patients from aGvHD without increasing the risk of relapse of the underlying disease. Moreover, deletion of CD28 on donor Treg cells constitutes a mouse model of late-onset aGvHD which can be a useful tool in aGvHD research.
Inefficient vascularisation of solid tumours leads to the formation of oxygen and nutrient gradients. In order to mimic this specific feature of the tumour microenvironment, a multicellular tumour spheroid (SPH) culture system was used. These experiments were implemented in p53 isogenic colon cancer cell lines (HCT116 p53 +/+ and HCT116 p53-/-) since Tp53 has important regulatory functions in tumour metabolism. First, the characteristics of the cells cultured as monolayers and as spheroids were investigated by using RNA sequencing and metabolomics to compare gene expression and metabolic features of cells grown in different conditions. This analysis showed that certain features of gene expression found in tumours are also present in spheroids but not in monolayer cultures, including reduced proliferation and induction of hypoxia related genes. Moreover, comparison between the different genotypes revealed that the expression of genes involved in cholesterol homeostasis is induced in p53 deficient cells compared to p53 wild type cells and this difference was only detected in spheroids and tumour samples but not in monolayer cultures. In addition, it was established that loss of p53 leads to the induction of enzymes of the mevalonate pathway via activation of the transcription factor SREBP2, resulting in a metabolic rewiring that supports the generation of ubiquinone (coenzyme Q10). An adequate supply of ubiquinone was essential to support mitochondrial electron transport and pyrimidine biosynthesis in p53 deficient cancer cells under conditions of metabolic stress. Moreover, inhibition of the mevalonate pathway using statins selectively induced oxidative stress and apoptosis in p53 deficient colon cancer cells exposed to oxygen and nutrient deprivation. This was caused by ubiquinone being required for electron transfer by dihydroorotate dehydrogenase, an essential enzyme of the pyrimidine nucleotide biosynthesis pathway. Supplementation with exogenous nucleosides relieved the demand for electron transfer and restored viability of p53 deficient cancer cells under metabolic stress. Moreover, the mevalonate pathway was also essential for the synthesis of ubiquinone for nucleotide biosynthesis to support growth of intestinal tumour organoids. Together, these findings highlight the importance of the mevalonate pathway in cancer cells and provide molecular evidence for an enhanced sensitivity towards the inhibition of mitochondrial electron transfer in tumour-like metabolic environments.
The evolutionary conserved Myb-MuvB (MMB) multiprotein complex is a transcriptional master regulator of mitotic gene expression. The MMB subunits B-MYB, FOXM1 as well as target genes of MMB are often overexpressed in different cancer types. Elevated expression of these genes correlates with an advanced tumor state and a poor prognosis for patients. Furthermore, it has been reported that pathways, which are involved in regulating the mitotic machinery are attractive for a potential treatment of cancers harbouring Ras mutations (Luo et al., 2009).
This suggest that the MMB complex could be required for tumorigenesis by mediating overactivity of mitotic genes and that the MMB could be a useful target for lung cancer treatment. However, although MMB has been characterized biochemically, the contribution of MMB to tumorigenesis is largely unknown in particular in vivo.
In this thesis, it was demonstrated that the MMB complex is required for lung tumorigenesis in vivo in a mouse model of non small cell lung cancer. Elevated levels of B-MYB, NUSAP1 or CENPF in advanced tumors as opposed to low levels of these proteins levels in grade 1 or 2 tumors support the possible contribution of MMB to lung tumorigenesis and the oncogenic potential of B-MYB.The tumor growth promoting function of B-MYB was illustrated by a lower fraction of KI-67 positive cells in vivo and a significantly high impairment in proliferation after loss of B-Myb in vitro. Defects in cytokinesis and an abnormal cell cycle profile after loss of B-Myb underscore the impact of B-MYB on proliferation of lung cancer cell lines. The incomplete recombination of B-Myb in murine lung tumors and in the tumor derived primary cell lines illustrates the selection pressure against the complete loss of B-Myb and further demonstrats that B-Myb is a tumor-essential gene. In the last part of this thesis, the contribution of MMB to the proliferation of human lung cancer cells was demonstrated by the RNAi-mediated depletion of B-Myb. Detection of elevated B-MYB levels in human adenocarcinoma and a reduced proliferation, cytokinesis defects and abnormal cell cycle profile after loss of B-MYB in human lung cancer cell lines underlines the potential of B-MYB to serve as a clinical marker.
Cyclase-associated protein (CAP)2 is an evolutionarily highly conserved actin-binding protein implicated in striated muscle development, carcinogenesis, and wound healing in mammals. To date, the presence as well as the putative role(s) of CAP2 in platelets, however, remain unknown. Therefore, mice constitutively lacking CAP2 (Cap2gt/gt mice) were examined for platelet function. These studies confirmed the presence of both mammalian CAP isoforms, CAP1 and CAP2, in platelets. CAP2-deficient platelets were slightly larger than WT controls and displayed increased GPIIbIIIa activation and P-selectin recruitment in response to the (hem)ITAM-specific agonists collagen-related peptide and rhodocytin. However, spreading of CAP2-deficient platelets on a fibrinogen matrix was unaltered. In conclusion, the functionally redundant CAP1 isoform may compensate for the lack of CAP2 in murine platelets. Moreover, the studies presented in this thesis unveiled a severe macrothrombocytopenia that occurred independently of the targeted Cap2 allele and which was preliminarily termed orphan (orph). Crossing of the respective mice to C57BL/6J wild-type animals revealed an autosomal recessive inheritance. Orph mice were anemic and developed splenomegaly as well as BM fibrosis, suggesting a general hematopoietic defect. Strikingly, BM MKs of orph mice demonstrated an aberrant morphology and appeared to release platelets ectopically into the BM cavity, thus pointing to defective thrombopoiesis as cause for the low platelet counts. Orph platelets exhibited marked activation defects and spread poorly on fibrinogen. The unaltered protein content strongly suggested a defective alpha-granule release to account for the observed hyporesponsiveness. In addition, the cytoskeleton of orph platelets was characterized by disorganized microtubules and accumulations of filamentous actin. However, further experiments are required to elucidate the activation defects and cytoskeletal abnormalities in orph platelets. Above all, the gene mutation responsible for the phenotype of orph mice needs to be determined by next-generation sequencing in order to shed light on the underlying genetic and mechanistic cause.
Modulation of insulin-induced genotoxicity in vitro and genomic damage in gestational diabetes
(2019)
Diabetes mellitus is a global health problem, where the risk of diabetes increases rapidly
due to the lifestyle changes. Patients with type II diabetes have many complications
with increased risk of morbidity and mortality. High levels of insulin may lead to DNA
oxidation and damage. Several studies proposed that hyperinsulinemia may be an
important risk factor for various types of cancer. To investigate insulin signaling
pathway inducing oxidative stress and genomic damage, pharmaceutical and natural
compounds which can interfere with the insulin pathway including PI3K inhibitors,
resveratrol, lovastatin, and RAD-001 were selected due to their beneficial effects
against metabolic disorder. Thus, the anti-genotoxic potential of these compounds
regarding insulin-mediated oxidative stress were investigated in normal rat kidney cells
in vitro. Our compounds showed protective effect against genotoxic damage and
significantly decreased reactive oxygen specious after treatment of cells with insulin
with different mechanisms of protection between the compounds. Thus, these
compounds may be attractive candidates for future support of diabetes mellitus therapy.
Next, we explored the link between gestational diabetes mellitus and genomic damage
in cells derived from human blood. Moreover, we investigated the influence of
estradiol, progesterone, adrenaline and triiodothyronine on insulin-induced genomic
damage in vitro. First, we studied the effect of these hormones in human promyelocytic
leukemia cells and next ex vivo with non-stimulated and stimulated peripheral blood
mononuclear cells. In parallel, we also measured the basal genomic damage using three
conditions (whole blood, non-stimulated and stimulated peripheral blood mononuclear
cells) in a small patient study including non-pregnant controls with/without hormonal
contraceptives, with a subgroup of obese women, pregnant women, and gestational
diabetes affected women. A second-time point after delivery was also applied for
analysis of the blood samples. Our results showed that GDM subjects and obese
individuals exhibited higher basal DNA damage compared to lower weight nonpregnant
or healthy pregnant women in stimulated peripheral blood mononuclear cells
in both comet and micronucleus assays. On the other hand, the DNA damage in GDM
women had decreased at two months after birth. Moreover, the applied hormones also
showed an influence in vitro in the enhancement of the genomic damage in cells of the control and pregnant groups but this damage did not exceed the damage which existed
in obese and gestational diabetes mellitus patients with high level of genomic damage.
In conclusion, insulin can induce genomic damage in cultured cells, which can be
modulated by pharmaceutical and naturals substances. This may be for future use in the
protection of diabetic patients, who suffer from hyperinsulinemia during certain disease
stages. A particular form of diabetes, GDM, was shown to lead to elevated DNA
damage in affected women, which is reduced again after delivery. Cells of affected
women do not show an enhanced, but rather a reduced sensitivity for further DNA
damage induction by hormonal treatment in vitro. A potential reason may be an
existence of a maximally inducible damage by hormonal influences.
Wilms tumor (WT) is the most common kidney cancer in childhood. It is a genetically heterogeneous tumor and several genetic alterations have been identified in WT patients. Recurrent mutations were found in the homeo-domain of SIX1 and SIX2 in high proliferative tumors (18.1% of the blastemal-type tumors) as well as in the microprocessor genes DROSHA and DGCR8 (18.2% of the blastemal-type tumors), indicating a critical role of the SIX-SALL pathway and aberrant miRNA processing in WT formation. Underlined by the fact that a significant overlap between mutations in DROSHA and SIX1 was found, indicating a synergistic effect.
To characterize the in vivo role of DROSHA and SIX mutations during kidney development and their oncogenic potential, I analyzed mouse lines with either a targeted deletion of Drosha or an inducible expression of human DROSHA or SIX1 carrying a tumor-specific E1147K or Q177R mutation, respectively.
The DROSHA mutation E1147K was predicted to act in a dominant negative manner. Six2-cre mediated deletion of Drosha in nephron progenitors led to a lethal phenotype with apoptotic loss of progenitor cells and early termination of nephrogenesis. Mosaic deletions via Wt1-creERT2 resulted in a milder phenotype with viable offspring that developed proteinuria after 2-4 weeks, but no evidence of tumor formation. Activation of the DROSHA-E1147K transgene via Six2-cre, on the other hand, induced a more severe phenotype with apoptosis of progenitor cells, proteinuria and glomerular sclerosis. The severely growth-retarded mice died within the first two months. This strong phenotype was consistent with the predicted dominant-negative effect of DROSHA-E1147K.
Analysis of the SIX1-Q177R mutation suggested that the mutation leads to a shift in DNA binding specificity instead of a complete loss of DNA binding. This may end up in subtle changes of the gene regulatory capacity of SIX1. Six2-cre mediated activation of SIX1-Q177R lead to a viable phenotype with no alterations or shortened life span. Yet a global activation of SIX1-Q177R mediated by Zp3-cre resulted in bilateral hydronephrosis and juvenile death of the mice.
To mimic the synergistic effect of DROSHA and SIX1 mutations, I generated compound mutants in two combinations: A homozygous deletion of Drosha combined with an activation of SIX1-Q177R and a compound mutant with activation of DROSHA-E1147K and SIX1-Q177R. Each mouse model variant displayed new phenotypical alterations. Mice with Six2-cre mediated homozygous deletion of Drosha and activation of SIX1-Q177R were not viable, yet heterozygous deletion of Drosha and activation of SIX1-Q177R led to hydronephrosis, proteinuria and an early death around stage P28. Combined activation of DROSHA-E1147K and SIX1-Q177R under Six2-cre resulted in proteinuria, glomerulosclerosis and lesions inside the kidney. These mice also suffered from juvenile death. Both mouse models could confirm the predicted synergistic effect.
While these results underscore the importance of a viable self-renewing progenitor pool for kidney development, there was no evidence of tumor formation. This suggests that either additional alterations in mitogenic or antiapoptotic pathways are needed for malignant transformation, or premature loss of a susceptible target cell population and early lethality prevent WT formation.
Neurodevelopmental disorders, including attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and autism spectrum disorder (ASD) are disorders of mostly unknown etiopathogenesis, for which both genetic and environmental influences are expected to contribute to the phenotype observed in patients. Changes at all levels of brain function, from network connectivity between brain areas, over neuronal survival, synaptic connectivity and axonal growth, down to molecular changes and epigenetic modifications are suspected to play a key roles in these diseases, resulting in life-long behavioural changes.
Genome-wide association as well as copy-number variation studies have linked cadherin-13 (CDH13) as a novel genetic risk factor to neuropsychiatric and neurodevelopmental disorders. CDH13 is highly expressed during embryonic brain development, as well as in the adult brain, where it is present in regions including the hippocampus, striatum and thalamus (among others) and is upregulated in response to chronic stress exposure. It is however unclear how CDH13 interacts with environmentally relevant cues, including stressful triggers, in the formation of long-lasting behavioural and molecular changes. It is currently unknown how the environment influences CDH13 and which long term changes in behaviour and gene expression are caused by their interaction. This work therefore investigates the interaction between CDH13 deficiency and neonatal maternal separation (MS) in mice with the aim to elucidate the function of CDH13 and its role in the response to early-life stress (ELS).
For this purpose, mixed litters of wild-type (Cdh13+/+), heterozygous (Cdh13+/-) and homozygous knockout (Cdh13-/-) mice were maternally separated from postnatal day 1 (PN1) to postnatal day 14 (PN14) for 3 hours each day (180MS; PN1-PN14). In a first series of experiments, these mice were subjected to a battery of behavioural tests starting at 8 weeks of age in order to assess motor activity, memory functions as well as measures of anxiety. Subsequently, expression of RNA in various brain regions was measured using quantitativ real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR). A second cohort of mice was exposed to the same MS procedure, but was not behaviourally tested, to assess molecular changes in hippocampus using RNA sequencing.
Behavioural analysis revealed that MS had an overall anxiolytic-like effect, with mice after MS spending more time in the open arms of the elevated-plus-maze (EPM) and the light compartment in the light-dark box (LDB). As a notable exception, Cdh13-/- mice did not show an increase of time spent in the light compartment after MS compared to Cdh13+/+ and Cdh13+/- MS mice. During the Barnes-maze learning task, mice of most groups showed a similar ability in learning the location of the escape hole, both in terms of primary latency and primary errors. Cdh13-/- control (CTRL) mice however committed more primary errors than Cdh13-/- MS mice. In the contextual fear conditioning (cFC) test, Cdh13-/- mice showed more freezing responses during the extinction recall, indicating a reduced extinction of fear memory. In the step-down test, an impulsivity task, Cdh13-/- mice had a tendency to wait longer before stepping down from the platform, indicative of more hesitant behaviour. In the same animals, qRT-PCR of several brain areas revealed changes in the GABAergic and glutamatergic systems, while also highlighting changes in the gatekeeper enzyme Glykogensynthase-Kinase 3 (Gsk3a), both in relation to Cdh13 deficiency and MS. Results from the RNA sequencing study and subsequent gene-set enrichment analysis revealed changes in adhesion and developmental genes due to Cdh13 deficiency, while also highlighting a strong link between CDH13 and endoplasmatic reticulum function. In addition, some results suggest that MS increased pro-survival pathways, while a gene x environment analysis showed alterations in apoptotic pathways and migration, as well as immune factors and membrane metabolism. An analysis of the overlap between gene and environment, as well as their interaction, highlighted an effect on cell adhesion factors, underscoring their importance for adaptation to the environment.
Overall, the stress model resulted in increased stress resilience in Cdh13+/+ and Cdh13+/- mice, a change absent in Cdh13-/- mice, suggesting a role of CDH13 during programming and adaptation to early-life experiences, that can results in long-lasting consequences on brain functions and associated behaviours. These changes were also visible in the RNA sequencing, where key pathways for cell-cell adhesion, neuronal survival and cell-stress adaptation were altered. In conclusion, these findings further highlight the role of CDH13 during brain development, while also shedding light on its function in the adaptation and response during (early life) environmental challenges.
Biologische Marker für Aufmerksamkeitsverzerrungen bei sozialer Ängstlichkeit und deren Modifikation
(2019)
Diese Dissertationsschrift beschäftigt sich mit biologischen Korrelaten von Aufmerksamkeits-verzerrungen und eruiert deren Modifikation in einem längsschnittlich angelegten Experiment. Hierfür wurden über 100 sozial-ängstliche Teilnehmer mit Hilfe einer Screening-Prozedur gewonnen und hinsichtlich der Ausprägung einer ereigniskorrelierten Lateralisation namens „N2pc“ untersucht.
Während der ersten Labormessung indizierte die N2pc bei der Bearbeitung eines Dot Probe Paradigmas einen mittelgroßen, statistisch hochbedeutsamen Attentional Bias hin zu wütenden Gesichtern im Vergleich zu neutralen. Das hierfür klassischerweise verwendete Maß von Reaktionszeitunterschieden hingegen konnte diese Verzerrung der Aufmerksamkeit nicht abbilden. Ferner zeigten weder die elektrophysiologische noch die behaviorale Messgröße einen Zusammenhang mit Fragebögen sozialer Angst, was teilweise auf ein Fehlen interner Konsistenz zurückgeführt werden kann.
Im weiteren Verlauf absolvierten die überwiegend weiblichen Teilnehmer an acht unterschiedlichen Terminen über zwei bis vier Wochen fast 7000 Durchgänge eines Aufmerksamkeitsverzerrungsmodifikationstrainings oder einer aktiven Kontrollprozedur. Daraufhin zeigte sich eine Auslöschung der ereigniskorrelierten Lateralisation, allerdings in einem späteren Zeitfenster als erwartet. Dieses Verschwinden des Attentional Bias blieb bis elf Wochen nach Ende der Trainingsprozedur stabil. Außerdem trat dieselbe Modifikation ebenfalls für die Kontrollgruppe auf. Die selbstberichtete Schwere der Symptomausprägung veränderte sich zwar nicht, allerdings konnte eine Reduktion des Persönlichkeitsmerkmals Neurotizismus verzeichnet werden, welches konzeptuell mit dem Begriff der Ängstlichkeit eng verwoben ist.
Durch explorative Folgeanalysen konnte eine stärkere Modulation der rechten Großhirnhälfte, also durch Reize im linken visuellen Halbfeld aufgedeckt werden. Eine Neuberechnung des Attentional Bias separat für jede Hemisphäre scheint daher auch für künftige Untersuchungen angebracht. Ferner wurde als Träger der Modifikation über die Zeit eine Veränderung der Hyperpolarisation nach der N2-Komponente identifiziert. Ob durch eine Anpassung der Prozedur eine Modulation einer früheren ereigniskorrelierten Komponente erzielt werden kann, bleibt zum aktuellen Zeitpunkt unbeantwortet.
Measles is an extremely contagious vaccine-preventable disease responsible
for more than 90000 deaths worldwide annually. The number of deaths has
declined from 8 million in the pre-vaccination era to few thousands every year due
to the highly efficacious vaccine. However, this effective vaccine is still unreachable
in many developing countries due to lack of infrastructure, while in developed
countries too many people refuse vaccination. Specific antiviral compounds are not
yet available. In the current situation, only an extensive vaccination approach
along with effective antivirals could help to have a measles-free future. To develop
an effective antiviral, detailed knowledge of viral-host interaction is required.
This study was undertaken to understand the interaction between MV and
the innate host restriction factor APOBEC3G (A3G), which is well-known for its
activity against human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Restriction of MV
replication was not attributed to the cytidine deaminase function of A3G, instead,
we identified a novel role of A3G in regulating cellular gene functions. Among two
of the A3G regulated host factors, we found that REDD1 reduced MV replication,
whereas, KDELR2 hampered MV haemagglutinin (H) surface transport thereby
affecting viral release. REDD1, a negative regulator of mTORC1 signalling
impaired MV replication by inhibiting mTORC1. A3G regulated REDD1
expression was demonstrated to inversely correlate with MV replication. siRNA
mediated silencing of A3G in primary human blood lymphocytes (PBL) reduced
REDD1 levels and simultaneously increased MV titres. Also, direct depletion of
REDD1 improved MV replication in PBL, indicating its role in A3G mediated
restriction of MV. Based on these finding, a new role of rapamycin, a
pharmacological inhibitor of mTORC1, was uncovered in successfully diminishing
MV replication in Vero as well as in human PBL. The ER and Golgi resident
receptor KDELR2 indirectly affected MV by competing with MV-H for cellular
chaperones. Due to the sequestering of chaperones by KDELR2, they can no longer
assist in MV-H folding and subsequent surface expression. Taken together, the two
A3G-regulated host factors REDD1 and KDELR2 are mainly responsible for
mediating its antiviral activity against MV.
Proteine können aufgrund ihrer biochemischen Vielfalt eine Vielzahl von Interaktionen
mit anderen Proteinen oder chemischen Verbindungen eingehen. Im ersten Teil dieser
Arbeit wurden Protein-Protein Interaktionen mittels chemischen Quervernetzens
untersucht. Das Ziel war, neue und verbesserte Methoden zu entwickeln, um
Interaktionsnetzwerke zu erstellen. Im zweiten Teil wurden die Interaktionen von
Proteinen mit niedermolekularen Verbindungen untersucht, um Drug Targets zu
identifizieren und zu validieren.
Die Untersuchung von Protein-Protein Interaktionen mittels Massenspektrometrie (MS)
ist eine leistungsfähige Methode, um alle potentiellen Interaktionen eines Proteins nach
einer Anreicherung (Co-IP) aus einem Zelllysat zu detektieren. Durch das zusätzliche
Quervernetzen dieser Proteine und anschließender MS kann ein Interaktionsnetzwerk
erstellt werden, um direkte von indirekten Interaktionen unterscheiden zu können
(Topology Mapping). Zur Methodenetablierung wurden kommerzielle Crosslinker und
rekombinante Proteine von bekannten Interaktionspartnern mit niedriger Komplexität
verwendet. Die beiden Interaktionspartner NPL4 und UFD1 konnten mit dem Crosslinker
BS3 erfolgreich quervernetzt und anhand der vernetzten Peptide identifiziert werden. Im
nächsten Schritt wurde dieser Arbeitsablauf auf eine Co-IP des Mediatorkomplexes aus
Hefe angewendet. Die Probenkomplexität ist hierbei 500 - 1000-fach höher als bei der
Verwendung von rekombinanten Proteinen. Nach der erfolgreichen Quervernetzung
konnte innerhalb des Komplexes ein Interaktionsnetzwerk erstellt werden. Diese Daten
passen zu dem bereits bekannten Modell des Mediatorkomplexes. Interaktionen zu
bekannten Interaktionspartnern, wie der RNA-Pol II, konnten aufgrund deren
substöchiometrischen Anreicherung nicht identifiziert werden.
Aufgrund der genannten Limitationen beim Quervernetzen von Proteinen wurden
folgende neue und verbesserte Methoden entwickelt:
1. Verwendung des spaltbaren Crosslinkers (DSSO), der während der Messung selektiv
durch niedrige Kollisionsenergie gespalten werden kann, um die Datenbanksuche zu
vereinfachen. Die Funktionalität der DSSO-Strategie konnte erfolgreich am Protein
Cytochrom C getestet werden. Bei der ersten Fragmentierung wird der Linker gespalten, anschließend können die getrennten Peptide separat fragmentiert werden. Die erzeugten
Daten sind mit einer Standarddatenbanksuche kompatibel, was bei gemischten Spektren
von zwei Peptiden nicht der Fall wäre. Beim Quervernetzen der rekombinanten
Interaktionspartner UBX und p97N mit DSSO konnte der zu bestätigende Crosslink
zwischen zwei Lysinen nicht identifziert werden. Grund hierfür könnte eine zu kurze
Linkerlänge von DSSO sein. Diese Versuche brachten jedoch einige Limitationen des
Ansatzes zum Vorschein, wie die Beschränkung auf die Protease Trypsin, aufgrund der
positiven Ladung am C-Terminus und die Notwendigkeit von großen Proteinmengen, da
das Spalten des Linkers einen zusätzlichen Intensitätsverlust für die folgende
Identifizierung der Peptide mit sich bringt.
2. Da die niedrige Abundanz von quervernetzten Peptiden das Hauptproblem bei deren
Identifizierung ist, wurde eine Methode entwickelt, um während der Messung direkt nach
diesen niedrig abundanten Spezies zu suchen. Entscheidendes Kriterium hierfür war, dass
quervernetzte Peptide zwei C-Termini haben. Diese wurden zur Hälfte enzymatisch mit
18O bzw. 16O markiert und wieder vereinigt. Der resultierende Massenunterschied von 8
Da (4 x 18O) kommt ausschließlich bei zwei quervernetzten Peptiden vor und kann
während der Messung direkt gesucht werden. Die vollständige Markierung von Peptiden
mit 18O wurde zunächst am Protein Beta-Galaktosidase getestet. Bereits hier stellte sich
heraus, dass der enzymatische Rücktausch von 18O zu 16O ein Problem darstellt und die
Markierungseffizienz von Aminosäuren beeinflusst wird, die sich C-terminal nach der
Spaltstelle befinden. Mit dieser Strategie ließ sich somit keine vollständige Markierung
für alle Peptide erreichen, was für diese Strategie essentiell gewesen wäre.
3. Um alle Probleme zu umgehen, die bei der Identifizierung von quervernetzten Peptiden
auftreten, wurde eine Methode entwickelt, um quervernetzte Proteine anhand von Profilen
nach einer Auftrennung im Polyacrylamidgel (SDS-PAGE) zu identifizieren. Durch das
Quervernetzen von Proteinen entstehen zusätzliche Proteinbanden nach einer SDSPAGE,
die im Gel nach oben verschoben sind. Alle Proteine in diesen neu erzeugten
Bereichen stellen somit potentielle Interaktionspartner dar. Als Modellsystem wurde der
Mediatorkomplex verwendet. Er wurde aus einem Zelllysat mittels Co-IP angereichert
und anschließend quervernetzt. Aus den mittels LC-MS/MS gemessenen Gelfraktionen wurden Proteinprofile erstellt und miteinander verglichen. Die Intensitätsmaxima der
Proteine des Mediatorkomplexes konnten in bestimmten zusätzlichen Fraktionen
gefunden werden, was den indirekten Nachweis für eine Interaktion darstellt. Die
Funktionalität der Strategie konnte somit bestätigt werden. Ein verbleibender Nachteil ist
jedoch die zu geringe Trennleistung von Polyacrylamidgelen. Befinden sich mehr als 50
Proteine in einer Fraktion, können potentielle Interaktionspartner nicht eindeutig zu einer
Untereinheit eines Komplexes zugeordnet werden.
Im zweiten Teil der Arbeit wurde im Rahmen der Klinischen Forschergruppe 216
(CRU216) Interaktionen von Proteinen mit verschiedenen niedermolekularen
Verbindungen massenspektrometrisch untersucht, um potentielle Drug Targets zu
identifizieren. Diese Versuche sind vergleichbar mit Co-IP Experimenten, da sich der
Arbeitsablauf nur durch die Anreicherung mittels chemischer Verbindung unterscheidet.
Hierzu wurden biotinylierte Verbindungen immobilisiert und potentielle Drug Targets
aus einem komplexen Zelllysat angereichert. Die Identifzierung der echten
Bindungspartner wurde über quantitive Massenspektrometrie erreicht. Dabei wurden die
angereicherten Proteine, die an die niedermolekularen Substanzen binden mit einer
geeigneten Kontrollanreicherung verglichen. Mit den getesteten α-acyl
Aminocarboxamiden konnten verschiedene Proteinkomplexe und interagierende Proteine
spezifisch angereichert werden. Hierbei waren die vier Kinasen DNA-PK, ATM, ATR
und mTOR besonders interessant, da sie mit onkogenem Signalling und
Überlebensmechanismen wie der Hitzeschockantwort in Zellen des Multiplen Myeloms
(MM) in Verbidnung stehen. Die Inhibition der DNA-PK, ATM, ATR und mTOR mit α-
acyl Aminocarboxamiden stellt somit einen möglichen Therapieansatz dar, wenn er
zusammen mit hitzestressauslösenden Inhibitoren verwendet wird. Weiterhin konnte
gezeigt werden, dass die Armadillodomäne innerhalb der potentiellen Drug targets
signifkant angereichert wurde. Sie stellt damit eine potentielle Bindestelle der α-acyl
Aminocarboxamide dar.
Abschließend wurden Proteine mit biotinylierten Naphtylisochinolinen aus einem MMZelllysat
angereichert, deren Vorläufersubstanzen eine Wirkung auf Tumorzellen und den Malariaparasit Plasmodium falciparum gezeigt hatten. Hierbei konnten vor allem RNAbindende-
und mRNA-Splicing Proteine identifiziert werden, die zum Teil essentiell für
das Spleißen in-vivo sind. Hierzu gehören mehrere Untereinheiten der Splicing Factoren
3A und 3B. Die Veränderung der transkriptionellen Regulation und der resultierende
Effekt auf Krebszellen konnte bereits in anderen Studien mit dem Inhibitor Spliceostatin
A gezeigt werden, der das Spleißen beeinflusst.
The thesis provides insights in reconstruction and analysis pipelines for processing of
three-dimensional cell and vessel images of megakaryopoiesis in intact murine bone.
The images were captured in a Light Sheet Fluorescence Microscope. The work
presented here is part of Collaborative Research Centre (CRC) 688 (project B07) of
the University of Würzburg, performed at the Rudolf-Virchow Center. Despite ongoing
research within the field of megakaryopoiesis, its spatio-temporal pattern of
megakaryopoiesis is largely unknown. Deeper insight to this field is highly desirable to
promote development of new therapeutic strategies for conditions related to
thrombocytopathy as well as thrombocytopenia. The current concept of
megakaryopoiesis is largely based on data from cryosectioning or in vitro studies
indicating the existence of spatial niches within the bone marrow where specific stages
of megakaryopoiesis take place. Since classic imaging of bone sections is typically
limited to selective two-dimensional views and prone to cutting artefacts, imaging of
intact murine bone is highly desired. However, this has its own challenges to meet,
particularly in image reconstruction. Here, I worked on processing pipelines to account
for irregular specimen staining or attenuation as well as the extreme heterogeneity of
megakaryocyte morphology. Specific challenges for imaging and image reconstruction
are tackled and solution strategies as well as remaining limitations are presented and
discussed. Fortunately, modern image processing and segmentation strongly benefits
from continuous advances in hardware as well as software-development. This thesis
exemplifies how a combined effort in biomedicine, computer vision, data processing
and image technology leads to deeper understanding of megakaryopoiesis. Tailored
imaging pipelines significantly helped elucidating that the large megakaryocytes are
broadly distributed throughout the bone marrow facing a surprisingly dense vessel
network. No evidence was found for spatial niches in the bone marrow, eventually
resulting in a revised model of megakaryopoiesis.
Cataglyphis ants are famous for their navigational abilities. They live in hostile habitats where they forage as solitary scavengers covering distances of more than hundred thousand times their body lengths. To return to their nest with a prey item – mainly other dead insects that did not survive the heat – Cataglyphis ants constantly keep track of their directions and distances travelled. The navigational strategy is called path integration, and it enables an ant to return to the nest in a straight line using its home vector. Cataglyphis ants mainly rely on celestial compass cues, like the position of the sun or the UV polarization pattern, to determine directions, and they use an idiothetic step counter and optic flow to measure distances. In addition, they acquire information about visual, olfactory and tactile landmarks, and the wind direction to increase their chances of returning to the nest safe and sound. Cataglyphis’ navigational performance becomes even more impressive if one considers their life style. Most time of their lives, the ants stay underground and perform tasks within the colony. When they start their foraging careers outside the nest, they have to calibrate their compass systems and acquire all information necessary for navigation during subsequent foraging. This navigational toolkit is not instantaneously available, but has to be filled with experience. For that reason, Cataglyphis ants perform a striking behavior for up to three days before actually foraging. These so-called learning walks are crucial for the success as foragers later on. In the present thesis, both the ontogeny and the fine-structure of learning walks has been investigated. Here I show with displacement experiments that Cataglyphis ants need enough space and enough time to perform learning walks. Spatially restricted novices, i. e. naïve ants, could not find back to the nest when tested as foragers later on. Furthermore, ants have to perform several learning walks over 1-3 days to gain landmark information for successful homing as foragers. An increasing number of feeder visits also increases the importance of landmark information, whereas in the beginning ants fully rely on their path-integration vector. Learning walks are well-structured. High-speed video analysis revealed that Cataglyphis ants include species-specific rotational elements in their learning walks. Greek Cataglyphis ants (C. noda and C. aenescens) inhabiting a cluttered pine forest perform voltes, small walked circles, and pirouettes, tight turns about the body axis with frequent stopping phases. During the longest stopping phases, the ants gaze back to their nest entrance. The Tunisian Cataglyphis fortis ants inhabiting featureless saltpans only perform voltes without directed gazes. The function of voltes has not yet been revealed. In contrast, the fine structure of pirouettes suggests that the ants take snapshots of the panorama towards their homing direction to memorize the nest’s surroundings. The most likely hypothesis was that Cataglyphis ants align the gaze directions using their path integrator, which gets directional input from celestial cues during foraging. To test this hypothesis, a manipulation experiment was performed changing the celestial cues above the nest entrance (no sun, no natural polarization pattern, no UV light). The accurately directed gazes to the nest entrance offer an easily quantifiable readout suitable to ask the ants where they expect their nest entrance. Unexpectedly, all novices performing learning walks under artificial sky conditions looked back to the nest entrance. This was especially surprising, because neuronal changes in the mushroom bodies and the central complex receiving visual input could only be induced with the natural sky when comparing test animals with interior workers. The behavioral findings indicated that Cataglyphis ants use another directional reference system to align their gaze directions during the longest stopping phases of learning walk pirouettes. One possibility was the earth’s magnetic field. Indeed, already disarraying the geomagnetic field at the nest entrance with an electromagnetic flat coil indicated that the ants use magnetic information to align their looks back to the nest entrance. To investigate this finding further, ants were confronted with a controlled magnetic field using a Helmholtz coil. Elimination of the horizontal field component led to undirected gaze directions like the disarray did. Rotating the magnetic field about 90°, 180° or -90° shifted the ants’ gaze directions in a predictable manner. Therefore, the earth’s magnetic field is a necessary and sufficient reference system for aligning nest-centered gazes during learning-walk pirouettes. Whether it is additionally used for other navigational purposes, e. g. for calibrating the solar ephemeris, remains to be tested. Maybe the voltes performed by all Cataglyphis ant species investigated so far can help to answer this question..
From the simplest single-cellular organism to the most complex multicellular life forms, genetic information in form of DNA represents the universal basis for all biological processes and thus for life itself. Maintaining the structural and functional integrity of the genome is therefore of paramount importance for every single cell. DNA itself, as an active and complex macromolecular structure, is both substrate and product of many of these biochemical processes. A cornerstone of DNA maintenance is thus established by the tight regulation of the multitude of reactions in DNA metabolism, repressing adverse side reactions and ensuring the integrity of DNA in sequence and function. The family of RecQ helicases has emerged as a vital class of enzymes that facilitate genomic integrity by operating in a versatile spectrum of nucleic acid metabolism processes, such as DNA replication, repair, recombination, transcription and telomere stability. RecQ helicases are ubiquitously expressed and conserved in all kingdoms of life. Human cells express five different RecQ enzymes, RecQ1, BLM, WRN, RecQ4 and RecQ5, which all exhibit individual as well as overlapping functions in the maintenance of genomic integrity. Dysfunction of three human RecQ helicases, BLM, WRN and RecQ4, causes different heritable cancer susceptibility syndromes, supporting the theory that genomic instability is a molecular driving force for cancer development. However, based on their inherent DNA protective nature, RecQ helicases represent a double-edged sword in the maintenance of genomic integrity. While their activity in normal cells is essential to prevent cancerogenesis and cellular aging, cancer cells may exploit this DNA protective function by the overexpression of many RecQ helicases, aiding to overcome the disadvantageous results of unchecked DNA replication and simultaneously gaining resistance against chemotherapeutic drugs. Therefore, detailed knowledge how RecQ helicases warrant genomic integrity is required to understand their implication in cancerogenesis and aging, thus setting the stage to develop new strategies towards the treatment of cancer.
The current study presents and discusses the first high-resolution X-ray structure of the human RecQ4 helicase. The structure encompasses the conserved RecQ4 helicase core, including a large fraction of its unique C- terminus. Our structural analysis of the RecQ4 model highlights distinctive differences and unexpected similarities to other, structurally conserved, RecQ helicases and permits to draw conclusions about the functional implications of the unique domains within the RecQ4 C-terminus. The biochemical characterization of various RecQ4 variants provides functional insights into the RecQ4 helicase mechanism, suggesting that RecQ4 might utilize an alternative DNA strand separation technique, compared to other human RecQ family members. Finally, the RecQ4 model permits for the first time the analysis of multiple documented RecQ4 patient mutations at the atomic level and thus provides the possibility for an advanced interpretation of particular structure-function relationships in RecQ4 pathogenesis.
Der Hörsinn ist für uns Menschen von entscheidender Bedeutung, um mit der Umwelt kommunizieren zu können. Hörstörungen werden dabei in sensorineurale Erkrankungen der neuronalen Strukturen und nicht-sensorineurale Schallleitungsschwerhörigkeiten unterschieden.
In der vorliegenden Studie sollte es darum gehen zu untersuchen, inwiefern ein neues konditionelles Mausmodell, die Brn3.1 IRES Cre Maus, und ein bestehendes Mausmodell, die pmn-Maus, sich eignen, um die Erkrankung der auditorischen Neuropathie nachzubilden. Die Brn3.1 IRES Cre Maus wurde zur Evaluation der Expression von Cre-Rekombinase unter der Aktivität des Brn3.1 Promotors mit gefloxten Reporter-Mauslinien verkreuzt. Die pmn-Maus ist ein anerkanntes Modell einer Motoneuronerkrankung, hatte aber in vorherigen Untersuchungen erhöhte Hörschwellen gezeigt.
Alle verwendeten Mauslinien wurden mittels ABR und DPOAE frequenzspezifisch untersucht, um die Funktion der Haarzellen im Corti´schen Organ zu evaluieren. Bei der pmn-Linie wurden die audiologischen Untersuchungen wöchentlich zwischen P21 und P35 durchgeführt. Zusätzlich wurde das Corti´sche Organ zu diesen Zeitpunkten morphologisch untersucht.
Es zeigte sich, dass alle verwendeten Mauslinien unauffällige Hörschwellen verglichen zur Backgroundlinie C57BL/6 hatten sowie DPOAE-Antworten zeigten. Die Verkreuzung der Brn3.1 IRES Cre Linie mit den beiden Reporterlinien zeigte eine nachweisbare Cre-Rekombinase-Expression unter der Aktivität des Brn3.1 Promotors nur an den postnatalen Tagen P14 und P21. Diese Expression erfolgte mosaikartig in den äußeren Haarzellen. Mit Hilfe einer RT-PCR wurde eine Diskrepanz zwischen Genotyp und Expression des Reporterproteins im Gewebe festgestellt. Dies ließ vermuten, dass die Expression von Cre-Rekombinase durch gene silencing Prozesse unterdrückt wurde und Brn3.1 als Promotor nicht leistungsstark genug war, um eine Cre-Rekombinase-Expression steuern zu können.
Die pmn-Linie zeigte in ABR-Untersuchungen bereits zum Zeitpunkt P21 erhöhte Hörschwellen in allen untersuchten Frequenzen im Vergleich zum Wildtyp. DPOAE-Antworten waren in der pmn-Linie nur bedingt auslösbar. Es zeigte sich in der morphologischen Evaluation ein Verlust von äußeren Haarzellen über die gesamte Länge des Corti´schen Organes. Durch einen TUNEL-Assay konnte das Absterben dieser Zellen durch apoptotische Vorgänge nachgewiesen werden. Der pmn-Phänotyp entsteht durch eine Mutation im TBCE Gen. Dieses Gen kodiert für ein Protein, welches einen stabilisierenden Einfluss auf die Organisation der Mikrotubuli hat. Die TBCE-Verteilung im Corti´schen Organ zeigte, dass dieses hauptsächlich in den äußeren Haarzellen und inneren Stützzellen exprimiert wird und damit wahrscheinlich einen bedeutenden Einfluss auf die Erhaltung der Haarzellen hat. Eine Analyse des Hörnervs zeigte einen Verlust von Mikrotubuli.
Neben diesen in vivo Untersuchungen sollte außerdem eine gliazellfreie Kultur von dissoziierten auditorischen Neuronen etabliert werden. Hierfür wurden mehrere Faktoren einer Primärzellkultur in Bezug auf ihren Einfluss auf die Gesamtzellzahl, den prozentualen Neuronanteil und die Axonlänge der Neurone untersucht. Das Medium, die Beschichtung des Zellkulturgefäßes, die Gabe von Neurotrophinen/Zytokinen und der Einsatz eines Zytostatikums wurden separat untersucht. Es zeigte sich, dass das Medium, die Beschichtung und Neurotrophin-/Zytokingabe hauptsächlich einen Einfluss auf das axonale Längenwachstum von Neuronen haben. Den Prozentsatz der Neurone beeinflusste nur der Einsatz des Zytostatikums Cytosin-β-D-arabinofuranosid (AraC) signifikant. Die Ergebnisse wurden auch im Zusammenhang mit der reellen Neuronanzahl in Kultur gesehen.
Es ergab sich weiterhin eine Präferenz für DMEM- über NB-Medium sowie für zusätzliche Lamininbeschichtung, für den Einsatz des Zytokins LIF gegenüber den neurotrophen Faktoren BDNF und NT-3 und die Gabe des Zytostatikums AraC ab Tag 2 nach Ausplattierung in einer Konzentration von 5-10 µM. Ein kombinatorischer Einsatz dieser Präferenzen spiegelte in Summe die Ergebnisse der Versuchsreihen Neurotrophine/Zytokin und AraC wieder. Der Anteil der Neurone in der Kultur konnte im Durchschnitt auf 10-12 % gesteigert werden. Eine Verschiebung des Glia-/Neuronenanteils zugunsten letzterer ist vermutlich nur durch den Einsatz weiterer Faktoren oder anderer Methoden möglich.
Die untersuchten Mausmodelle zeigten auf Grund der Untersuchungsergebnisse nur teilweise Ähnlichkeiten mit der Erkrankung der auditorischen Neuropathie. Die Erkenntnisse zur pmn-Mauslinie über das frequenzspezifische Hörvermögen und die morphologische Degeneration im Corti´schen Organ im altersabhängigen Verlauf können aber hilfreich sein, um neben der motorischen auch die sensorische Degeneration dieser Pathologie besser zu verstehen. Zudem konnten auch umfassende Erkenntnisse für die Kultur von dissoziierten auditorischen Neuronen der Maus in Bezug auf verschiedene Variablen erhalten werden.
Development and application of computational tools for RNA-Seq based transcriptome annotations
(2019)
In order to understand the regulation of gene expression in organisms, precise genome annotation is essential. In recent years, RNA-Seq has become a potent method for generating and improving genome annotations. However, this Approach is time consuming and often inconsistently performed when done manually. In particular, the discovery of non-coding RNAs benefits strongly from the application of RNA-Seq data but requires significant amounts of expert knowledge and is labor-intensive. As a part of my doctoral study, I developed a modular tool called ANNOgesic that can detect numerous transcribed genomic features, including non-coding RNAs, based on RNA-Seq data in a precise and automatic fashion with a focus on bacterial and achaeal species. The software performs numerous analyses and generates several visualizations. It can generate annotations of high-Resolution that are hard to produce using traditional annotation tools that are based only on genome sequences. ANNOgesic can detect numerous novel genomic Features like UTR-derived small non-coding RNAs for which no other tool has been developed before. ANNOgesic is available under an open source license (ISCL) at https://github.com/Sung-Huan/ANNOgesic.
My doctoral work not only includes the development of ANNOgesic but also its application to annotate the transcriptome of Staphylococcus aureus HG003 - a strain which has been a insightful model in infection biology. Despite its potential as a model, a complete genome sequence and annotations have been lacking for HG003. In order to fill this gap, the annotations of this strain, including sRNAs and their functions, were generated using ANNOgesic by analyzing differential RNA-Seq data from 14 different samples (two media conditions with seven time points), as well as RNA-Seq data generated after transcript fragmentation. ANNOgesic was
also applied to annotate several bacterial and archaeal genomes, and as part of this its high performance was demonstrated. In summary, ANNOgesic is a powerful computational tool for RNA-Seq based annotations and has been successfully applied to several species.
Bei der Multiplen Sklerose (MS) handelt es sich um eine Autoimmunerkrankung des zentralen Nervensystems (ZNS). Abhängig von der betroffenen ZNS-Region kann es zu vielfältigen Symptomen kommen. Neben neurologischen Symptomen verursacht durch ZNS-Läsionen leidet ein Großteil der MS-Patienten auch unter gastrointestinalen Funktionsstörungen. Diese gastrointestinalen Symptome wurden bisher eher auf Läsionen im Rückenmark zurückgeführt und nicht direkt in Verbindung mit der autoimmunen Ätiologie der Erkrankung gebracht.
In dieser Studie wurde das enterische Nervensystem (ENS) in einem B-Zell- und Antikörper-abhängigen Mausmodell der MS untersucht. Dafür wurde der Autoimmunprozess durch Immunisierung mit MP4, einem Fusionsprotein aus dem Myelin-Basischen-Protein (MBP) und dem Proteolipid-Protein (PLP), ausgelöst. Das ZNS und ENS wurden in den unterschiedlichen Erkrankungsstadien immunhistochemisch und elektronenmikroskopisch analysiert. Neben der Immunpathologie des ZNS konnte dabei eine Degeneration des ENS schon vor dem Einsetzen der ersten neurologischen Defizite nachgewiesen werden. Die ENS-Pathologie war antikörper-mediiert und ging einher mit einer verringerten gastrointestinalen Motilität sowie mit einer Gliose und Neurodegeneration des ENS.
Mithilfe von Immunpräzipitation und Massenspektrometrie konnten im ENS vier mögliche Zielstrukturen des Autoimmunprozesses identifiziert werden, was auf sog. epitope spreading hindeutet. Auch im Plasma von MS-Patienten konnten Antikörper gegen drei dieser Antigene nachgewiesen werden. Des Weiteren zeigten sich in Kolon-Resektaten von MS-Patienten erste Ansätze einer Neurodegeneration und Gliose des ENS.
In dieser Studie wurde zum ersten Mal ein direkter Zusammenhang zwischen der Autoimmunreaktion gegen das ZNS und einer simultanen Reaktion gegen das ENS gezeigt. Dies kann einen Paradigmenwechsel im Verständnis der Immunpathogenese der MS anstoßen und neue therapeutische und diagnostische Ansätze initiieren.
Non-steroidal antiinflammatory drugs are most commonly used for inflammatory and postoperative pain. But they lack effectiveness and specificity, leading to severe side effects, like gastric ulcers, asthma and severe bleeding. Oxidized 1-palmitoyl-2-arachinidonoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (OxPAPC) plays an important role in inflammatory pain. PAPC is a common phosphatidylcholine of membranes, which can be oxidized by reactive oxygen species. In preliminary experiments, our group found that local injection of OxPAPC in rat paws induces hyperalgesia.
In this study we examined the effect of OxPAPC on transient receptor potential A1 (TRPA1), an ion channel expressed in C-fiber neurons. Furthermore, we investigated if intracellular cysteine residues of TRPA1 were necessary for agonist-channel-interactions and if a subsequent TRPA1 activation could be prevented by OxPAPC scavengers.
To answer these questions, we performed calcium imaging using HEK-293 cells stably expressing hTRPA1, or transiently expressing the triple mutant channel hTRPA1-3C and naïve DRG neurons. Cells were incubated with the ratiometric, fluorescent dye Fura-2/AM and stimulated with OxPAPC. The change of light emission after excitation with 340 and 380 nm wavelengths allowed conclusions regarding changes of intracellular calcium concentrations after TRPA1 activation.
In our investigation we proved evidence that OxPAPC activates TRPA1, which caused a flow of calcium ions into the cytoplasm. The TRPA1-specific channel blocker HC-030031 eliminated this agonist-induced response. TRPA1-3C was not completely sensitive to OxPAPC. The peptide D-4F and the monoclonal antibody E06 neutralized OxPAPC-induced TRPA1 activation.
In this work, the importance of OxPAPC as a key mediator of inflammatory pain and as a promising target for drug design is highlighted. Our results indicate that TRPA1 activation by OxPAPC involves cysteine-dependent mechanisms, but there are other, cysteine-independent activation mechanisms as well. Potential pharmaceuticals for the treatment of inflammatory pain are D-4F and E06, whose efficiency has recently been confirmed in the animal model by our research group.
Chronic Kidney Disease as an Important Co-morbid Condition in Coronary Heart Disease Patients
(2019)
In patients with coronary heart disease (CHD) the control of the modifiable “traditional” cardiovascular risk factors such as hypertension, dyslipidemia, diabetes, achieving/maintaining normal body weight and smoking cessation is of major importance to improve prognosis. Guideline recommendations for secondary CHD prevention include specific treatment targets for blood pressure, lipid levels, and markers of glucose metabolism for both younger and older patients. Chronic kidney disease (CKD) has been identified as a “non-traditional” risk factor for worse outcome in CHD patients, as it is associated with a markedly increased risk for subsequent CV events and mortality.
The specific objectives of the current thesis-project are to investigate (a) the quality of care in a recent sample of German CHD patients and to investigate variation of risk factor control between younger and elder patients (≤70 versus >70 years), (b) to analyze the prevalence of CKD across Europe in stable CHD patients in the outpatient setting and during a hospital stay for CHD, (c) to investigate the level of awareness of CKD in German CHD patients and their treating physicians.
Data from the European-wide EUROASPIRE IV study were used that include data on 7998 CHD patients in the ambulatory setting (study visit) and during a hospital stay for CHD (index). The German EUROASPIRE IV study center in Würzburg recruited 536 patients in 2012-2013. Risk factor control was compared against the current recommendations of the European Society of Cardiology. CKD was described by stages of glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) and albuminuria. German patients were asked in an additional kidney specific module whether they have ever been told by a physician about renal impairment. The fact that CKD or acute kidney injury (AKI) was mentioned in prominent parts of the hospital discharge letter as well as correct ICD-coding of CKD or AKI served as a proxy for physician’s awareness of CKD.
The majority of German CHD patients was treated with the recommended drug therapies including e.g. β-blockers, anti-platelets and statins. However, treatment targets for blood pressure and LDL-cholesterol levels were not achieved in many patients (45% and 53%, respectively) and glycemic control in diabetic CHD patients with HbA1-levels <7% was insufficient (61%). A minority of patients reported on current smoking (10%), but unhealthy life-styles e.g. overweight/obesity (85%/37%) were frequent. Patterns of care differed between younger and older CHD patients while older patients were less likely to receive the recommended medical CHD-therapy, were more likely to have uncontrolled blood pressure and also to be diabetic. However, a greater proportion of diabetic patients >70 years was achieving the HbA1c target, and less elder patients were current smokers or were obese. About 17% of patients on average had CKD (eGFR< 60 ml/min/1.73m²) in the entire European sample at the study visit, and an additional 10% had albuminuria despite preserved eGFR, with considerable variation among countries. Impaired kidney function was observed in every fifth patient admitted for CHD in the entire European dataset of the EUROASPIRE IV study. Of the German CHD patients with CKD at the study visit, only a third were aware of their renal impairment. A minority of these patients was being seen by nephrologists, however, with a higher likelihood of CKD awareness and specialist care in more advanced stages of CKD. About a third of patients admitted for CHD showed either CKD or AKI during the hospital stay, but the discharge letter mentioned chronic or acute kidney disease only in every fifth of these patients. In contrast, correct ICD coding of CKD or AKI was more complete, but still suboptimal.
In summary, quality of secondary prevention in German CHD patients indicates considerably room for improvement, with life-style modifications may become an even greater factor in prevention campaigns than medical treatment into certain target ranges. Preventive therapies should also consider different needs in older individuals acknowledging physical and mental potential, other comorbidities and drug-interactions with co-medication. CKD is common in CHD patients, not only in the elderly. Since CHD and CKD affect each other and impact on worse prognosis of each other, raising the awareness of CKD among patients and physicians and considering CKD in medical therapy may improve prognosis and slow disease progression of CHD as well as CKD.
Ovarian cancer is one of the most common gynecological malignancies in the world. The prevalence of a microbial signature in ovarian cancer has been reported by several studies till date. In these microorganisms, Human herpesvirus 6 (HHV-6) and Chlamydia trachomatis (C.tr) are especially important as they have significantly high prevalence rate. Moreover, these pathogens are directly involved in causing DNA damage and thereby disrupting the integrity of host genome which is the underlying cause of any cancer. This study focuses on how the two pathogens, HHV-6 and C. trachomatis can affect the genome integrity in their individual capacities and thereby may drive ovarian epithelial cells towards transformation. HHV-6 has unique tendency to integrate its genome into the host genome at subtelomeric regions and achieve a state of latency. This latent virus may get reactivated during the course of life by stress, drugs such as steroids, during transplantation, pregnancy etc. The study presented here began with an interesting observation wherein the direct repeat (DR) sequences flanking the ends of double stranded viral genome were found in unusually high numbers in human blood samples as opposed to normal ratio of two DR copies per viral genome. This study was corroborated with in vitro data where cell lines were generated to mimic the HHV-6 status in human samples. The same observation of unusually high DR copies was found in these cell lines as well. Interestingly, fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) and inverse polymerase chain reaction followed by southern blotting showed that DR sequences were found to be integrated in nontelomeric regions as opposed to the usual sub-telomeric integration sites in both human samples and in cell lines. Sanger sequencing confirmed the non-telomeric integration of viral DR sequences in the host genome. Several studies have shown that C. trachomatis causes DNA damage and inhibits the signaling cascade of DNA damage response. However, the effect of C. trachomatis infection on process of DNA repair itself was not addressed. In this study, the effect of C. trachomatis infection on host base excision repair (BER) has been addressed. Base excision repair is a pathway which is responsible for replacing the oxidized bases with new undamaged ones. Interestingly, it was found that C. trachomatis infection downregulated polymerase β expression and attenuated polymerase β- mediated BER in vitro. The mechanism of the polymerase β downregulation was found to be associated with the changes in the host microRNAs and downregulation of tumor suppressor, p53. MicroRNA-499 which has a binding site in the polymerase β 3’UTR was shown to be upregulated during C. trachomatis infection. Inhibition of miR-499 using synthetic miR-499 inhibitor indeed improved the repair efficiency during C. trachomatis infection in the in vitro repair assay. Moreover, p53 transcriptionally regulates polymerase β and stabilizing p53 during C. trachomatis infection enhanced the repair efficiency. Previous studies have shown that C. trachomatis can reactivate latent HHV-6. Therefore, genomic instability due to insertions of unstable ‘transposon-like’ HHV-6 DR followed by compromised BER during C. trachomatis infection cumulatively support the hypothesis of pathogenic infections as a probable cause of ovarian cancer
Unterschiede in Frontaler Kortex Oxygenierung in zweierlei Risikogruppen der Alzheimer Demenz
(2019)
Die verbesserte medizinische Versorgung führt zu einer zunehmenden Lebenserwartung unserer Gesellschaft. Damit steigt auch die sozioökonomische Relevanz neurodegenerativer Erkrankungen kontinuierlich. Für die Alzheimer Demenz (AD), die dabei die häufigste Ursache darstellt, stehen bisher keine krankheitsmodifizierenden Behandlungsoptionen zur Verfügung. Die lange präklinische Phase der Erkrankung birgt jedoch großes Potential für die Entwicklung neuer Behandlungsoptionen. Das Untersuchen von Risikogruppen ist für die Identifikation von Prädiktoren einer späteren AD Manifestation von besonderem Interesse. In diesem Zusammenhang werden insbesondere das Vorliegen genetischer Risikokonstellationen, wie dem Apolipoprotein E (APOE) Ɛ4-Allel, sowie kognitiver Risikofaktoren, wie der „leichten kognitiven Beeinträchtigung“ (MCI), diskutiert. Die Identifikation präklinischer Aktivierungsunterschiede in relevanten Gehirnregionen von Risikogruppen kann als Basis für die Entwicklung neurofunktioneller Früherkennungs-Marker dienen. Der präfrontale Kortex (PFC), welcher mit der Steuerung von Exekutivfunktionen assoziiert wird, hat sich in diesem Zusammenhang in bisherigen Studien als eine relevante Schlüsselregion manifestiert. Aufgrund der aufwendigen und kostenintensiven bildgebenden Untersuchungsmethoden, sind die genauen Prozesse jedoch noch unklar.
Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit war es daher, Unterschiede in der PFC Oxygenierung in zweierlei Risikogruppen der AD mit einer kostengünstigeren Bildgebungsmethode, der funktionellen Nahinfrarot Spektroskopie (fNIRS), zu untersuchen. Dafür wurde in einem ersten Schritt, der Trailmaking Test (TMT), ein weitverbreiteter neuropsychologischer Test zur Erfassung exekutiver Funktionen, für fNIRS implementiert. Als Grundlage für die Untersuchung frühpathologischer Prozesse, wurden zunächst gesunde Alterungsprozesse betrachtet. Der Vergleich von jungen und älteren Probanden (n = 20 pro Gruppe) wies neben der Eignung der Testimplementierung für fNIRS auf eine spezifische bilaterale PFC Oxygenierung hin, welche bei jungen Probanden rechtshemisphärisch lateralisiert war. Ältere Probanden hingegen zeigten bei vergleichbaren Verhaltensdaten insgesamt mehr signifikante Kanäle sowie eine Abnahme der Lateralisierung. Dies kann als zusätzlicher Bedarf an Ressourcen in gesunden Alterungsprozessen interpretiert werden.
Im Rahmen der Hauptstudie wurden anschließend insgesamt 604 ältere Probanden im Alter von 70 bis 76 Jahren untersucht. Zunächst wurde die genetische Risikogruppe der Ɛ4-Allel-Träger (n = 78) mit den neutralen Ɛ3-Allel-Trägern (n = 216) und den Trägern des als protektiv geltenden Ɛ2-Allels (n = 50) verglichen. Hierbei zeigte sich eine geringere Oxygenierung der Risikogruppe bei geringer Aufgabenschwierigkeit, während sich ein erhöhter Oxygenierungsanstieg im medialen PFC mit steigender Aufgabenschwierigkeit zeigte. Dies deutet auf einen erhöhten Bedarf an neuronalen Kontrollmechanismen der Risikogruppe zur Bewältigung der steigenden Aufgabenschwierigkeit hin. Die protektive Gruppe zeigte hingegen eine erhöhte Oxygenierung im ventralen PFC mit steigender Aufgabenschwierigkeit, was möglicherweise auf einen präventiven Effekt hindeuten könnte.
Weiterführend wurden MCI-Patienten mit gesunden Probanden (n = 57 pro Gruppe) hinsichtlich des kognitiven Risikofaktors verglichen. Hierbei zeigte sich ein punktuell reduzierter Oxygenierunganstieg der MCI Patienten mit steigender Aufgabenschwierigkeit vor allem im ventralen PFC bei ebenfalls stabiler Verhaltensleistung. Die gefundene Reduktion könnte ein Zeichen für eine aufgebrauchte kognitive Reserve sein, welche Einbußen auf Verhaltensebene voranzugehen scheint.
Diese charakteristischen Unterschiede in den frontalen Oxygenierungsmustern von Risikogruppen (APOE, MCI) könnten als Biomarker zur Früherkennung von AD noch vor dem Auftreten kognitiver Einbußen dienen. Die fNIRS-Untersuchung während der Durchführung des TMT hat sich in diesem Zusammenhang als potentielles Instrument zur Frühdiagnose der präklinischen Phase der AD als geeignet erwiesen. Die Ergebnisse werden unter Einbezug des wissenschaftlichen Kontexts interpretiert und Implikationen für weitere notwendige Studien sowie die klinische Anwendbarkeit diskutiert.
All living organisms need timekeeping mechanisms to track and anticipate cyclic changes in their environment. The ability to prepare for and respond to daily and seasonal changes is endowed by circadian clocks. The systemic features and molecular mechanisms that drive circadian rhythmicity are highly conserved across kingdoms. Therefore, Drosophila melanogaster with its relatively small brain (ca. 135.000 neurons) and the outstanding genetic tools that are available, is a perfect model to investigate the properties and relevance of the circadian system in a complex, but yet comprehensible organism.
The last 50 years of chronobiological research in the fruit fly resulted in a deep understanding of the molecular machinery that drives circadian rhythmicity, and various histological studies revealed the neural substrate of the circadian system. However, a detailed neuroanatomical and physiological description on the single-cell level has still to be acquired. Thus, I employed a multicolor labeling approach to characterize the clock network of Drosophila melanogaster with single-cell resolution and additionally investigated the putative in- and output sites of selected neurons.
To further study the functional hierarchy within the clock network and to monitor the “ticking clock“ over the course of several circadian cycles, I established a method, which allows us to follow the accumulation and degradation of the core clock genes in living brain explants by the means of bioluminescence imaging of single-cells.
Das humane Schädeldach besteht aus fünf Schädelplatten, die durch intramembranöse Ossifikation entstehen. Wenn diese in der Embryonalentwicklung aufeinandertreffen, bilden sich Schädelnähte aus, die eine Fusion der Schädelplatten verhindern und damit ein Schädelwachstum parallel zu Gehirnentwicklung ermöglichen. Für diesen Prozess ist eine Balance aus Zellproliferation und Differenzierung nötig, deren Aufrechterhaltung wiederum durch eine komplexe Regulation von verschiedenen Signalwegen gewährleistet wird. Störungen in diesem regulatorischen System können zu einer vorzeitigen Fusion der Schädelplatten, Kraniosynostose genannt, führen. Die Kraniosynostose ist eine der häufigsten kraniofazialen Fehlbildungen beim Menschen. Durch kompensatorisches Wachstum an den nicht fusionierten Suturen entstehen charakteristische Schädeldeformationen, die sekundär einen erhöhten intrakranialen Druck zur Folge haben können. Eine vorzeitige Fusion der Suturen kann sowohl isoliert als auch syndromal zusammen mit weiteren klinischen Auffälligkeiten vorliegen. Bisher sind über 150 verschiedene Kraniosynostose Syndrome beschrieben und insgesamt 25-30% aller Kraniosynostose Patienten sind von einer syndromalen Form betroffen. Da die klinischen Merkmale der Kraniosynostose Syndrome variabel sind und zum Teil überlappen, ist eine klare klinische Diagnose häufig erschwert. Sowohl Umwelteinflüsse als auch genetische Veränderungen können die Ursache für Kraniosynostosen sein. Vor allem bei syndromalen Kraniosynostosen wurden genetische Veränderungen, wie beispielsweise Mutationen in den Genen FGFR2, FGFR3, TWIST1 und EFNB1, identifiziert. Darüber hinaus wurden chromosomale Veränderungen wie partielle Monosomien von 7p, 9p oder 11p sowie partielle Trisomien von 5q, 13q oder 15q mit Kraniosynostose assoziiert. Trotzdem ist in über 50% der Fälle die genetische Ursache unbekannt und die Pathogenese von Kraniosynostosen noch nicht vollständig geklärt.
Ziel dieser Arbeit war es neue genetische Ursachen bei Kraniosynostose Patienten zu identifizieren und so zur Aufklärung der Pathogenese beizutragen. Es wurde die genomische DNA von 83 Patienten molekulargenetisch durch Mikroarray basierte vergleichende Genomhybridisierung (Array-CGH) oder durch ein speziell entworfenes Next Generation Sequencing (NGS) Genpanel untersucht. Bei 30% der Patienten konnte eine potentiell pathogene Veränderung identifiziert werden. Davon waren 23% chromosomale Aberrationen wie unbalancierte Translokationen, isolierte interstitielle Verluste und ein Zugewinn an genomischen Material. Bei zwei Patienten wurden unbalancierte Translokationen mit partieller 5q Trisomie nachgewiesen. Das Gen MSX2 liegt innerhalb des duplizierten Bereichs, sodass möglicherweise eine MSX2 Überexpression vorliegt. Für ein normales Schädelwachstum ist jedoch die richtige Menge an MSX2 kritisch. Des Weiteren wurde eine partielle Deletion von TCF12 detektiert, die in einer Haploinsuffizienz von TCF12 resultiert. TCF12 Mutationen sind mit Koronarnahtsynosten assoziiert. In einem anderen Fall lag das Gen FGF10 innerhalb der duplizierten 5p15.1-p12 Region. Das Gen kodiert für einen Liganden des FGF Signalwegs und wurde bisher noch nicht mit Kraniosynostose assoziiert. Aufgrund dessen wurden Analysen im Tiermodell Danio rerio durchgeführt. Eine simulierte Überexpression durch Injektion der fgf10a mRNA in das 1-Zell Stadium führte zu schweren Gehirn-, Herz- und Augendefekten.
Mittels NGS wurden 77% der potentiell pathogenen genetischen Veränderungen identifiziert. Hierfür wurde in dieser Arbeit ein Genpanel erstellt, das 68 Gene umfasst. Es wurden sowohl bekannte Kraniosynostose- als auch Kandidaten-Gene sowie Gene, die mit der Ossifikation assoziiert sind, in die Analyse eingeschlossen. Das Genpanel wurde durch die Sequenzierung von fünf Kontrollproben mit bekannten Mutationen erfolgreich validiert. Anschließend wurde die genomische DNA von 66 Patienten analysiert. Es konnten 20 (potentiell) pathogene Varianten identifiziert werden. Neben bereits bekannten Mutationen in den Genen FGFR1, FGFR2, FGFR3 und TWIST1, konnten zusätzlich 8 neue, potentiell pathogene Varianten in den Genen ERF, MEGF8, MSX2, PTCH1 und TCF12 identifiziert werden. Die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit tragen dazu bei das Mutationsspektrum dieser Gene zu erweitern. Bei zwei der Varianten handelte es sich um potentielle Spleißvarianten. Für diese konnte in einem in vitro Spleißsystem gezeigt werden, dass sie eine Änderung des Spleißmusters bewirken. Der Nachweis von zwei seltenen Varianten in den Genen FGFR2 und HUWE1 hat außerdem dazu beigetragen die Pathogenität dieser spezifischen Varianten zu bekräftigen. Eine Variante in POR, die aufgrund bioinformatischer Analysen als potentiell pathogen bewertet wurde, wurde nach der Segregationsanalyse als wahrscheinlich benigne eingestuft. Zusammenfassend konnten bei etwa einem Drittel der Patienten, die mit dem NGS Genpanel analysiert wurden, eine genetische Ursache identifiziert werden. Dieses Genpanel stellt somit ein effizientes diagnostisches Tool dar, das zukünftig in der genetischen Routine-Diagnostik von Kraniosynostose-Patienten eingesetzt werden kann. Die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit zeigen, dass sowohl eine Untersuchung auf CNVs als auch auf Sequenzänderungen bei Kraniosynostose Patienten sinnvoll ist.
An efficient foraging strategy is one of the most important traits for the fitness of animals. The theory of optimal foraging tries to predict foraging behaviour through the overarching question: how animals should forage so as to minimize costs while maximizing profits? Social insects, having occupied nearly every natural niche through widely different strategies, offer themselves as an ideal group to study how well optimal foraging theory can explain their behaviour and success.
Specialization often leads to unique adaptations in morphology and behaviour. I therefore decided to investigate the behaviour of Megaponera analis. This ponerine ant species is specialized on hunting only termites of the subfamily Macrotermitinae at their foraging sites. Their foraging behaviour is regulated by a handful of individual scouts (10-20) that search for termite foraging sites before returning to the nest to recruit a large number of nestmates (200-500 ants). These ants then follow the scout in a column formation to the termites and after the hunt return together to the nest, these raids occur two to five times per day.
Predators of highly defensive prey likely develop cost reducing adaptations. The evolutionary arms race between termites and ants led to various defensive mechanisms in termites, e.g. a caste specialized in fighting predators. As M. analis incurs high injury/mortality risks when preying on termites, some risk mitigating adaptations have evolved. I show that a unique rescue behaviour in M. analis, consisting of injured nestmates being carried back to the nest, reduces combat mortality. These injured ants “call for help” with pheromones present in their mandibular gland reservoirs. A model accounting for this rescue behaviour identifies the drivers favouring its evolution and estimates that rescuing allows for maintaining a 29% larger colony size. Heavily injured ants that lost too many legs during the fight on the other hand are not helped. Interestingly, this was regulated not by the helper but by the uncooperativeness of the injured ant. I further observed treatment of the injury by nestmates inside the nest through intense allogrooming directly at the wound. Lack of treatment increased mortality from 10% to 80% within 24 hours, with the cause of death most likely being infections.
Collective decision-making is one of the main mechanisms in social insects through which foraging is regulated. However, individual decision-making can also play an important role, depending on the type of foraging behaviour. In M. analis only a handful of individuals (the scouts) hold all the valuable information about foraging sites. I therefore looked at predictions made by optimal foraging theory to better understand the interplay between collective and individual decision-making in this obligate group-raiding predator. I found a clear positive relation between raid size and termite abundance at the foraging site. Furthermore, selectivity of the food source increased with distance. The confirmation of optimal foraging theory suggests that individual scouts must be the main driver behind raid size, choice and raiding behaviour. Therefore most central place foraging behaviours in M. analis were not achieved by collective decisions but rather by individual decisions of scout ants. Thus, 1% of the colony (10–20 scouts) decided the fate and foraging efficiency of the remaining 99%.
Division of labour is one of the main reasons for the success of social insects. Worker polymorphism, age polyethism and work division in more primitive ants, like the ponerines, remain mostly unexplored though. Since M. analis specializes on a defensive prey, adaptations to reduce their foraging costs can be expected. I found that the work division, task allocation and column-formation during the hunt were much more sophisticated than was previously thought. The column-formation was remarkably stable, with the same ants resuming similar positions in subsequent raids and front ants even returning to their positions if displaced in the same raid. Most of the raid tasks were not executed by predetermined members of the raid but were filled out as need arose during the hunt, with a clear preference for larger ants to conduct most tasks.
I show that specialization towards a highly defensive prey can lead to very unique adaptations in the foraging behaviour of a species. I explored experimentally the adaptive value of rescue behaviour focused on injured nestmates in social insects. This was not only limited to selective rescuing of lightly injured individuals by carrying them back (thus reducing predation risk) but moreover includes a differentiated treatment inside the nest. These observations will help to improve our understanding of the evolution of rescue behaviour in animals. I further show that most optimal foraging predictions are fulfilled and regulated by a handful of individuals in M. analis. Lastly, I propose that the continuous allometric size polymorphism in M. analis allows for greater flexibility in task allocation, necessary due to the unpredictability of task requirements in an irregular system such as hunting termites in groups. All of my observations help to further understand how a group-hunting predator should forage so as to minimize costs while maximizing profits.
Mammalian haloacid dehalogenase (HAD)-type phosphatases are a large and ubiquitous family of at least 40 human members. Many of them have important physiological functions, such as the regulation of intermediary metabolism and the modulation of enzyme activities, yet they are also linked to diseases such as cardiovascular or metabolic disorders and cancer.
Still, most of the mammalian HAD phosphatases remain functionally uncharacterized.
This thesis reveals novel cell biological and physiological functions of the phosphoglycolate phosphatase PGP, also referred to as AUM. To this end, PGP was functionally characterized by performing analyses using purified recombinant proteins to investigate potential protein substrates of PGP, cell biological studies using the spermatogonial cell line GC1, primary mouse lung endothelial cells and lymphocytes, and a range of biochemical techniques to characterize Pgp-deficient mouse embryos.
To characterize the cell biological functions of PGP, its role downstream of RTK- and integrin signaling in the regulation of cell migration was investigated. It was shown that PGP inactivation elevates integrin- and RTK-induced circular dorsal ruffle (CDR) formation, cell spreading and cell migration. Furthermore, PGP was identified as a negative regulator of directed lymphocyte migration upon integrin- and GPCR activation.
The underlying mechanisms were analyzed further. It was demonstrated that PGP regulates CDR formation and cell migration in a PLC- and PKC-dependent manner, and that Src family kinase activities are required for the observed cellular effects. Upon integrin- and RTK activation, phosphorylation levels of tyrosine residues 1068 and 1173 of the EGF receptor were elevated and PLCγ1 was hyper-activated in PGP-deficient cells. Additionally, PGP-inactivated lymphocytes displayed elevated PKC activity, and PKC-mediated cytoskeletal remodeling was accelerated upon loss of PGP activity. Untargeted lipidomic analyses revealed that the membrane lipid phosphatidylserine (PS) was highly upregulated in PGP-depleted cells.
These data are consistent with the hypothesis that the accumulation of PS in the plasma membrane leads to a pre-assembly of signaling molecules such as PLCγ1 or PKCs that couple the activation of integrins, EGF receptors and GPCRs to accelerated cytoskeletal remodeling.
Thus, this thesis shows that PGP can affect cell spreading and cell migration by acting as a PG-directed phosphatase.
To understand the physiological functions of PGP, conditionally PGP-inactivated mice were analyzed. Whole-body PGP inactivation led to an intrauterine growth defect with developmental delay after E8.5, resulting in a gradual deterioration and death of PgpDN/DN embryos between E9.5 and E11.5. However, embryonic lethality upon whole-body PGP inactivation was not caused by a primary defect of the (cardio-) vascular system. Rather, PGP inactivated embryos died during the intrauterine transition from hypoxic to normoxic conditions.
Therefore, the potential impact of oxygen on PGP-dependent cell proliferation was investigated. Analyses of mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) generated from E8.5 embryos and GC1 cells cultured under normoxic and hypoxic conditions revealed that normoxia (~20% O2) causes a proliferation defect in PGP-inactivated cells, which can be rescued under
hypoxic (~1% O2) conditions. Mechanistically, it was found that the activity of triosephosphate isomerase (TPI), an enzyme previously described to be inhibited by phosphoglycolate (PG) in vitro, was attenuated in PGP-inactivated cells and embryos. TPI constitutes a critical branch point between carbohydrate- and lipid metabolism because it catalyzes the isomerization of the glycolytic intermediates dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP, a precursor of the glycerol backbone required for triglyceride biosynthesis) and glyceraldehyde 3’-phosphate (GADP).
Attenuation of TPI activity, likely explains the observed elevation of glycerol 3-phosphate levels and the increased TG biosynthesis (lipogenesis). Analyses of ATP levels and oxygen consumption rates (OCR) showed that mitochondrial respiration rates and ATP production were elevated in PGP-deficient cells in a lipolysis-dependent manner. However under hypoxic conditions (which corrected the impaired proliferation of PGP-inactivated cells), OCR and ATP production was indistinguishable between PGP-deficient and PGP-proficient cells. We therefore propose that the inhibition of TPI activity by PG accumulation due to loss of PGP activity shifts cellular bioenergetics from a pro-proliferative, glycolytic metabolism to a lipogenetic/lipolytic metabolism.
Taken together, PGP acts as a metabolic phosphatase involved in the regulation of cell migration, cell proliferation and cellular bioenergetics. This thesis constitutes the basis for further studies of the interfaces between these processes, and also suggests functions of PGP for glucose and lipid metabolism in the adult organism.
For the differentiation of a embryonic stem cells (ESCs) to neuronal cells (NCs) a complex and coordinated gene regulation program is needed. One important control element for neuronal differentiation is the repressor element 1 silencing transcription factor (REST) complex, which represses neuronal gene expression in non-neuronal cells. Crucial effector proteins of the REST complex are small phosphatases such as the CTDSPs (C-terminal domain small phosphatases) that regulate polymerase II activity by dephosphorylating the C-terminal domain of the polymerase, thereby repressing target genes. The stepwise inactivation of REST, including the CTDSPs, leads to the induction of a neuron-specific gene program, which ultimately induces the formation of neurons. The spatio-temporal control of REST and its effector components is therefore a crucial step for neurogenesis.
In zebrafish it was shown that the REST-associated CTDSP2 is negatively regulated by the micro RNA (miR) -26b. Interestingly, the miR-26b is encoded in an intron of the primary transcript of CTDSP2. This gives the fundament of an intrinsic regulatory negative feedback loop, which is essential for the proceeding of neurogenesis. This feedback loop is active during neurogenesis, but inactive in non-neuronal cells. The reason for this is that the maturation of the precursor miR (pre-miR) to the mature miR-26 is arrested in non neuronal cells, but not in neurons. As only mature miRs are actively repressing genes, the regulation of miR-26 processing is an essential step in neurogenesis.
In this study, the molecular basis of miR-26 processing regulation in the context of neurogenesis was addressed. The mature miR is processed from two larger precursors: First the primary transcript is cleaved by the enzyme DROSHA in the nucleus to form the pre-miR. The pre-miR is exported from the nucleus and processed further through the enzyme DICER to yield the mature miR. The mature miR can regulate gene expression in association with the RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC).
Multiple different scenarios in which miR processing was regulated were proposed and experimentally tested. Microinjection studies using Xenopus leavis oocytes showed that slowdown or blockage of the nucleo-cytoplasmic transport are not the reason for delayed pre-miR-26 processing. Moreover, in vitro and in vivo miR-processing assays showed that maturation is most likely regulated through a in trans acting factor, which blocks processing in non neuronal cells.
Through RNA affinity chromatographic assays using zebrafish and murine lysates I was able to isolate and identify proteins that interact specifically with pre-miR-26 and could by this influence its biogenesis. Potential candidates are FMRP/FXR1/2, ZNF346 and Eral1, whose functional characterisation in the context of miR-biogenesis could now be addressed.
The second part of my thesis was executed in close colaboration with the laboratory of Prof. Albrecht Müller. The principal question was addressed how miR-26 influences neuronal gene expression and which genes are primarily affected. This research question could be addressed by using a cell culture model system, which mimics ex vivo the differentiation of ESCs to NCs via neuronal progenitor.
For the functional analysis of miR-26 knock out cell lines were generated by the CRISPR/Cas9 technology. miR-26 deficient ESC keep their pluripotent state and are able to develop NPC, but show major impairment in differentiating to NCs. Through RNA deep sequencing the miR-26 induced transcriptome differences could be analysed.
On the level of mRNAs it could be shown, that the expression of neuronal gene is downregulated in miR-26 deficient NCs. Interestingly, the deletion of miR-26 leads to selectively decreased levels of miRs, which on one hand regulate the REST complex and on the other hand are under transcriptional control by REST themself. This data and the discovery that induction of miR-26 leads to enrichment of other REST regulating miRs indicates that miR-26 initiates neurogenesis through stepwise inactivation of the REST complex.
Coagulase-negative staphylococci, particularly Staphylococcus epidermidis, have been recognised as an important cause of health care-associated infections due to catheterisation, and livestock-associated infections. The colonisation of indwelling medical devices is achieved by the formation of biofilms, which are large cell-clusters surrounded by an extracellular matrix. This extracellular matrix consists mainly of PIA (polysaccharide intercellular adhesin), which is encoded by the icaADBC-operon. The importance of icaADBC in clinical strains provoking severe infections initiated numerous investigations of this operon and its regulation within the last two decades. The discovery of a long transcript being located next to icaADBC, downstream of the regulator gene icaR, led to the hypothesis of a possible involvement of this transcript in the regulation of biofilm formation (Eckart, 2006). Goal of this work was to characterise this transcript, named ncRNA IcaZ, in molecular detail and to uncover its functional role in S. epidermidis.
The ~400 nt long IcaZ is specific for ica-positive S. epidermidis and is transcribed in early- and mid-exponential growth phase as primary transcript. The promotor sequence and the first nucleotides of icaZ overlap with the 3' UTR of the preceding icaR gene, whereas the terminator sequence is shared by tRNAThr-4, being located convergently to icaZ. Deletion of icaZ resulted in a macroscopic biofilm-negative phenotype with highly diminished PIA-biofilm. Biofilm composition was analysed in vitro by classical crystal violet assays and in vivo by confocal laser scanning microscopy under flow conditions to display biofilm formation in real-time. The mutant showed clear defects in initial adherence and decreased cell-cell adherence, and was therefore not able to form a proper biofilm under flow in contrast to the wildtype. Restoration of PIA upon providing icaZ complementation from plasmids revealed inconsistent results in the various mutant backgrounds.
To uncover the functional role of IcaZ, transcriptomic and proteomic analysis was carried out, providing some hints on candidate targets, but the varying biofilm phenotypes of wildtype and icaZ mutants made it difficult to identify direct IcaZ mRNA targets. Pulse expression of icaZ was then used as direct fishing method and computational target predictions were executed with candidate mRNAs from aforesaid approaches. The combined data of these analyses suggested an involvement of icaR in IcaZ-mediated biofilm control. Therefore, RNA binding assays were established for IcaZ and icaR mRNA. A positive gel shift was maintained with icaR 3' UTR and with 5'/3' icaR mRNA fusion product, whereas no gel shift was obtained with icaA mRNA. From these assays, it was assumed that IcaZ regulates icaR mRNA expression in S. epidermidis. S. aureus instead lacks ncRNA IcaZ and its icaR mRNA was shown to undergo autoregulation under so far unknown circumstances by intra- or intermolecular binding of 5' UTR and 3' UTR (Ruiz de los Mozos et al., 2013). Here, the Shine-Dalgarno sequence is blocked through 5'/3' UTR base pairing and RNase III, an endoribonuclease, degrades icaR mRNA, leading to translational blockade. In this work, icaR mRNA autoregulation was therefore analysed experimentally in S. epidermidis and results showed that this specific autoregulation does not take place in this organism. An involvement of RNase III in the degradation process could not be verified here. GFP-reporter plasmids were generated to visualise the interaction, but have to be improved for further investigations.
In conclusion, IcaZ was found to interact with icaR mRNA, thereby conceivably interfering with translation initiation of repressor IcaR, and thus to promote PIA synthesis and biofilm formation. In addition, the environmental factor ethanol was found to induce icaZ expression, while only weak or no effects were obtained with NaCl and glucose. Ethanol, actually is an ingredient of disinfectants in hospital settings and known as efficient effector for biofilm induction. As biofilm formation on medical devices is a critical factor hampering treatment of S. epidermidis infections in clinical care, the results of this thesis do not only contribute to better understanding of the complex network of biofilm regulation in staphylococci, but may also have practical relevance in the future.
Fluorescence microscopy has become one of the most important techniques for the imaging of biological cells and tissue, since the technique allows for selective labeling with fluorescent molecules and is highly suitable for low-light applications down to the single molecule regime. The methodological requirements are well-defined for studying membrane receptors within a highly localized nanometer-thin membrane. For example, G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are an extensively studied class of membrane receptors that represent one of the most important pharmaceutical targets. Ligand binding and GPCR activation dynamics are suspected to take place at the millisecond scale and may even be far faster. Thus, techniques that are fast, selective, and live-cell compatible are required to monitor GPCR dynamics. Fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) and total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy (TIRF-M) are methods of choice to monitor the dynamics of GPCRs selectively within the cell membrane.
Despite the remarkable success of these modalities, there are limitations. Most importantly, inhomogeneous illumination can induce imaging artifacts, rendering spectroscopic evaluation difficult. Background signal due to scattering processes or imperfect labeling can hamper the signal-to-noise, thus limiting image contrast and acquisition speed. Careful consideration of the internal physiology is required for FRET sensor design, so that ligand binding and cell compatibility are well-preserved despite the fluorescence labeling procedures. This limitation of labeling positions leads to very low signal changes in FRET-based GPCR analysis. In addition, microscopy of these systems becomes even more challenging in single molecule or low-light applications where the accuracy and temporal resolution may become dramatically low. Fluorescent labels should therefore be brighter, protected from photobleaching, and as small as possible to avoid interference with the binding kinetics. The development of new fluorescent molecules and labeling methods is an ongoing process. However, a complete characterization of new labels and sensors takes time. So far, the perfect dye system for GPCR studies has not been found, even though there is high demand.
Thus, this thesis explores and applies a different approach based on improved illumination schemes for TIRF-M as well as metal-coated coverslips to enhance fluorescence and FRET efficiency. First, it is demonstrated that a 360° illumination scheme reduces typical TIRF artifacts and produces a much more homogenously illuminated field of view. Second, membrane imaging and FRET spectroscopy are improved by metal coatings that are used to modulate the fluorescent properties of common fluorescent dyes. Computer simulation methods are used to understand the underlying photophysics and to design the coatings. Third, this thesis explores the operational regime and limitations of plasmonic approaches with high sectioning capabilities. The findings are summarized by three publications that are presented in the results section of this work. In addition, the theory of fluorescence and FRET is explained, with particular attention to its emission modulations in the vicinity of metal-dielectric layers. Details of the instrumentation, computer simulations, and cell culture are described in the method section. The work concludes with a discussion of the findings within the framework of recent technological developments as well as perspectives and suggestions for future approaches complete the presented work.
Platelets, small anucleated blood cells responsible for hemostasis, interact at sights of injury with several exposed extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins through specific receptors. Ligand binding leads to activation, adhesion and aggregation of platelets. Already megakaryocytes (MKs), the immediate precursor cells in bone marrow (BM), are in constant contact to these ECM proteins (ECMP). The interaction of ECMP with MKs is, in contrast to platelets, less well understood. It is therefore important to study how MKs interact with sinusoids via the underlying ECMP. This thesis addresses three major topics to elucidate these interactions and their role in platelet biogenesis.
First, we studied the topology of ECMP within BM and their impact on proplatelet formation (PPF) in vitro. By establishing a four-color immunofluorescence microscopy we localized collagens and other ECMP and determined their degree of contact towards vessels and megakaryocytes (MKs). In in vitro assays we could demonstrate that Col I mediates increased MK adhesion, but inhibits PPF by collagen receptor GPVI. By immunoblot analyses we identified that the signaling events underyling this inhibition are different from those in platelet activation at the Src family kinase level.
Second, we determined the degree of MK-ECM interaction in situ using confocal laser scanning microscopy of four-color IF-stained femora and spleen sections. In transgenic mouse models lacking either of the two major collagen receptors we could show that these mice have an impaired association of MKs to collagens in the BM, while the MK count in spleen increased threefold. This might contribute to the overall unaltered platelet counts in collagen receptor-deficient mice.
In a third approach, we studied how the equilibrium of ECMP within BM is altered after irradiation. Collagen type IV and laminin-α5 subunits were selectively degraded at the sinusoids, while the matrix degrading protease MMP9 was upregulated in MKs. Platelet numbers decreased and platelets became hyporesponsive towards agonists, especially those for GPVI activation.
Taken together, the results indicate that MK-ECM interaction differs substantially from the well-known platelet-ECM signaling. Future work should further elucidate how ECMP can be targeted to ameliorate the platelet production and function defects, especially in patients after BM irradiation.
G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) form the biggest receptor family that is encoded in the human genome and represent the most druggable target structure for modern therapeutics respectively future drug development. Belonging to aminergic class A GPCRs muscarinic Acetylcholine receptors (mAChRs) are already now of clinical relevance and are also seen as promising future drug targets for treating neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer or Parkinson. The mAChR family consist of five subtypes showing high sequence identity for the endogenous ligand binding region and thus it is challenging until now to selectively activate a single receptor subtype. A well accepted method to study ligand binding, dynamic receptor activation and downstream signaling is the fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) application. Here, there relative distance between two fluorophores in close proximity (<10 nm) can be monitored in a dynamic manner. The perquisite for that is the spectral overlap of the emission spectrum of the first fluorophore with the excitation spectrum of the second fluorophore. By inserting two fluorophores into the molecular receptor structure receptor FRET sensors can serve as a powerful tool to study dynamic receptor pharmacology.
Dualsteric Ligands consist of two different pharmacophoric entities and are regarded as a promising ligand design for future drug development. The orthosteric part interacts with high affinity with the endogenous ligand binding region whereas the allosteric part binds to a different receptor region mostly located in the extracellular vestibule. Both moieties are covalently linked. Dualsteric ligands exhibit a dynamic ligand binding. The dualsteric binding position is characterized by a simultaneous binding of the orthosteric and allosteric moiety to the receptor and thus by receptor activation. In the purely allosteric binding position no receptor activation can be monitored.
In the present work the first receptor FRET sensor for the muscarinic subtype 1 (M1) was generated and characterized. The M1-I3N-CFP sensor showed an unaltered physiological behavior as well as ligand and concentration dependent responses. The sensor was used to characterize different sets of dualsteric ligands concerning their pharmacological properties like receptor activation. It was shown that the hybrids consisting of the synthetic full agonist iperoxo and the positive allosteric modulator of BQCA type is very promising. Furthermore, it was shown for orthosteric as well as dualsteric ligands that the degree of receptor activation is highly dependent on the length of and the chemical properties of the linker moiety. For dualsteric ligands a bell-shaped activation characteristic was reported for the first time, suggesting that there is an optimal linker length for dualsteric ligands. The gained knowledge about hybrid design was then used to generate and characterize the first photo-switchable dualsteric ligand. The resulting hybrids were characterized with the M1-I3N-CFP sensor and were described as photo-inactivatable and dimmable. In addition to the ligand characterization the ligand application methodology was further developed and improved. Thus, a fragment-based screening approach for dualsteric ligands was reported in this study for the first time. With this approach it is possible to investigate dualsteric ligands in greater detail by applying either single ligand fragments alone or in a mixture of building blocks. These studies revealed the insights that the effect of dualsteric ligands on a GPCR can be rebuild by applying the single building blocks simultaneously. The fragment-based screening provides high potential for the molecular understanding of dualsteric ligands and for future screening approaches. Next, a further development of the standard procedure for measuring FRET by sensitized emission was performed. Under normal conditions single cell FRET is measured on glass coverslips. After coating the coverslips surface with a 20 nm thick gold layer an increased FRET efficiency up to 60 % could be reported. This finding was validated in different approaches und in different configurations. This FRET enhancement by plasmonic surfaces was until yet unreported in the literature for physiological systems and make FRET for future projects even more powerful.
I. Timing is a crucial feature in organisms that live within a variable and changing environment. Complex mechanisms to measure time are wide-spread and were shown to exist in many taxa. These mechanisms are expected to provide fitness benefits by enabling organisms to anticipate environmental changes and adapt accordingly. However, very few studies have addressed the adaptive value of proper timing. The objective of this PhD-project was to investigate mechanisms and fitness consequences of timing decisions concerning colony phenology and foraging activity in the honey bee (Apis mellifera), a social insect species with a high degree of social organization and one of the most important pollinators of wild plants and crops. In chapter II, a study is presented that aimed to identify the consequences of disrupted synchrony between colony phenology and the local environment by manipulating the timing of brood onset after hibernation. In a follow-up experiment, the importance of environmental factors for the timing of brood onset was investigated to assess the potential of climate change to disrupt synchronization of colony phenology (Chapter III). Chapter IV aimed to prove for the first time that honey bees can use interval time-place learning to improve foraging activity in a variable environment. Chapter V investigates the fitness benefits of information exchange between nest mates via waggle dance communication about a resource environment that is heterogeneous in space and time.
II. In the study presented in chapter II, the importance of the timing of brood onset after hibernation as critical point in honey bee colony phenology in temperate zones was investigated. Honey bee colonies were overwintered at two climatically different sites. By translocating colonies from each site to the other in late winter, timing of brood onset was manipulated and consequently colony phenology was desynchronized with the local environment. Delaying colony phenology in respect to the local environment decreased the capability of colonies to exploit the abundant spring bloom. Early brood onset, on the other hand, increased the loads of the brood parasite Varroa destructor later in the season with negative impact on colony worker population size. This indicates a timing related trade-off and illustrates the importance of investigating effects of climate change on complex multi-trophic systems. It can be concluded that timing of brood onset in honey bees is an important fitness relevant step for colony phenology that is highly sensitive to climatic conditions in late winter. Further, phenology shifts and mismatches driven by climate change can have severe fitness consequences.
III. In chapter III, I assess the importance of the environmental factors ambient temperature and photoperiod as well as elapsed time on the timing of brood onset. Twenty-four hibernating honey bee colonies were placed into environmental chambers and allocated to different combinations of two temperature regimes and three different light regimes. Brood onset was identified non-invasively by tracking comb temperature within the winter cluster. The experiment revealed that ambient temperature plays a major role in the timing of brood onset, but the response of honey bee colonies to temperature increases is modified by photoperiod. Further, the data indicate the involvement of an internal clock. I conclude that the timing of brood onset is complex but probably highly susceptible to climate change and especially spells of warm weather in winter.
IV. In chapter IV, it was examined if honey bees are capable of interval time-place learning and if this ability improves foraging efficiency in a dynamic resource environment. In a field experiment with artificial feeders, foragers were able to learn time intervals and use this ability to anticipate time periods during which feeders were active. Further, interval time-place learning enabled foragers to increase nectar uptake rates. It was concluded that interval time-place learning can help honey bee foragers to adapt to the complex and variable temporal patterns of floral resource environments.
V. The study presented in chapter V identified the importance of the honey bee waggle dance communication for the spatiotemporal coordination of honey bee foraging activity in resource environments that can vary from day to day. Consequences of disrupting the instructional component of honey bee dance communication were investigated in eight temperate zone landscapes with different levels of spatiotemporal complexity. While nectar uptake of colonies was not affected, waggle dance communication significantly benefitted pollen harvest irrespective of landscape complexity. I suggest that this is explained by the fact that honey bees prefer to forage pollen in semi-natural habitats, which provide diverse resource species but are sparse and presumably hard to find in intensively managed agricultural landscapes. I conclude that waggle dance communication helps to ensure a sufficient and diverse pollen diet which is crucial for honey bee colony health.
VI. In my PhD-project, I could show that honey bee colonies are able to adapt their activities to a seasonally and daily changing environment, which affects resource uptake, colony development, colony health and ultimately colony fitness. Ongoing global change, however, puts timing in honey bee colonies at risk. Climate change has the potential to cause mismatches with the local resource environment. Intensivation of agricultural management with decreased resource diversity and short resource peaks in spring followed by distinctive gaps increases the probability of mismatches. Even the highly efficient foraging system of honey bees might not ensure a sufficiently diverse and healthy diet in such an environment. The global introduction of the parasitic mite V. destructor and the increased exposure to pesticides in intensively managed landscapes further degrades honey bee colony health. This might lead to reduced cognitive capabilities in workers and impact the communication and social organization in colonies, thereby undermining the ability of honey bee colonies to adapt to their environment.
For cellular viability, transcription is a fundamental process. Hereby, the DNA plays the most elemental and highly versatile role. It has long been known that promoters contain conserved and often well-defined motifs, which dictate the site of transcription initiation by providing binding sites for regulatory proteins. However, research within the last decade revealed that it is promoters lacking conserved promoter motifs and transcribing constitutively expressed genes that constitute the majority of promoters in eukaryotes. While the process of transcription initiation is well studied, whether defined DNA sequence motifs are required for the transcription of constitutively expressed genes in eukaryotes remains unknown. In the highly divergent protozoan parasite Trypanosoma brucei, most of the proteincoding genes are organized in large polycistronic transcription units. The genes within one polycistronic transcription unit are generally unrelated and transcribed by a common transcription start site for which no RNA polymerase II promoter motifs have been identified so far. Thus, it is assumed that transcription initiation is not regulated but how transcription is initiated in T. brucei is not known. This study aimed to investigate the requirement of DNA sequence motifs and chromatin structures for transcription initiation in an organism lacking transcriptional regulation. To this end, I performed a systematic analysis to investigate the dependence of transcription initiation on the DNA sequence. I was able to identify GT-rich promoter elements required for directional transcription initiation and targeted deposition of the histone variant H2A.Z, a conserved component during transcription initiation. Furthermore, nucleosome positioning data in this work provide evidence that sites of transcription initiation are rather characterized by broad regions of open and more accessible chromatin than narrow nucleosome depleted regions as it is the case in other eukaryotes. These findings highlight the importance of chromatin during transcription initiation. Polycistronic RNA in T. brucei is separated by adding an independently transcribed miniexon during trans-splicing. The data in this work suggest that nucleosome occupancy plays an important role during RNA maturation by slowing down the progressing polymerase and thereby facilitating the choice of the proper splice site during trans-splicing. Overall, this work investigated the role of the DNA sequence during transcription initiation and nucleosome positioning in a highly divergent eukaryote. Furthermore, the findings shed light on the conservation of the requirement of DNA motifs during transcription initiation and the regulatory potential of chromatin during RNA maturation. The findings improve the understanding of gene expression regulation in T. brucei, a eukaryotic parasite lacking transcriptional Regulation.
Cadherin-13 (CDH13) is an atypical member of the cadherin superfamily, a group of membrane proteins mediating calcium-dependent cellular adhesion. Although CDH13 shows the classical extracellular cadherin structure, the typical transmembrane and cytoplasmic domains are absent. Instead, CDH13 is attached to the cell membrane via a glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchor. These findings and many studies from different fields suggest that CDH13 also plays a role as a cellular receptor. Interestingly, many genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have found CDH13 as a risk gene for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and other neurodevelopmental disorders. In previous work from our research group, strong expression of Cdh13 mRNA in interneurons of the hippocampal stratum oriens (SO) was detected. Therefore, double-immunofluorescence studies were used to evaluate the degree of co-expression of CDH13 with seven markers of GABAergic interneuron subtypes. For this purpose, murine brains were double stained against CDH13 and the respective marker and the degree of colocalization in the SO of the hippocampus was assessed. Based on the result of this immunofluorescence study, quantitative differences in interneuron subtypes of the SO between Cdh13 knockout (ko), heterozygote (het) and wildtype (wt) mice were investigated in this dissertation using stereological methods. In addition, genotype- dependent differences in the expression of genes involved in GABAergic and glutamatergic neurotransmission were analyzed by quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR). Primers targeting different GABA receptor subunits, vesicular GABA and glutamate transporter, GABA synthesizing enzymes and their interaction partners were used for this purpose.
The results of the stereological quantification of the interneuron subtypes show no significant differences in cell number, cell density or volume of the SO between Cdh13 ko, het and wt mice. On the other hand, qRT-PCR results indicate significant differences in the expression of tropomyosin-related kinase B gene (TrkB), which encodes the receptor of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), a regulator of GABAergic neurons. This finding supports a role for CDH13 in the regulation of BDNF signaling in the hippocampus.
Improved treatment options for the degenerative joint disease osteoarthritis (OA) are of major interest, since OA is one of the main sources of disability, pain, and socioeconomic burden worldwide [202]. According to epidemiological data, already 27 million people suffer from OA in the US [23]. Moreover, the WHO expects OA to be the fourth most common cause of disability in 2020 [203], illustrating the need for effective and long-lasting therapy options of severe cartilage defects. Despite numerous clinically available products for the treatment of cartilage defects [62], the development of more cartilage-specific materials is still at the beginning.
Hyaluronic acid (HA) is a major component of the cartilaginous extracellular matrix (ECM) and inherently creates a cell-friendly niche by providing cell attachment and migration sites. Furthermore, it is known that the functional groups of HA are well suited for chemical modification. These characteristics render HA an attractive material for hydrogel-based tissue engineering approaches. Poly(glycidol) (PG) as chemical crosslinker basically features similar chemical characteristics as the widely used poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG), but provides additional side groups at each repeating unit that can be further chemically functionalized. With the introduction of PG as multifunctional crosslinker for HA gels, a higher cross-linking density and, accordingly, a greater potential for biomimetic functionalization may be achieved. However, despite the mentioned potential benefits, PG has not been used for cartilage regeneration approaches so far.
The initial aim of the study was to set up and optimize a HA-based hydrogel for the chondrogenic differentiation of mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs), using different amounts and variations of cross-linkers. Therefore, the hydrogel composition was optimized by the utilization of different PEG diacrylate (PEGDA) concentrations to cross-link thiol-modified HA (Glycosil, HA-SH) via Michael addition. We aimed to generate volumestable scaffolds that simultaneously enable a maximum of ECM deposition. Histological and biochemical analysis showed 0.4% PEGDA as the most suitable concentration for these requirements (Section 5.1.2).
In order to evaluate the impact of a differently designed cross-linker on MSC chondrogenesis, HA-SH was cross-linked with PEGTA (0.6%) and compared to PEGDA (0.4%) in a next step. Following this, acrylated PG (PG-Acr) as multifunctional cross-linker alternative to acrylated PEG was evaluated. It provides around five times more functional groups when utilized in PG-Acr (0.6%) HA-SH hydrogels compared to PEGTA (0.6%) HA-SH hydrogels, thus enabling higher degrees of biomimetic functionalization. Determination of cartilage-specific ECM components showed no substantial differences between both cross-linkers while the deposition of cartilaginous matrix appeared more homogeneous in HA-SH PG-Acr gels. Taken together, we were able to successfully increase the possibilities for biomimetic functionalization in the developed HA-SH hydrogel system by the introduction of PG-Acr as cross-linker without negatively affecting MSC chondrogenesis (Section 5.1.3).
The next part of this thesis focused extensively on the biomimetic functionalization of PG-Acr (0.6%) cross-linked HA-SH hydrogels. Here, either biomimetic peptides or a chondrogenic growth factor were covalently bound into the hydrogels.
Interestingly, the incorporation of a N-cadherin mimetic (HAV), a collagen type II binding (KLER), or a cell adhesion-mediating peptide (RGD) yielded no improvement of MSC chondrogenesis. For instance, the covalent binding of 2.5mM HAV changed morphology of cell nuclei and reduced GAG production while the incorporation of 1.0mM RGD impaired collagen production. These findings may be attributed to the already supportive conditions of the employed HA-based hydrogels for chondrogenic differentiation. Most of the previous studies reporting positive peptide effects on chondrogenesis have been carried out in less supportive PEG hydrogels or in significantly stiffer MeHA-based hydrogels [99, 101, 160]. Thus, the incorporation of peptides may be more important under unfavorable conditions while inert gel systems may be useful for studying single peptide effects (Section 5.2.1).
The chondrogenic factor transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGF-b1) served as an example for growth factor binding to PG-Acr. The utilization of covalently bound TGF-b1 may thereby help overcome the need for repeated administration of TGF-b1 in in vivo applications, which may be an advantage for potential clinical application. Thus, the effect of covalently incorporated TGF-b1 was compared to the effect of the same amount of TGF-b1 without covalent binding (100nM TGF-b1) on MSC chondrogenesis. It was successfully demonstrated that covalent incorporation of TGF-b1 had a significant positive effect in a dose-dependent manner. Chondrogenesis of MSCs in hydrogels with covalently bound TGF-b1 showed enhanced levels of chondrogenesis compared to hydrogels into which TGF-b1 was merely mixed, as shown by stronger staining for GAGs, total collagen, aggrecan and collagen type II. Biochemical evaluation of GAG and collagen amounts, as well as Western blot analysis confirmed the histological results. Furthermore, the positive effect of covalently bound TGF-b1 was shown by increased expression of chondrogenic marker genes COL2A1, ACAN and SOX9. In summary, covalent growth factor incorporation utilizing PG-Acr as cross-linker demonstrated significant positive effects on chondrogenic differentiation of MSCs (Section 5.2.2).
In general, PG-Acr cross-linked HA hydrogels generated by Michael addition represent a versatile hydrogel platform due to their high degree of acrylate functionality. These hydrogels may further offer the opportunity to combine several biological modifications, such as the incorporation of biomimetic peptides together with growth factors, within one cell carrier.
A proof-of-principle experiment demonstrated the suitability of pure PG gels for studying single peptide effects. Here, the hydrogels were generated by the utilization of thiol-ene-click reaction. In this setting, without the supportive background of hyaluronic acid, MSCs showed enhanced chondrogenic differentiation in response to the incorporation of 1.0mM HAV. This was demonstrated by staining for GAGs, the cartilage-specific ECM molecules aggrecan and type II collagen, and by increased GAG and total collagen amounts shown by biochemical analysis. Thus, pure PG gels exhibit the potential to study the effects and interplay of peptides and growth factors in a highly modifiable, bioinert hydrogel environment.
The last section of the thesis was carried out as part of the EU project HydroZONES that aims to develop and generate zonal constructs. The importance of zonal organization has attracted increased attention in the last years [127, 128], however, it is still underrepresented in tissue engineering approaches so far. Thus, the feasibility of zonal distribution of cells in a scaffold combining two differently composed hydrogels was investigated. A HA-SH(FMZ) containing bottom layer was generated and a pure PG top layer was subsequently cast on top of it, utilizing both times thiol-ene-click reaction. Indeed, stable, hierarchical constructs were generated that allowed encapsulated MSCs to differentiate chondrogenically in both zones as shown by staining for GAGs and collagen type II, and by quantification of GAG amount. Thus, the feasibility of differently composed zonal hydrogels utilizing PG as a main component was successfully demonstrated (Section 5.4).
With the first-time utilization and evaluation of PG-Acr as versatile multifunctional cross-linker for the preparation of Michael addition-generated HA-SH hydrogels in the context of cartilage tissue engineering, a highly modifiable HA-based hydrogel system was introduced. It may be used in future studies as an easily applicable and versatile toolbox for the generation of biomimetically functionalized hydrogels for cell-based cartilage regeneration. The introduction of reinforcement structures to enhance mechanical resistance may thereby further increase the potential of this system for clinical applications.
Additionally, it was also demonstrated that thiol-ene clickable hydrogels can be used for the generation of cell-laden, pure PG gels or for the generation of more complex, coherent zonal constructs. Furthermore, thiol-ene clickable PG hydrogels have already been further modified and successfully been used in 3D bioprinting experiments [204]. 3D bioprinting, as part of the evolving biofabrication field [205], offers the possibilities to generate complex and hierarchical structures, and to exactly position defined layers, yet at the same time alters the requirements for the utilized hydrogels [159, 206–209]. Since a robust chondrogenesis of MSCs was demonstrated in the thiol-ene clickable hydrogel systems, they may serve as a basis for the development of hydrogels as so called bioinks which may be utilized in more sophisticated biofabrication processes.
The transcription factor Myc interacts with several co-factors to regulate growth and proliferationand thereby enables normal animal development. Deregulation of Myc is associated witha wide range of human tumors. Myc binds to DNA together with its dimerization partner Max, preferentially to canonical E-box motifs, but this sequence-specific interaction is probably not sufficient for Myc’s binding to target genes.
In this work, the PAF1 complex was characterized as a novel co-factor of Myc in Drosophila melanogaster. All components of the complex are required for Myc’s recruitment to chromatin, but the subunit Atu has the strongest effect on Myc's binding to target genes through ist direct physical interaction with Myc. Unexpectedly, the impact of Atu depletion on the Expression of Myc target genes was weak compared to its effect on Myc binding. However, the influence of Atu becomes more prominent in situations of elevated Myc levels in vivo . Mycrepressed as well as Myc-activated targets are affected, consistent with the notion that Myc
recruitment is impaired.
An independent set of analyses revealed that Myc retains substantial activity even in the complete absence of Max. The overexpression of Myc in Max0 mutants specifically blocks their pupariation without affecting their survival, which raised the possibility that Myc might
affect ecdysone biosynthesis. This connection was studied in the second part of this Thesis which showed that Myc inhibits the expression of ecdysteroidogenic genes and thereby the production of ecdysone. Myc most likely affects the signaling pathways (PTTH and insulin
signaling) upstream of the PG, the organ where ecdysone is produced. By combining existing ChIPseq, RNAseq and electronic annotation data, we identified five potential Maxindependent Myc targets and provided experimental data that they might be involved in Myc's effect on Max mutant animals. Together our data confirm that some Myc functions are Max-independent and they raise the possibility that this effect might play a role during replication.
Coffin-Lowry syndrome is a rare syndromic form of X-linked mental retardation caused by heterogeneous loss-of-function mutations in the gene RPS6KA3 that encodes the RSK2 protein. Clinical features are delayed motor development, small height, progressive skeletal malformations and mental retardation.
Rsk2 deficiency affects behavioral, cellular and molecular functions. To characterize and investigate how this deficiency affects these functions, we made a series of experiments using Rsk2-deficient mice as the animal model for Coffin-Lowry syndrome.
We applied a battery of behavioral tests and included the use of the IntelliCage for the first time as a behavioral paradigm to study anxiety-like behavior and depression-like behavior in Rsk2-deficient mice. Results from the conventional behavioral tests and from the IntelliCage indicate that Rsk2-deficient mice may have an anti-anxiety and anti-depressive phenotype.
We evaluated in Rsk2 deficient mice the relative gene expression of a set of genes coding for proteins related to RSK2 which are involved in fear memory, synaptic plasticity, neurogenesis, learning, emotional behavior and stress. We found gene expression alterations in the prefrontal cortex and striatum. These results suggest that RSK2 may be involved in the expression of the genes.
RSK2 is known to be related to monoamine neurotransmitter function. We measured the levels of dopamine, serotonin and noradrenaline/norepinephrine and their metabolites in different brain regions of Rsk2-deficient mice. We found differences in the dopaminergic and noradrenergic systems suggesting an increased or decreased activity of these neurotransmission systems as a result of Rsk2 deficiency.
Adult neurogenesis is a form of neuronal plasticity and a multi-step process of cell development. We explored if this form of neuronal plasticity was affected by Rsk2-deficiency. Our results indicate that adult hippocampal neurogenesis is not influenced by lifelong Rsk2 deficiency. It would be worth to analyze in the future other aspects of neuroplasticity.
We have confirmed, that behavioral characteristics of Rsk2-deficient mice make them an interesting model to study the Coffin-Lowry syndrome by extending the behavioral characterization on the emotional level. Furthermore, we have extended the characterization of the model on a molecular level, opening new opportunities to study and understand the pathophysiological basis of the Coffin-Lowry syndrome.