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- CAPES - Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - the development agency of the Brazilian Federal Government (1)
- CBIO, University of Cape Town, South Africa (1)
- Carl-Ludwig-Institut für Physiologie, Universität Leipzig (1)
- Chair of Experimental Biomedicine I (1)
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a highly prevalent childhood-onset neurodevelopmental disorder that involves a substantial risk of persisting into adolescence and adulthood. A number of genome-wide screening studies in ADHD have been conducted in recent years, giving rise to the discovery of several variants at distinct chromosomal loci, thus emphasising the genetically complex and polygenic nature of this disorder. Accordingly, promising novel candidate genes have emerged, such as the gene encoding the glucose transporter isoform 3 (SLC2A3) and the gene encoding the latrophilin isoform 3 (LPHN3).
In this thesis, both genes were investigated in form of two separated projects. The first focused on SLC2A3 polymorphisms associated with ADHD and their potential physiological impact. For this purpose, gene expression analyses in peripheral cell models were performed as well as functional EEG measurements in humans. The second project concerned the murine gene Lphn3 including the goal of developing a mouse line containing a genetically modified Lphn3 with conditional knockout potential. In this respect, a specific DNA vector was applied to target the Lphn3 gene locus in murine embryonic stem (ES) cells as a prerequisite for the generation of appropriate chimeric mice.
The results of the first project showed that SLC2A3 duplication carriers displayed increased SLC2A3 mRNA expression in peripheral blood cells and significantly altered event-related potentials (ERPs) during tests of cognitive response control and working memory, possibly involving changes in prefrontal brain activity and memory processing. Interestingly, ADHD patients with the rs12842 T-allele, located within and tagging the SLC2A3 gene, also exhibited remarkable effects during these EEG measurements. However, such effects reflected a reversed pattern to the aforementioned SLC2A3 duplication carriers with ADHD, thus indicative of an opposed molecular mechanism. Besides, it emerged that the impact of the aforementioned SLC2A3 variants on different EEG parameters was generally much more pronounced in the group of ADHD patients than the healthy control group, implying a considerable interaction effect. Concerning the second project, preliminary results were gathered including the successful targeting of Lphn3 in murine ES cells as well as the production of highly chimeric, phenotypically unremarkable and
mostly fertile mouse chimeras. While germline transmission of the modified Lphn3 allele has not yet occurred, there are still several newborn chimeric mice that will be tested in the near future.
In conclusion, the findings suggest that SLC2A3 variants associated with ADHD are accompanied by transcriptional and functional changes in humans. Future research will help to elucidate the molecular network and neurobiological basis involved in these effects and apparently contributing to the complex clinical picture of ADHD. Moreover, given the increasing number of publications concerning latrophilins in recent years and the multitude of research opportunities provided by a conditional knockout of Lphn3 in mice, the establishment of a respective mouse line, which currently is in progress, constitutes a promising approach for the investigation of this gene and its role in ADHD.
TRAIL is a member of TNF superfamily and mediates apoptosis by binding to two DRs, TRAILR1 and TRAILR2. Despite the fact that there are other TRAILRs, TRAILR1 and TRAILR2 receive the major research interest due to their ability to trigger apoptosis and their possible use as targets in tumor therapy. Due to the potential advantages of TRAILR1- or TRAILR2-specific targeting, we investigated recently published TRAIL DR-specific mutants, one conferring specificity for TRAILR1 (TRAILmutR1) and one for TRAILR2 (TRAILmutR2). It was well proved in this work that TRAILmutR1 shows specific binding to TRAILR1 and no specific binding to TRAILR2. TRAILmutR2 vice versa shows specific binding to TRAILR2 and no significant binding to TRAILR1. Moreover, these mutants were able to induce caspase activation and cell death in a TRAILR1/2-specific manner. Moreover, the enhancement of TRAILR2-induced apoptosis by secondary oligomerization of soluble wild-type TRAIL was confirmed for the TRAILR2-specifc TRAIL mutant and similar findings were made with the TRAILR1-specific TRAIL mutant.
The soluble form of TRAIL exhibits weak apoptotic activity as compared to transmembrane TRAIL. Therefore, there is the challenge in clinical research to improve the activity of soluble TRAIL. A second strategy besides the above mentioned oligomerization to improve soluble TRAIL activity is anchoring of the molecule to the cell surface, e.g. through the genetic fusion with a scFv domain recognizing a cell surface antigen. In this work, we generated fusion proteins of TRAIL, TRAILmutR1 and TRAILmutR2 with a scFv recognizing CD40 (scFv:G28). Initially, we analyzed the functionality of both the TRAIL domain and the scFv:G28 domain of the corresponding fusion proteins. TRAIL functionality was well proved through its ability to induce cell death in TRAIL sensitive cells such as Jurkat cells, provided that scFv:G28-TRAIL fusion proteins were oligomerized by anti-Flag mAb M2. Concerning the scFv:G28 domain, the fusion proteins showed enhanced binding affinity to cell lines expressing CD40 as compared to their parental CD40-negative cells. Consistent with previous studies investigating TRAIL fusion proteins with other cell surface antigen-targeting scFvs, the scFv:G28 fusion proteins with TRAIL, TRAILmutR1 and TRAILmutR2 showed enhanced induction of cell death in a CD40-dependent manner. Moreover, our results revealed that these fusion proteins have a significant paracrine apoptotic effect on CD40-negative bystander cells upon anchoring to CD40-positive cells which are TRAIL resistant. Thus, the current work provides for the first time scFv fusion proteins of TRAIL and TRAILR1- and TRAILR2-specific TRAIL mutants with CD40-restricted activity. These fusion proteins provide the advantage of attenuating the off-target effects and the potential side effects of per se highly active TRAIL variants on one hand due to the CD40-binding dependent enhancement of activity and on the other hand due to the differential use of TRAILR1 and TRAILR2.
CD40 represents a tumor associated marker which is expressed on many tumor cells but also on immune cells. Therefore, the last part of this work focused on the analysis of the ability of scFv:G28-TRAIL fusion proteins to induce CD40 signaling both in tumor cells and also in immune cells. It turned out that the scFv:G28-TRAIL fusion proteins are able to induce CD40 signaling in CD40-positive tumor cells but especially also in immune cells such as iDCs leading to their maturation and further activation of immune responses.
Taken together, this work provides novel bifunctional scFv-TRAIL fusion proteins which combine the induction of apoptosis via TRAIL DR with stimulation of CD40 signaling which possibly enhances antitumor immunity.
Evolution of Vγ9Vδ2 T-cells
(2014)
Human Vγ9Vδ2 T cells are the major subset of blood γδ T cells and account for 1-5% of blood T cells. Pyrophosphorylated metabolites of isoprenoid biosynthesis are recognized by human Vγ9Vδ2 T cells and are called as phosphoantigens (PAg). Isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP) and (E)-4-Hydroxy-3-methyl-but-2-enyl pyrophosphate (HMBPP) are among the few well studied PAg. IPP is found in all organisms while HMBPP is a precursor of IPP found only in eubacteria, plants and apicomplexaen parasite. Interestingly, the PAg reactive Vγ9Vδ2 T cells are so far identified only in human and higher primates but not in rodents. Hence, Vγ9Vδ2 T cells are believed to be restricted to primates. With regard to PAg recognition, a Vγ9JP recombined TCRγ chain and certain CDR3 motifs of the TCR chain are mandatory. The BTN3A1 molecule is essential for a response to PAg. BTN3 is a trans-membrane protein belonging to butyrophilin family of proteins. Though BTN3A1 was found to be essential for PAg presentation, the exact molecular basis of PAg presentation still remains unclear.
This thesis presents new data on the evolution of Vγ9Vδ2 TCR and its ligands (BTN3) as well as the genetic basis of PAg presentation to Vγ9Vδ2 TCR.
The comprehensive analysis of genomic database sequences at NCBI and other public domain databases revealed for the first time that Vγ9, Vδ2 and BTN3 genes emerged and co-evolved along with the placental mammals. Vγ9, Vδ2 and BTN3 genes are scattered across mammalian species and not restricted to primates. But interestingly, all three genes are highly conserved between phylogenetically distinct species. Moreover, the distribution pattern of Vγ9, Vδ2 TCR genes and BTN3 genes suggests a functional association between these genes representing the TCR - ligand relationship. Alpaca (Vicugna pacos), a member of the camelid family, is one among the 6 candidate non-primate species which were found to possess functional Vγ9, Vδ2 and BTN3 genes.
From peripheral lymphocytes of alpaca, Vγ9 chain transcripts with a characteristic JP rearrangement and transcripts of Vδ2 chains with a CDR3 typical for PAg-reactive TCR were identified. The transduction of αβ TCR negative mouse thymoma BW cells with alpaca Vγ9 and Vδ2 TCR chains resulted in surface expression of the TCR complex as it was deduced from detection of cell surface expression of mouse CD3. Cross-linking of alpaca Vγ9Vδ2 TCR transductants with anti-CD3ε led to IL-2 production which confirmed that alpaca Vγ9 and Vδ2 TCR chains pair to form a functional TCR. Besides the conservation of human like Vγ9 and Vδ2 TCR chains, alpaca has conserved an orthologue for human BTN33A1 as well. Interestingly, the predicted PAg binding sites of human BTN3A1 was 100% conserved in deduced amino acid sequence of alpaca BTN3A1. All together alpaca is a promising candidate for further studies as it might have preserved Vγ9Vδ2 T cells to function in surveillance of stress and infections.
This thesis also provides the sequence of Vγ9Vδ2 TCR of African green monkey (Chlorocebus aethiops), which was previously unknown. Moreover, our data indicates the lack of any species specific barrier which could hinder the PAg presentation by African monkey derived COS cells to human Vγ9Vδ2 TCR and vice versa of human cells to African green monkey Vγ9Vδ2 TCR which was in contradiction to previously reported findings.
Apart from the above, the thesis also presents new data on the genetic basis of PAg presentation to Vγ9Vδ2 T cells, which revealed that human chromosome 6 is sufficient for the presentation of exogenous and endogenous PAg. By employing human/mouse somatic hybrids, we identified the role of human chromosome 6 in PAg presentation and in addition, we observed the lack of capacity of human chromosome 6 positive hybrids to activate Vγ9Vδ2 TCR transductants in the presence of the alkylamine sec-butylamine (SBA). Investigation of Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells containing the human chromosome 6 also yielded similar results. This suggests that aminobisphosphonates (zoledronate) and alkylamines employ different mechanisms for activation of Vγ9Vδ2 T cells although both have been described to act by inhibition of farnesyl pyrophosphate synthase activity which is known to increase intracellular levels of the IPP.
In conclusion, this thesis suggests that Vγ9, Vδ2 and BTN3 genes controlling Vγ9Vδ2 TCR- ligand relationship emerged and co-evolved along with placental mammals; and also identified candidate non-primate species which could possess Vγ9Vδ2 T cells. Furthermore, it suggests alpaca as a promising non-primate species to investigate the physiological function of Vγ9Vδ2 T cells. With respect to PAg antigen presentation it was shown that chromosome 6 is essential and sufficient for exogenous and endogenous PAg presentation. Moreover, the alkylamine SBA and aminobisphosphonate zoledronate may engage different cellular mechanism to exert inhibition over IPP consumption. The thesis raises interesting questions which need to be addressed in future: 1) What are the environmental and evolutionary factors involved in preservation of Vγ9Vδ2 T cells only by few species? 2) What could be the functional nature and antigen recognition properties of such a conserved T cell subset? 3) What is the genetic and molecular basis of the differential capacity of human chromosome 6 bearing rodent-human hybridoma cells in activating Vγ9Vδ2 T cells in presence of SBA and aminobisphosphonates?
Kinasen der SRC-Familie (SFKs) sind sowohl in Wachstum und Metastasierung von Tumor- und Leukämiezellen als auch an prominenter Stelle in vielgestaltige Signalwege aller Immunzellen involviert. Eine Hemmung von SFKs ist damit ein vielversprechendes Mittel zur Therapie maligner Erkrankungen, kann aber darüber hinaus auch sehr effektiv zur Immunmodulation genutzt werden. Für den zur Therapie von CML und AML zugelassenen Tyrosinkinaseinhibitor (TKI) Dasatinib (Handelsname Sprycel®), für den unter anderem SFKs die Hauptziele darstellen, wurden, neben der antitumoralen Wirkung, sowohl immunsuppressive als auch immunstimulierende Effekte beschrieben. Aus diesem Grund könnte Dasatinib ein für die Modulation von Immunantworten sehr interessantes Hilfsmittel darstellen. In der vorliegenden Arbeit werden die hemmenden und fördernden Einflüsse von Dasatinib auf zwei Typen von Immunzellen genauer untersucht, um so die Auswirkungen einer Dasatinib-Behandlung auf Zellen des Immunsystems besser zu verstehen und sich das immunmodulatorische Potenzial von Dasatinib besser nutzbar machen zu können.
Der erste Teil der Arbeit beschäftigt sich mit der Untersuchung möglicher kombinatorischer Effekte zwischen Dasatinib und dem Glucocorticoid Dexamethason auf verschiedene Subsets von T-Zellen vor dem Hintergrund eines potentiellen Einsatzes der Kombination bei der allogenen Hämatopoetischen Stammzelltransplantation (HSCT) zur Separation von Graft-versus-Leukemia (GvL)-Effekten und der Graft-versus-host Disease (GvHD). Während keine kombinatorischen Effekte bei der Aktivierung von T-Zellen auftraten, ergaben sich bei der Untersuchung des Einflusses auf die Proliferation besonders in CD8+ T-Zellen additive Effekte durch die Kombination. Die Proliferation naiver T-Zell-Subsets wurde bereits durch die beiden Einzelsubstanzen alleine stark gehemmt. Dagegen waren Memory T-Zell-Subsets deutlich unempfindlicher, allerdings konnte durch eine Kombination von Dexamethason und Dasatinib auch die Proliferation dieser Memory Subsets effektiv gehemmt werden. Hierbei zeigten sich bei CD8+ Memory Subsets die deutlichsten synergistischen Effekte. Da eine Kombination in stärkerem Maße auch CD8+ gegenüber CD4+ Memory Subsets hemmt und diese Subsets unterschiedliche Rollen in der Induktion von GvL-Effekten und der Auslösung einer GvHD zu spielen scheinen, ist eine Steigerung der GvL-Effektivität durch die Medikamenten-Kombination bei gleichzeitiger Minimierung eines GvHD-Risikos in Zusammenhang mit anderen publizierten Ergebnissen durchaus denkbar. Weil eine starke Hemmung von virus-spezifischen T-Zellen nur bei sehr hohen Konzentrationen auftrat, ist zudem das Risiko einer Virus-Reaktivierung, die ein großes Problem bei einer HSCT darstellt, eher als gering einzuschätzen.
Der zweite Teil der Arbeit befasst sich mit dem Einfluss von Dasatinib auf aus Monozyten generierte Dendritische Zellen (moDCs) mit einem Fokus auf der Beeinflussung ihrer Migration. Während eine Behandlung mit Dasatinib nur sehr geringe Auswirkungen auf die Ausreifung der moDCs und die Expression von kostimulatorischen Molekülen hatte, führte eine Dasatinib-Behandlung zu einer Zeit- und Dosis-abhängigen Verringerung der Zytokinsekretion (IL-10 und IL-12). Im Gegensatz dazu hatte Dasatinib keinen Einfluss auf die phagozytotische Aktivität der moDCs und auf ihre Fähigkeit, Virus-spezifische T-Zell-Antworten auszulösen. Dasatinib zeigte dagegen einen deutlich steigernden Einfluss auf die Migration von moDCs gegen einen CCL19-Gradienten im Transwell-Assay, ohne die Expression des CCL19-Rezeptors CCR7 zu beeinflussen. Da ähnliche Migrations-steigernde Effekte auch bei einer Behandlung mit dem spezifischen SFK-Inhibitor SKI-1 auftraten, eine Behandlung mit Nilotinib, einem TKI der nicht auf SFKs wirkt, im Gegensatz dazu aber zu einer Hemmung der Migration führte, liegt es nahe dass die Migrations-steigernde Wirkung von Dasatinib über SFKs vermittelt wird. Dasatinib führte zu einer deutlichen Inhibierung der Phosphorylierung der inhibitorischen Immunrezeptoren Siglec-9 und Siglec-3 (CD33) ohne ihre Expressionslevel zu beeinflussen. Eine mit spezifischen Antikörpern durchgeführte Blockierung dieser Immunrezeptoren, deren ITIM-Domänen mutmaßlich von SFKs phosphoryliert werden, hatte eine deutliche Steigerung der Migration und eine verringerte Phosphorylierung von Siglec-9, Siglec-3 und SHP-2 zur Folge. Letztere ist eine Phosphatase, die nach Bindung an phosphorylierte ITIM-Domänen von Rezeptoren wie den Siglecs verschiedene Zielmoleküle dephosphoryliert. Die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit legen nahe, dass die Migrations-steigernde Wirkung von Dasatinib über eine Hemmung von SFKs und daraus resultierend auf dem Wegfall eines inhibitorischen Signalwegs erfolgt. Diese Steigerung der Migration könnte in der Tumor-Therapie von großem Nutzen sein, da bei einer Vakzinierung mit autologen DCs, die mit Tumor-assoziierten Antigenen stimuliert wurden, die schlechte Einwanderung in die Lymphknoten eines der Hauptprobleme darstellt. Zur Überwindung dieses Problems könnte Dasatinib ein sehr effektives Hilfsmittel darstellen und die Therapie-Effizienz deutlich verbessern. Da Dasatinib aber auch eine ganze Reihe weiterer, sehr vielfältiger Einflüsse auf alle Arten von Immunzellen ausübt, scheint eine Verwendung spezifischer blockierender α-Siglec-Antikörper auf Grund geringerer Nebenwirkungen im Vergleich zu Dasatinib möglicherweise sogar noch deutlich besser geeignet zu sein, das Migrationsverhaltens Dendritischer Zellen positiv zu beeinflussen. Die Verwendung gegen Siglec-Rezeptoren gerichteter Antikörper als Adjuvantien könnte somit zu einem erfolgreicheren Einsatz der Vakzination mit Dendritischen Zellen in der Tumor-Therapie führen.
Platelets are important players in haemostasis and their activation is essential to limit post-traumatic blood loss upon vessel injury. On the other hand, pathological platelet activation may lead to thrombosis resulting in myocardial infarction and stroke. Platelet activation and subsequent thrombus formation are, therefore, tightly regulated and require a well-defined interplay of platelet surface receptors, intracellular signalling molecules, cytoskeletal rearrangements and the activation of the coagulation cascade.
In vivo thrombosis and haemostasis models mimic thrombus formation at sites of vascular lesions and are frequently used to assess thrombotic and haemostatic functions of platelets. In this dissertation, different in vivo models were used in mice to address the question at what level a reduced platelet count (PC) compromises stable thrombus formation. To study this, mice were rendered thrombocytopenic by low-dose anti-GPIbα antibody treatment and subjected to a tail bleeding time assay as well as to four different in vivo thrombosis models. Haemostasis and occlusive thrombus formation in small vessels were only mildly affected even at severe reductions of the PC. In contrast, occlusive thrombus formation in larger arteries required higher PCs demonstrating that considerable differences in the sensitivity for PC reductions exist between these models.
In a second part of this study, mice were rendered thrombocytopenic by injection of high-dose anti-GPIbα antibody which led to the complete loss of all platelets from the circulation for several days. During recovery from thrombocytopenia, the newly generated platelet population was characterised and revealed a defect in immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activation motif (ITAM)-signalling. This defect translated into impaired arterial thrombus formation.
To further investigate ITAM-signalling in vivo, genetically modified mice were analysed which display a positive or negative regulation of platelet ITAM-signalling in vitro. Whereas mice lacking the adapter Grb2 in platelets showed a delayed thrombus formation in vivo after acetylsalicylic acid treatment, Clp36ΔLIM bone marrow chimeric mice and SLAP/SLAP2-deficient mice displayed pro-thrombotic properties in vivo. Finally, mice lacking the adapter protein EFhd2 were analysed in vitro and in vivo. However, EFhd2-deficient platelets showed only a minor increase in the procoagulant activity compared to control.
Function and regulation of phospholipase D in blood platelets: in vitro and in vivo studies in mice
(2014)
Summary
Platelet activation and aggregation are crucial for primary hemostasis but can also result in occlusive thrombus formation. Agonist induced platelet activation involves different signaling pathways leading to the activation of phospholipases (PL) which produce second messengers. While the role of PLCs in platelet activation is well established, less is known about the relevance of PLDs. In the current study, the function and regulation of PLD in platelets was investigated using genetic and pharmacological approaches.
In the first part of this thesis, adhesion, activation and aggregation of platelets from mice lacking PLD2 or both PLD1 and PLD2 were analyzed in vitro and in vivo. While the absence of PLD2 resulted in slightly reduced PLD activity in platelets, it had no detectable effect on the platelet function in vitro and in vivo. However, the combined deficiency of both PLD isoforms resulted in defective alpha-granule release and protection in a model of ferric chloride induced arteriolar thrombosis, effects that were not observed in mice lacking only one PLD isoform. These results revealed, for the first time, redundant roles of PLD1 and PLD2 in platelet alpha-granule secretion and indicate that this may be relevant for pathological thrombus formation. Thus, PLD might represent a promising target for antithrombotic therapy.
Thus, this hypothesis was tested more directly in the second part of this thesis. The effects of pharmacological inhibition of PLD activity on hemostasis, thrombosis and thrombo-inflammatory brain infarction in mice were assessed. Treatment of platelets with the reversible, small molecule PLD inhibitor 5-Fluoro-2-indolyl des-chlorohalopemide (FIPI) led to a specific blockade of PLD activity that was associated with reduced -granule release and integrin activation. Mice that received FIPI at a dose of 3 mg/kg displayed reduced occlusive thrombus formation upon chemical injury of carotid arteries or mesenterial arterioles. Similarly, FIPI-treated mice had smaller infarct sizes and significantly better motor and neurological function 24 hours after transient middle cerebral artery occlusion. This protective effect was not associated with major intracerebral hemorrhage or prolonged tail bleeding times. Thus, pharmacological PLD inhibition might represent a safe therapeutic strategy to prevent arterial thrombosis or ischemic stroke.
After revealing a central role for PLD in thrombo-inflammation, the regulation of PLD activity in platelets was analyzed in the last part of the thesis. Up to date, most studies made use of inhibitors potentially exerting off-target effects and consequently PLD regulation is discussed controversially. Therefore, PLD activity in mice genetically lacking potential modulators of PLD activity was determined to address these controversies. These studies revealed that PLD is tightly regulated during initial platelet activation. While integrin outside-in signaling and Gi signaling was dispensable for PLD activation, it was found that PLC dependent pathways were relevant for the regulation of PLD enzyme activity.
Die Multiple Sklerose (MS) und ihr Tiermodell, die Experimentelle Autoimmune Enzephalomyelitis (EAE), sind Autoimmunerkrankungen des Zentralen Nervensystems (ZNS). Neben myelinspezifischen CD4+ T-Zellen tragen auch CD8+ T-Zellen zur Pathogenese dieser Erkrankungen bei. Allerdings ist die Rolle der CD8+ T-Zellen während der Induktionsphase der Erkrankung außerhalb des ZNS noch unklar. In dieser Arbeit wurde daher der Beitrag der CD8+ T-Zellen in der EAE der Lewis-Ratte näher untersucht.
Dazu wurde die Krankheitsaktivität der aktiven EAE in normalen Lewis-Ratten mit Tieren verglichen, in denen die CD8+ T-Zellen durch CD8-spezifische monoklonale Antikörper depletiert wurden. Die CD8-depletierten Tiere zeigten dabei eine verminderte Krankheitsaktivität im Vergleich zu den Kontrolltieren. Ebenso entwickelten CD8 knockout Ratten, die durch die Abwesenheit funktionsfähiger CD8+ T-Zellen gekennzeichnet sind, deutlich reduzierte Krankheitssymptome im Vergleich zu wildtypischen Tieren. Die reduzierte Krankheitsaktivität in den CD8-defizienten Tieren war von einer verminderten Infiltration von T-Zellen und Makrophagen in das ZNS begleitet. Zwar konnten aktivierte gpMBP-spezifische CD4+ T-Zellen in den drainierenden Lymphknoten von CD8-depletierten Ratten detektiert werden, diese produzierten jedoch in deutlich reduziertem Umfang pro-inflammatorische Zytokine wie beispielsweise Interferon-. Offensichtlich können in der aktiven EAE myelinspezifische CD4+ T-Zellen in Abwesenheit von CD8+ T-Zellen nicht vollständig zu Effektorzellen differenzieren und infolgedessen das ZNS nicht infiltrieren. Umgekehrt konnten nach adoptivem Transfer von voll ausdifferenzierten enzephalitogenen CD4+ Effektorzellen sowohl in normalen als auch CD8-defizienten Empfängertieren gleich starke Symptome einer AT-EAE beobachtet werden. Die Entfaltung des pathogenen Potentials voll ausgereifter CD4+ Effektorzellen scheint somit nicht von der Präsenz von CD8+ T-Zellen abzuhängen.
Mit Hilfe eines Ratten-IFN- ELISpots gelang erstmals die Detektion Interferon--produzierender gpMBP-spezifischer CD8+ T-Zellen in Tieren, die zuvor mit gpMBP immunisiert wurden. Zum direkten Nachweis von gpMBP-spezifischen CD8+ T-Zellen wurden RT1.Al-Ig Dimere generiert und mit verschiedenen gpMBP-Peptiden beladen. Tatsächlich konnten in den drainierenden Lymphknotenzellen von Ratten, die zuvor mit gpMBP in CFA immunisiert wurden, CD8+ T-Zellen detektiert werden, die gpMBP125-133-beladene RT1.Al-Ig Dimere erkennen.
Die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit legen insgesamt den Schluss nahe, dass bei der EAE der Lewis-Ratte Interferon--produzierende CD8+ T-Zellen in der Peripherie mit myelinspezifischen CD4+ T-Zellen interagieren und damit deren Differenzierung zu ZNS-infiltrierenden Effektorzellen ermöglichen.
A precious treasure in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), acupuncture played a vital and irreplaceable role in contributing to people’s health in the thousands of years of Chinese history, and in 2010 was officially added to the “Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity” by the United Nations. Because of the side-effects of long-term drug therapy for pain, and the risks of dependency, acupuncture has been widely accepted as one of the most important alternative choice therapies for treating varieties of acute and chronic pain-related disorders. The clinical application and scientific mechanism research of acupuncture have therefore increased intensively in the last few decades. Besides hand acupuncture, other treatment approaches e.g. electroacupuncture (EA) have been widely accepted and applied as an important acupuncture-related technique for acupuncture analgesia (AA) research. The involvement of opioid peptides and receptors in acute AA has been shown via pre-EA application of opioid receptor/peptide antagonists. However, existing publications still cannot illuminate the answer to the following question: how does sustained antinociception happen by EA treatment? The hypothesis of opioid peptide-mediated tonic AA might be able to answer the question.
In the first part of this thesis, the institution of a reproducible acupuncture treatment model as well as the endogenous opioid-related mechanisms was demonstrated. An anatomically-based three-dimensional (3D) rat model was established to exhibit a digital true-to-life organism, accurate acupoint position and EA treatment protocol on bilateral acupoint GB-30 Huantiao. The optimal EA treatment protocol (100 Hz, 2-3 mA, 0.1 ms, 20 min) at 0 and 24 h after induction of inflammatory pain by complete Freund’s adjuvant (CFA) on conscious free-moving rats was then established. EA elicited significant sustained mechanical and thermal antinociception up to 144 h. Post-EA application of opioid receptors (mu opioid receptor, MOR; delta opioid receptor, DOR) antagonists naloxone (NLX) and naltrindole (NTI), or opioid peptide antibodies anti-beta-endorphin (anti-END), met-enkephalin (anti-ENK) or -dynorphin A (anti-DYN) could also block this effect at a late phase (96 h) of CFA post-EA, which suggested opioid-dependent tonic analgesia was produced by EA. Meanwhile, EA also reduced paw temperature and volume at 72-144 h post CFA indicating anti-inflammatory effects. Nociceptive thresholds were assessed by paw pressure threshold (Randall-Sellito) or paw withdrawal latency (Hargreaves) and an anti-inflammatory effect was evaluated by measurement of plantar temperature and volume of inflamed paw.
The second part of the thesis further suggests the correlation between the chemokine CXCL10 (= interferon-gamma inducible protein 10, IP-10) and opioid peptides in EA-induced antinociception. Based on a comprehensive Cytokine Array of 29 cytokines, targeted cytokines interleukin (IL)-1alpha, interleukin (IL)-1beta, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha, interleukin (IL)-4, interleukin (IL)-13, interferon (IFN)-gamma as well as CXCL10 were selected and quantified by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and real time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) quantification confirmed upregulation of CXCL10 mRNA at both 72 and 96 h. The following hyperalgesic assessment suggested the antinociceptive effect of CXCL10. The double immunostaining localizing opioid peptides with macrophages expressed the evident upregulation of CXCR3-receptor of CXCL10 in EA treated samples as well as the significant upregulation or downregulation of opioid peptides by repeated treatment of CXCL10 or antibody of CXCL10 via behavioral tests and immune staining. Subsequent immunoblotting measurements showed non-alteration of opioid receptor level by EA, indicating that the opioid receptors did not apparently contribute to AA in the present studies. In vitro, CXCL10 did not directly trigger opioid peptide END release from freshly isolated rat macrophages. This might implicate an indirect property of CXCL10 in vitro stimulating the opioid peptide-containing macrophages by requiring additional mediators in inflammatory tissue.
In summary, this project intended to explore the peripheral opioid-dependent analgesic mechanisms of acupuncture with a novel 3D treatment rat model and put forward new information to support the pivot role of chemokine CXCL10 in mediating EA-induced tonic antinociception via peripheral opioid peptides.
Transmission of the malaria parasite from man to the mosquito requires the formation of sexual parasite stages, the gametocytes. The gametocytes are the only parasite stage that is able to survive in the mosquito midgut and to undergo further development – gamete
formation and fertilization. Numerous sexual stage-specific proteins have been discovered, some of which play crucial roles for parasite transmission. However, the functions of many sexual stage proteins remain elusive. Amongst the sexual stage-specific proteins
are the proteins of the PfCCp proteins family, which exhibit numerous adhesion domains in their protein structures. For four members of the protein family, PfCCp1 to PfCCp4 gene-disruptant parasite lines had been already studied. Amongst these, PfCCp2 and PfCCp3 showed an important role for development of the parasites in the
mosquito. In the present work the study of gene-disrupted parasites of the PfCCp Protein family was completed. PfCCp5-KO and PfFNPA-KO parasite lines were characterized
to a great extent and many properties were similar to those of other PfCCp proteins. The co-dependent expression previously reported to be a phenomenon of PfCCp
proteins was also observed in these two mutants, although to lesser extent. When either PfCCp5 or PfFNPA were absent, all other proteins were detected in reduced abundance only. Co-dependent expression manifests exclusively on the protein level. Transcript
levels were not altered as RT-PCR showed. Amongst PfCCp proteins numerous proteinproteins interactions are taking place. The previously described multimeric protein
complexes also include further sexual stage-specific proteins like Pfs230, Pfs48/45 and Pfs25. Recently, a new component of PfCCp-based multimeric protein complexes had
been identified. The protein was named PfWLP1 (WD repeat protein-like protein 1) due to its possession of several WD40 repeats. In the present study expression of this uncharacterized protein was investigated via indirect IFA. It was expressed in asexual blood stages and gametocytes. Upon gamete formation and fertilization its expression ceased. Another sexual stage protein studied in this work was PfactinII. It was shown to be exclusively
expressed in sexual stages. In gametocytes it co-localizes with Pfs230 and correct localization of PfactinII depends on presence of Pfs230. Transcript analysis by means of RT-PCR revealed the expression of several components of the IMC in gametocytes. Furthermore, five or six myosin genes encoded in the
P. falciparum genome were detected in gametocytes. Gametocyte egress was studied on the ultrastructural level via transmission electron microscopy and an inside-out type of egress was observed. Firstly, the membrane of the parasitophorous vacuole (PVM) was lysed and only thereafter the membrane of the red blood cell (RBCM) ruptured. Furthermore, a new inductor of gametogenesis was identified: The K+/H+ ionophore nigericin induced gametocytes activation in the absence of xanthurenic acid (XA), which is responsible for gamtetocyte activation in the mosquito midgut. Selective permeabilization of RBCM and PVM by the mild detergent saponin, showed that in the absence of these membranes male gametocytes were still able to perceive both XA and the drop in temperature. Thus, the receptors for both factors signaling the parasite transmission to the mosquito, seem to be of parasitic origin. LC/MS/MS analysis confirmed the ability
of RBCs to take up XA. With malaria eradication on the agenda of malaria research targeting the sexual stages
becomes a crucial part of intervention strategies. The sexual stages are especially attractive target as they represent a population bottleneck. The here reported findings on P. falciparum gametocytes provide several potential candidate proteins for developing tools to interrupt transmission from man to mosquito. Such tools might include Transmission blocking vaccines and drugs.
Die geplante Ausrottung der Masern bis 2020 und die damit eventuell einhergehende Beendigung der Masernimpfung könnten die Voraussetzungen dafür schaffen, dass andere Morbilliviren, wie beispielsweise das Hundestaupevirus (CDV), einen Wirtswechsel zum Menschen vollbringen könnten. CDV ist ein hoch ansteckendes Pathogen und besitzt einen weiten Wirtstropismus, der sich aktuell immer weiter ausbreitet. Im Gegensatz dazu kann das Masernvirus (MV) nahezu ausschließlich Menschen und nur sehr bedingt wenige Affenarten infizieren.
In dieser Doktorarbeit konnte gezeigt werden, dass eine Adaptierung des rekombinanten wildtypischen CDV-Stammes CDV-75/17red an den humanen Rezeptor SLAM (signaling lymphocytic activation molecule, CD150) reproduzierbar und innerhalb weniger Passagen erfolgt. Bei der Adaptierung an das humane SLAM ist dabei nur eine Mutation in dem Gen für das virale Hämagglutinin notwendig. Diese Mutation an Position 8697 von A zu G im viralen Genom (Aminosäure D540G im Hämagglutinin) konnte reproduzierbar detektiert werden, obwohl veröffentlicht wurde, dass unterschiedliche Mutationen im Hämagglutinin verschiedener CDV-Stämme eine SLAM-Adaptierung ermöglichen. Die Mutation D540G im Hämagglutinin des humanen SLAM-adaptierten CDV-A75/17red kompensiert eine negative Ladung der Aminosäure 71E, die speziesspezifisch im humanen SLAM vorhanden ist. Durch Wachstumskinetiken konnte belegt werden, dass das an humanes SLAM-adaptierte CDV-A75/17red auch weiterhin das canine SLAM effizient verwendet. Ein weiterer Eintrittsrezeptor, humanes Nectin4, konnte mit demselben CDV-Stamm ohne adaptive Mutation in den viralen Hüllproteingenen benutzt werden.
Wachstumskurven auf verschiedenen humanen B-Lymphozyten Zelllinien zeigen allerdings, dass eine alleinige Adaptierung an die humanen Wirtszellrezeptoren, für eine effiziente Virusreplikation, nicht ausreicht. Damit das CDV die Speziesbarriere durchbrechen kann, muss offenbar ein weiterer Adaptierungsprozess an die humanen Wirtszellen erfolgen, der voraussichtlich mit umfangreicheren Mutationen des viralen Genoms einhergehen würde.
Diese Ergebnisse unterstreichen, dass intrinsische Faktoren und das angeborene Immunsystem eine wichtige Barriere bilden und den Menschen vor einer CDV-Infektion schützen. Allerdings würde eine Fortführung der MV-Impfung auch nach Ausrottung der Masern, aufgrund der Kreuzreaktivität gegen andere Morbilliviren, den Schutz vor einer möglichen Adaptierung eines Morbillivirus, wie CDV, an den Menschen deutlich verstärken.
Parasitic helminths share a large degree of common genetic heritage with their various hosts. This includes cell-cell-communication mechanisms mediated by small peptide cytokines and lipophilic/steroid hormones. These cytokines are candidate molecules for host-parasite cross-communication in helminth diseases. In this work the function of two evolutionary conserved signaling pathways in the model cestode Echinococcus multilocularis has been studied. First, signaling mechanisms mediated through fibroblast growth factors (FGF) and their cognate receptors (FGFR) which influence a multitude of biological functions, like homeostasis and differentiation, were studied. I herein investigated the role of EmFR which is the only FGFR homolog in E. multilocularis. Functional analyses using the Xenopus oocyte expression system clearly indicate that EmFR can sense both acidic and basic FGF of human origin, resulting in an activation of the EmFR tyrosine kinase domain. In vitro experiments demonstrate that mammalian FGF significantly stimulates proliferation and development of E. multilocularis metacestode vesicles and primary cells. Furthermore, DNA synthesis and the parasite’s Erk-like MAPK cascade module was stimulated in the presence of exogenously added mammalian FGF. By using the FGFR inhibitor BIBF1120 the activity of EmFR in the Xenopus oocyte system was effectively blocked. Addition of BIBF1120 to in vitro cultivated Echinococcus larval material led to detrimental effects concerning the generation of metacestode vesicles from parasite stem cells, the proliferation and survival of metacestode vesicles, and the dedifferentiation of protoscoleces towards the metacestode. In conclusion, these data demonstrate the presence of a functional EmFR-mediated signaling pathway in E. multilocularis that is able to interact with host-derived cytokines and that plays an important role in larval parasite development. Secondly, the role of nuclear hormone receptor (NHR) signaling was addressed. Lipophilic and steroid hormone signaling contributes to the regulation of metazoan development. By means of in silico analyses I demonstrate that E. multilocularis expresses a set of 17 NHRs that broadly overlaps with that of the related flatworms Schistosoma mansoni and S. japonicum, but also contains several NHR encoding genes that are unique to this parasite. One of these, EmNHR1, is homolog to the DAF-12/HR-96 subfamily of NHRs which regulate cholesterol homeostasis in metazoans. Modified yeast-two hybrid analyses revealed that host serum contains a ligand which induces homodimerization of the EmNHR1 ligand-binding domain. Also, a HNF4-like homolog, EmHNF4, was characterized. Human HNF4 plays an important role in liver development. RT-PCR experiments showed that both isoforms of the EmHNF4 encoding gene are expressed stage-dependently suggesting distinct functions of the two isoforms in the parasite. Moreover, specific regulatory mechanisms on the convergence of NHR signaling and TGF-β/BMP signaling pathways in E. multilocularis have been identified. On the one hand, EmNHR1 directly interacted with the EmSmadC and on the other hand EmHNF4b interacted with EmSmadD, EmSmadE which are all downstream signaling components of the TGF-β/BMP signaling pathway. This suggests cross-communication in order to regulate target gene expression. With these results, further studies on the role of NHR signaling in the cestode will be facilitated. Also, the first serum-free in vitro cultivation system for E. multilocularis was established using PanserinTM401 as medium. Serum-free co-cultivation with RH-feeder cells and an axenic cultivation method have been established. With the help of this serum-free cultivation system investigations on the role of specific peptide hormones, like FGFs, or lipophilic/steroid hormones, like cholesterol, for the development of helminths will be much easier.
Background
Acute graft-versus-host disease (aGVHD) poses a major limitation for broader therapeutic application of allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation (allo-HCT). Early diagnosis of aGVHD remains difficult and is based on clinical symptoms and histopathological evaluation of tissue biopsies. Thus, current aGVHD diagnosis is limited to patients with established disease manifestation. Therefore, for improved disease prevention it is important to develop predictive assays to identify patients at risk of developing aGVHD. Here we address whether insights into the timing of the aGVHD initiation and effector phases could allow for the detection of migrating alloreactive T cells before clinical aGVHD onset to permit for efficient therapeutic intervention.
Methods
Murine major histocompatibility complex (MHC) mismatched and minor histocompatibility antigen (miHAg) mismatched allo-HCT models were employed to assess the spatiotemporal distribution of donor T cells with flow cytometry and in vivo bioluminescence imaging (BLI). Daily flow cytometry analysis of peripheral blood mononuclear cells allowed us to identify migrating alloreactive T cells based on homing receptor expression profiles.
Results
We identified a time period of 2 weeks of massive alloreactive donor T cell migration in the blood after miHAg mismatch allo-HCT before clinical aGVHD symptoms appeared. Alloreactive T cells upregulated α4β7 integrin and P-selectin ligand during this migration phase. Consequently, targeted preemptive treatment with rapamycin, starting at the earliest detection time of alloreactive donor T cells in the peripheral blood, prevented lethal aGVHD.
Conclusions
Based on this data we propose a critical time frame prior to the onset of aGVHD symptoms to identify alloreactive T cells in the peripheral blood for timely and effective therapeutic intervention.
Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is the deadliest form of lung cancer and has a poor prognosis due to its high rate of metastasis. Notably, metastasis is one of the leading causes of death among cancer patients. Despite the clinical importance, the cellular and molecular mechanisms that govern the initiation, establishment and progression of metastasis remain unclear. Moreover, knowledge gained on metastatic process was largely based on cultured or in vitro manipulated cells that were reintroduced into immune-compromised recipient mice. In the present study, a spontaneous metastasis mouse model for NSCLC was generated with a heritable fluorescent tag (DsRed) driven by CAG (combination of cytomegalovirus early enhancing element and chicken beta actin) promoter in alveolar type II cells (SpC-rtTA/TetO-Cre/LSL-DsRed). This approach is essential, keeping in mind the reprogramming nature of Myc oncogene (Rapp et al, 2009). Such genetic lineage tracing approach not only allowed us to monitor molecular and cellular changes during development of primary tumor but also led us to identify the different stages of secondary tumor development in distant organs. Upon combined expression of oncogenic C Raf-BXB and c-Myc (MYC-BXB-DsRed) in lung alveolar type II epithelial cells, macroscopic lung tumors arose comprising of both cuboidal and columnal cellular features. C Raf-BXB induced tumors (CRAF-DsRed) exhibit cuboidal morphology and is non-metastatic whereas Myc-BXB induced lung tumors (Myc-BXB-DsRed) present cuboidal-columnar cellular features and is able to undergo metastasis mainly in liver. Surprisingly, cystic lesions which were negative for SpC (Surfactant protein C) and CCSP (Clara cell secretory protein), strongly expressed DsRed proteins indicating its origin from lung alveolar type II cells. Moreover, early lung progenitor markers such as GATA4 (GATA-binding protein 4) and TTF1 (Thyroid Transcription Factor 1) were still expressed in these early cystic lesions suggesting metastasis as a faulty recapitulation of ontogeny (Rapp et al, 2008). Interestingly, mixed cystic lesions and metastatic tumors contained DsRed and SpC positive cells. These results demonstrate secondary tumor progression from cystic, mixed cystic to malignant transformation. Our results shed tremendous light on reprogramming of metastasizing cells during secondary tumor development. Moreover, such fluorescent tagged metastatic mice model can also be used to track the migration ability of metastatic cancer cell to different organs and its potential to differentiate into other cell types such as blood vessel or stromal cell within the primary tumor.
Synapsins are conserved synapse-associated hosphoproteins involved in the fine regulation of neurotransmitter release. The aim of the present project is to study the phosphorylation of synapsins and the distribution of phospho-synapsin in the brain of Drosophila melanogaster.
Three antibodies served as important tools in this work, a monoclonal antibody (3C11/α-Syn) that recognizes all known synapsin isoforms and two antisera against phosphorylated synapsin peptides (antiserum PSyn(S6) against phospho-serine 6 and antiserum PSyn(S464) against phospho-serine 464). These antisera were recently generated in collaboration with Bertram Gerber and Eurogentec. ...
Regulating our immediate feelings, needs, and urges is a task that we are faced with every day in our lives. The effective regulation of our emotions enables us to adapt to society, to deal with our environment, and to achieve long‐term goals. Deficient emotion regulation, in contrast, is a common characteristic of many psychiatric and neurological conditions. Particularly anxiety disorders and subclinical states of increased anxiety are characterized by a range of behavioral, autonomic, and neural alterations impeding the efficient down‐regulation of acute fear. Established fear network models propose a downstream prefrontal‐amygdala circuit for the control of fear reactions but recent research has shown that there are a range of factors acting on this network. The specific prefrontal cortical networks involved in effective regulation and potential mediators and modulators are still a subject of ongoing research in both the animal and human model. The present research focused on the particular role of different prefrontal cortical regions during the processing of fear‐relevant stimuli in healthy subjects. It is based on four studies, three of them investigating a different potential modulator of prefrontal top‐down function and one directly challenging prefrontal regulatory processes. Summarizing the results of all four studies, it was shown that prefrontal functioning is linked to individual differences in state anxiety, autonomic flexibility, and genetic predisposition. The T risk allele of the neuropeptide S receptor gene, a recently suggested candidate gene for pathologically elevated anxiety, for instance, was associated with decreased prefrontal cortex activation to particularly fear‐relevant stimuli. Furthermore, the way of processing has been found to crucially determine if regulatory processes are engaged at all and it was shown that anxious individuals display generally reduced prefrontal activation but may engage in regulatory processes earlier than non‐anxious subjects. However, active manipulation of prefrontal functioning in healthy subjects did not lead to the typical behavioral and neural patterns observed in anxiety disorder patients suggesting that other subcortical or prefrontal structures can compensate for an activation loss in one specific region. Taken together, the current studies support prevailing theories of the central role of the prefrontal cortex for regulatory processes in response to fear‐eliciting stimuli but point out that there are a range of both individual differences and peculiarities in experimental design that impact on or may even mask potential effects in neuroimaging research on fear regulation.
All animal and plant species must disperse in order to survive. Although this fact may seem trivial, and the importance of the dispersal process is generally accepted, the eco-evolutionary forces influencing dispersal, and the underlying movement elements, are far from being comprehensively understood. Beginning in the 1950s scientists became aware of the central role of dispersal behaviour and landscape connectivity for population viability and species diversity. Subsequently, dispersal has mainly been studied in the context of metapopulations. This has allowed researchers to take into account the landscape level, e.g. for determining conservation measures. However, a majority of theses studies classically did not include dispersal evolution. Yet, it is well known that dispersal is subject to evolution and that this process may occur (very) rapidly, i.e. over short ecological time-scales. Studies that do take dispersal evolution into account, mostly focus on eco-evolutionary forces arising at the level of populations - intra-specific competition or Allee effects, for example - and at the level of landscapes - e.g. connectivity, patch area and fragmentation. Yet, relevant ecological and evolutionary forces can emerge at all levels of biological complexity, from genes and individuals to populations, communities and landscapes. Here, I focus on eco-evolutionary forces arising at the gene- and especially at the individual level. Combining individual-based modelling and empirical field work, I explicitly analyse the influence of mobility trade-offs and information use for dispersal decisions - i.e. individual level factors - during the three phases of dispersal - emigration, transfer and immigration. I additionally take into account gene level factors such as ploidy, sexual reproduction (recombination) and dominance. Mobility-fertility trade-offs may shape evolutionarily stable dispersal strategies and lead to the coexistence of two or more dispersal strategies, i.e. polymorphisms and polyphenisms. This holds true for both dispersal distances (chapter 3) and emigration rates (chapter 4). In sessile organisms - such as trees or corals - maternal investment, i.e. transgenerational trade-offs between maternal fertility and propagule dispersiveness, can be the cause of bimodal and fat-tailed dispersal kernels. However, the coexistence of two or more dispersal strategies may be critically dependent on gene level factors, such as ploidy or dominance (chapter 4). Passively dispersing individuals may realize such multimodal dispersal kernels by mixing different dispersal vectors. Active choice of these vectors allows to optimize the kernel. As most animals have evolved some kind of memory and sensory apparatus - chemical, acoustic or optical sensors - it is obvious that these capacities should be used for dispersal decisions. Chapter 5 explores the use of chemical cues for vector choice in passively dispersed animals. I find that the neotropical phoretic flower mites Spadiseius calyptrogynae non-randomly mix different dispersal vectors, i.e. one short- and one long-distance disperser, in order to achieve fat-tailed dispersal kernels. Such kernels allow an optimal exploitation of patchily distributed habitats. In addition, this strategy increases the probability of successful immigration as the short-distance dispersal vectors show directed dispersal towards suitable habitats. Results from individual-based simulations support and explain my empirical findings. The use of memory and sensory apparatus in dispersal is also the main topic of chapter 6 which strives to bridge the gap between dispersal and movement ecology. In this part of my thesis I develop a model of non-random, memory-based animal movement strategies. Extending the movement ecology paradigm of Nathan (2008a) I postulate that four elements may be relevant for the emergence of efficient movement strategies: perception, memory, inference and anticipation. Movement strategies including these four elements optimize search efficiency at two scales: within patches and between patches. This leads to a significantly increased search efficiency over a comparable area restricted search strategy. These four chapters are completed by a general analysis of metapopulation dynamics (chapter 2). I find that although the metapopulation concept is very popular in theoretical ecology, classical metapopulations can be predicted to be rare in nature, as suggested by lacking empirical evidence. This is especially the case when gene level factors, such as ploidy and sex, are taken into account. In summary, my work analyses the effects of ecological and evolutionary forces arising at the gene- and individual level on the evolution of dispersal and movement strategies. I highlight the importance of including these limiting factors, mechanisms and processes and show how they impact the evolution of dispersal in spatially structured populations. All chapters demonstrate that these forces may have dramatic effects on resulting ecological and evolutionary dynamics. If we intend to understand animal and plant dispersal or movement, it is crucial to include eco-evolutionary forces emerging at all levels of complexity, from genes to communities and landscapes. This endeavour is certainly not purely academic. Particularly nowadays, with rapidly changing landscape structures and anticipated drastic shifts of climatic zones due to global change, dispersal is a factor that cannot be overestimated.
Tumor angiogenesis is essential for the growth of solid tumors as their proliferation and survival is dependent on consistent oxygen and nutrient supply. Anti-angiogenic treatments represent a therapeutic strategy to inhibit tumor growth by preventing the formation of new blood vessels leading to starvation of the tumor. One of the best characterized anti angiogenic therapeutics is the monoclonal antibody bevacizumab (Avastin), which targets and neutralizes VEGF leading to disruption of the VEGF signaling pathway. Until today, bevacizumab has found its way into clinical practice and has gained approval for treatment of different types of cancer including colorectal cancer, non-small cell lung cancer, breast cancer and renal cell carcinoma. Signaling of VEGF is mediated through VEGF receptors, mainly VEGFR2, which are primarily located on the cell surface of endothelial cells. However, there has been evidence that expression of VEGF receptors can also be found on tumor cells themselves raising the possibility of autocrine and/or paracrine signaling loops. Thus, tumor cells could also benefit from VEGF signaling, which would promote tumor growth. The aim of this study was to investigate if bevacizumab has a direct effect on tumor cells in vitro. To this end, tumor cell lines from the NCI-60 panel derived from four different tumor types were treated with bevacizumab and angiogenic gene and protein expression as well as biological outputs including proliferation, migration and apoptosis were investigated. Most of the experiments were performed under hypoxia to mimic the in vivo state of tumors. Overall, there was a limited measurable effect of bevacizumab on treated tumor cell lines according to gene and protein expression changes as well as biological functions when compared to endothelial controls. Minor changes in terms of proliferation or gene regulation were evident in a single tumor cell line after VEGF-A blockade by bevacizumab, which partially demonstrated a direct effect on tumor cells. However, the overall analysis revealed that tumor cell lines are not intrinsically affected in an adverse manner by bevacizumab treatment.
Besides the functional analysis of tumor cells, embryonic stem cell derived endothelial cells were characterized to delineate vascular Hey gene functions. Hey and Hes proteins are the best characterized downstream effectors of the evolutionary conserved Notch signaling pathway, which mainly act as transcriptional repressors regulating downstream target genes. Hey proteins play a crucial role in embryonic development as loss of Hey1 and Hey2 in mice in vivo leads to a severe vascular phenotype resulting in early embryonic lethality. The major aim of this part of the thesis was to identify vascular Hey target genes using embryonic stem cell derived endothelial cells utilizing a directed endothelial differentiation approach, as ES cells and their differentiation ability provide a powerful in vitro system to study developmental processes. To this end, Hey deficient and Hey wildtype embryonic stem cells were stably transfected with an antibiotic selection marker driven by an endothelial specific promoter, which allows selection for endothelial cells. ESC-derived endothelial cells exhibited typical endothelial characteristics as shown by marker gene expression, immunofluorescent staining and tube formation ability. In a second step, Hey deficient ES cells were stably transfected with doxycycline inducible Flag-tagged Hey1 and Hey2 transgenes to re-express Hey proteins in the respective cell line. RNA-Sequencing of Hey deficient and Hey overexpressing ES cells as well as ESC-derived endothelial cells revealed many Hey downstream target genes in ES cells and fewer target genes in endothelial cells. Hey1 and Hey2 more or less redundantly regulate target genes in ES cells, but some genes were regulated by Hey2 alone. According to Gene Ontology term analysis, Hey target genes are mainly involved in embryonic development and transcriptional regulation. However, the response of ESC-derived endothelial cells in regulating Hey downstream target genes was rather limited when compared to ES cells, which could be due to lower transgene expression in endothelial cells. The limited response also raises the possibility that target gene regulation in endothelial cells is not only dependent on Hey gene functions alone and thus loss or overexpression of Hey genes in this in vitro setting does not influence target gene regulation.
Als einer der ersten gegen HIV gerichteten Restriktionsfaktoren konnte die Cytidindeaminase APOBEC3G isoliert werden. Dieses zelluläre Enzym hemmt äußerst effizient die Replikation von HIV. Weiterführende Untersuchungen konnten demonstrieren, dass die Hemmung der Virusreplikation hauptsächlich auf einer Deaminase-katalysierten G zu A-Hypermutation des viralen Genoms während der Reversen Transkription beruht. Als Gegenstrategie zur antiretroviralen Wirkung von A3G kodiert HIV-1 das Protein Vif (virion infectivity factor), welches durch eine direkte Wechselwirkung den Ubiquitin-abhängigen proteasomalen Abbau von A3G bewirkt. Vor diesem Hintergrund wird der Inhibition des Vif induzierten A3G- Abbaus großes Potential als neuartiges Wirkstoffziel bei der Behandlung von HIV Infektionen vorhergesagt. Das Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit bestand deshalb in der Etablierung von zellulären Screening-Assays für die Identifizierung von Inhibitoren des Vif induzierten A3G-Abbaus. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit konnten insgesamt vier fluoreszenzbasierte zelluläre Assays erfolgreich entwickelt und als Screeningsysteme für die Wirkstoffsuche etabliert werden. Drei dieser Assays basieren auf stabilen Zelllinien, von denen eine Vif und ein mit EYFP markiertes A3G ko-exprimiert. Dieser sogenannte A3G-Abbauassay stellt den primären Assay für die Identifizierung von Inhibitoren des Vif induzierten A3G-Abbaus dar und wird durch zwei weitere Zelllinien-basierte Assays ergänzt. Diese sekundäre Assays erlauben die Detektion von Substanzen, die falsch-positive oder falsch-negative Signale im A3G-Abbauassays generieren. Zusammengenommen ermöglichen die drei Assays die präzise Identifizierung von Inhibitoren, die spezifisch auf den A3G-Abbau wirken und stellen damit eine wesentliche Verbesserung bereits existierender Screeningsysteme dar. Weiterhin wurde ein auf dem Prinzip der bimolekularen Fluoreszenzkomplementation (BiFC) basierendes Testsystem entwickelt. Besagtes System misst die direkte Interaktion zwischen Vif und ElonginC in lebenden Zellen und repräsentiert damit ein weiteres Testsystem für die Identifizierung von Inhibitoren der Vif induzierten A3G-Degradation. Den zweiten Teil dieser Arbeit umfasste die Analyse von Derivaten des Vif Antagonisten RN-18 und neu entwickelten niedermolekularen Inhibitoren der Vif-ElonginC- Interaktion. Als ein wichtiges Ergebnis der Derivat-Analyse ergab sich, dass RN-18 zytotoxisch wirkt und im hier etablierten A3G-Abbauassay ein falsch-positives Signal generiert. Unter den analysierten Vif-ElonginC-Interaktionsinhibitoren fand sich eine Verbindung, die in einem initialen Screening, unter Verwendung des A3G-Abbauassays, eine deutliche Inhibition der Vif induzierten A3G-Degradation bewirkte. Zusammenfassend konnten im Rahmen dieses Promotionsprojektes erfolgreich mehrere Screeningsysteme für die Identifizierung von spezifischen Inhibitoren des A3G-Abbaus etabliert werden. Diese Systeme werden zukünftig dazu beitragen, dass Auffinden von neuartigen Therapeutika für die Behandlung von HIV-Infektionen zu beschleunigen.
Die erfolgreiche therapeutische Beeinflussung pathophysiologischer Prozesse im Herzen nach myokardialem Infarkt stellt nicht zuletzt durch die steigenden Fallzahlen in der westlichen Welt und die vergleichsweise hohe Mortalität eine Herausforderung an Forschung und Entwicklung dar. In der vorliegenden Arbeit werden verschiedene therapeutische Strategien in klinisch relevanten Mausmodellen des Myokardinfarkts und des Ischämie-Reperfusions-Schadens getestet.
Zunächst wird untersucht, ob sich der Einsatz des NFκB-aktivierenden Zytokins TWEAK, welches weitreichende Funktionen in physiologischen Prozessen wie Wundheilung und Entzündung besitzt, als eine mögliche Therapiestrategie eignet. Die Expression von TWEAK wird nach myokardialem Infarkt stark im Herzgewebe induziert. Das gleiche gilt für den Rezeptor von TWEAK, Fn14, der vor allem auf kardialen Fibroblasten exprimiert wird. Daher wird angenommen, dass das TWEAK-Fn14-System am kardialen Remodelling und der Wundheilung im infarzierten Herzen beteiligt sein kann.
Eine rekombinante Variante von TWEAK - HSA-Flag-TWEAK - wird im Mausmodell des Myokardinfarkts getestet. Überraschenderweise zeigt sich hierbei, dass die therapeutische Behandlung von infarzierten Versuchstieren mit diesem Protein die Mortalität im Vergleich zu Placebo-behandelten Mäusen signifikant erhöht. Dies geht mit einem vermehrten Auftreten an linksventrikulären Rupturen einher, ohne dass Defekte im kardialen Remodelling oder eine erhöhte Apoptoserate im Herzen festgestellt werden können. HSA-Flag-TWEAK bewirkt eine Erhöhung der Gewebekonzentrationen an verschiedenen pro-inflammatorischen Zytokinen (IFN-γ, IL-5, IL-12, GITR, MCP-1/-5 und RANTES) und das vermehrte Einwandern von Immunzellen in das Myokard. Hierbei ist insbesondere die stark erhöhte Infiltration an neutrophilen Granulozyten auffällig. Ein kausaler Zusammenhang zwischen diesen Immunzellen und den auftretenden kardialen Rupturen kann durch die Depletion der Neutrophilen gezeigt werden: Nach der systemischen Applikation eines Ly6G-depletierenden Antikörpers ist das Auftreten von kardialen Rupturen nach TWEAK-Gabe vergleichbar mit der Placebo-behandelten Infarktgruppe. Die Tatsache, dass die Mortalität dennoch erhöht ist, deutet auf weitere negative Effekte durch TWEAK hin. Diese Ergebnisse legen die Vermutung nahe, dass eine Hemmung der TWEAK-Fn14-Achse positive Effekte auf die Wundheilung nach Herzinfarkt bewirken könnte.
Als zweite Therapiestrategie wird die pharmakologische Beeinflussung verschiedener Blutplättchen-spezifischer Zielstrukturen untersucht, um das Auftreten von Mikrothromben nach Myokardinfarkt zu reduzieren. Eine Hemmung über das Blutplättchen-Glykoprotein GPVI bewirkt in dem hier eingesetzten Mausmodell der kardialen Ischämie-Reperfusion eine signifikant verbesserte Mikrozirkulation sowie verringerte Infarktgrößen. GPVI stellt somit ein vielversprechendes Ziel für eine blutplättchenhemmende Therapie nach Myokardinfarkt dar.
Zusammengefasst werden in der vorliegenden Arbeit verschiedene neuartige Therapieoptionen untersucht, die die Auswirkungen ischämischer Erkrankungen des Herzens beeinflussen können. Die Ergebnisse besitzen daher das Potenzial, zur Entwicklung neuer Therapien nach Myokardinfarkt beizutragen.
Hyperinsulinemia, a condition with excessively high insulin blood levels, is related to an increased cancer incidence. Diabetes mellitus, metabolic syndrome, obesity and polycystic ovarian syndrome are the most common of several diseases accompanied by hyperinsulinemia. Since an elevated cancer risk especially for colon and kidney cancers, was reported for those patients, we investigated for the first time the induction of genomic damage by insulin mainly in HT29 (human colon cells), LLC-PK1 (pig kidney cells), HK2 (human kidney cells) and peripheral lymphocytes, and to confirm the genotoxicity of insulin in other cells from different tissues. To ascertain that the insulin effects were not only limited to permanent cell lines, rat primary colon, kidney, liver and fatty tissue cells were also studied. To connect the study and the findings to in vivo conditions, two in vivo models for hyperinsulinemia were used; Zucker diabetic fatty rats in a lean and diabetic state infused with different insulin concentrations and peripheral lymphocytes from type 2 diabetes mellitus patients. First, the human colon adenocarcinoma cells (HT29) showed significant elevation of DNA damage using comet assay and micronucleus frequency analysis upon treatment with 5 nM insulin in standard protocols. Extension of the treatment to 6 days lowered the concentration needed to reach significance to 0.5-1 nM. Insulin enhanced the cellular ROS production as examined by the oxidation of the dyes 2´,7´-dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate (H2DCF-DA) and dihydroethidium (DHE). The FPG modified comet assay and the reduction of damage by the radical scavenger tempol connected the insulin-mediatedDNA damage to ROS production. To investigate the sources of ROS upon insulin stimulation, apocynin and VAS2870 as NADPH oxidase inhibitors and rotenone as mitochondrial inhibitor were applied in combination with insulin and all of them led to a reduction of the genomic damage. Investigation of the signaling pathway started by evaluation of the binding of insulin to its receptor and to the IGF-1 receptor. The results showed the involvement of both receptors in the signaling mechanism. Following the activation of both receptors, PI3K activation occurs leading to phosphorylation of AKT which in turn activates two pathways for ROS production, the first related to mitochondria and the second through activation of Rac1 , resulting in the activation of Nox1. Both pathways could be activated through AKT or through the mitochondrial ROS which in turn could activates Nox1. Studying another human colon cancer cell line, Caco-2 and rat primary colon cells in vitro confirmed the effect of insulin on cellular chromatin. We conclude that pathophysiological levels of insulin can cause DNA damage in colon cells, which may contribute to the induction or progression of colon cancer. Second, in kidney cells, insulin at a concentration of 5 nM caused a significant increase in DNA damage in vitro. This was associated with the formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). In the presence of antioxidants, blockers of the insulin and IGF-1 receptors, and a phosphatidylinositol 3-kinases (PI3K) inhibitor, the insulin mediated DNA damage was reduced. Phosphorylation of AKT was increased and p53 accumulated. Inhibition of the mitochondrial and NADPH oxidase related ROS production reduced the insulin mediated damage. In primary rat cells insulin also induced genomic damage. HK2 cells were used to investigate the mechanistic pathway in the kidney The signaling is identical to the one in the colon cells untill the activation of the mitochondrial ROS production, because after the activation of PI3K activation of Nox4 occurs at the same time across talk between mitochondria and Nox4 activation has been suggested and might play a role in the observed effects. In the in vivo model, kidneys from healthy, lean ZDF rats, which were infused with insulin to yield normal or high blood insulin levels, while keeping blood glucose levels constant, the amounts of ROS and p53 were elevated in the high insulin group compared to the control level group. ROS and p53 were also elevated in diabetic obese ZDF rats. The treatment of the diabetic rats with metformin reduced the DNA oxidation measured as 8-oxodG as well as the ROS production in that group. HL60 the human premyelocytic cells and cultured lymphocytes as models for the hemopoietic system cells showed a significant induction for DNA damage upon treatment with insulin. The diabetic patients also exhibited an increase in the micronucleus formation over the healthy individuals. In the present study, we showed for the first time that insulin induced oxidative stress resulting in genomic damage in different tissues, and that the source of the produced ROS differs between the tissues. If the same mechanisms are active in patients, hyperinsulinemia might cause genomic damage through the induction of ROS contributing to the increased cancer risk, against which the use of antioxidants as well as mitochondrial and NADPH oxidase inhibitors might exert protective effects with cancer preventive potential under certain conditions. Normal healthy human plasma insulin concentrations are in the order of 0.04 nM after overnight fasting and increase to less than about 0.2 nM after a meal. Pathophysiological levels can reach 1 nM and can stay above 0.2 nM for the majority of the daytime yielding condictions close to the insulin concentrations determined in the present study. Whether the observed effects also occur in vivo and whether they actually initiate or promote tumor formation remains to be determined. However, if proof of that can be obtained, our experiments with inhibitors indicate chances for pharmacological intervention applying antioxidants or enzyme inhibitors. It will not be the aim to reduce ROS in any case or as much as possible because ROS have now been recognized as important signaling molecules and participatants in immune defense, but a reduction to physiological levels instead of pathophysiological levels in the context of a disease associated with ROS overproduction might be beneficial.
Die Funktionalität β1- und β2-adrenerger Rezeptoren wird durch Polymorphismen in ihrer kodierenden Region moduliert. Wir haben uns die Technik des Fluoreszenz-Resonanz- Energie-Transfers (FRET) zu Nutze gemacht, um den Einfluss der am häufigsten vorkommenden Polymorphismen (Ser49Gly und Gly389Arg im β1AR, Arg16Gly und Gln27Glu im β2AR) auf die Rezeptorkonformation nach Aktivierung zu untersuchen. Dafür wurden FRET-Sensoren für die beiden βAR-Subtypen mit einem gelb-fluoreszierenden Protein (YFP) sowie einem cyan-fluoreszierenden Protein (CFP oder Cerulean) in der dritten intrazellulären Schleife bzw. am C-Terminus verwendet. Nach Stimulierung der βARSensoren konnte die Aktivierung der polymorphen Rezeptorvarianten in lebenden Zellen in Echtzeit untersucht werden. Dabei behielten die FRET-Sensoren sowohl die Bindungsaffinitäten der nativen Rezeptoren als auch eine intakte Funktionalität hinsichtlich der Bildung von sekundären Botenstoffen. Der Vergleich der Aktivierungskinetiken der verschieden polymorphen Varianten des β1AR und β2AR ergab keine signifikanten Unterschiede nach einer einmaligen Stimulation. Es zeigte sich jedoch, dass Rezeptorpolymorphismen die Aktivierungskinetik vorstimulierter βAR erheblich beeinflussen. So konnten wir im Vergleich zur ersten Aktivierung eine schnellere Aktivierung der Gly16-Varianten des β2AR sowie des Gly49Arg389-β1AR feststellen, während die Arg16-β2AR-Variante und der Ser49Gly389-β1AR dagegen bei einer wiederholten Stimulation langsamer aktiviert wurden. Diese Ergebnisse lassen auf ein "Rezeptorgedächtnis" schließen, das spezifisch für bestimmte polymorphe Rezeptorvarianten ist und eine βAR-Subtyp-spezische Ausprägung zeigt. Die Ausbildung der unterschiedlichen Aktivierungskinetiken hing von der Interaktion des Rezeptors mit löslichen intrazellulären Faktoren ab und bedurfte einer Phosphorylierung intrazellulärer Serin- und Threonin-Reste durch G-Protein-gekoppelte Rezeptorkinasen. Die Interaktion mit löslichen intrazellulären Faktoren scheint für den β1AR weniger stark ausgeprägt zu sein als für den β2AR. Die cAMP-Produktion war für die schneller werdenden, “hyperfunktionellen” Gly16-β2ARVarianten signifikant um mehr als 50% höher im Vergleich zur “hypofunktionellen” Arg16- Variante. Die unterschiedliche Funktionalität spiegelte sich im Therapieausgang bei Tokoysepatientinnen wider, dessen Erfolg mit dem Arg16Gly Polymorphismus verknüpft war. Die Daten implizieren eine intrinsische, polymorphismusabhängige Eigenschaft der βAR, die die Aktivierungskinetik der Rezeptoren bei wiederholten Stimulationen determiniert. Diese könnte auch für die zwischen Individuen variierende Ansprechbarkeit auf β-Agonisten und β-Blocker mitverantwortlich sein.
Pro-migratory signals mediated by the tumor microenvironment contribute to the cancer progression cascade, including invasion, metastasis and resistance to therapy. Derived from in vitro studies, isolated molecular steps of cancer invasion programs have been identified but their integration into the tumor microenvironment and suitability as molecular targets remain elusive. The purpose of the study was to visualize central aspects of tumor progression, including proliferation, survival and invasion by real-time intravital microscopy. The specific aims were to monitor the kinetics, mode, adhesion and chemoattraction mechanisms of tumor cell invasion, the involved guidance structures, and the response of invasion zones to anti-cancer therapy. To reach deeper tumor regions by optical imaging with subcellular resolution, near-infrared and infrared excited multiphoton microscopy was combined with a modified dorsal skinfold chamber model. Implanted HT-1080 fibrosarcoma and B16/F10 and MV3 melanoma tumors developed zones of invasive growth consisting of collective invasion strands that retained cell-cell contacts and high mitotic activity while invading at velocities of up to 200 μm per day. Collective invasion occurred predominantly along preexisting tissue structures, including blood and lymph vessels, collagen fibers and muscle strands of the deep dermis, and was thereby insensitive to RNAi based knockdown and/or antibody-based treatment against β1 and β3 integrins, chemokine (SDF-1/CXCL12) and growth factor (EGF) signaling. Therapeutic hypofractionated irradiation induced partial to complete regression of the tumor main mass, yet failed to eradicate the collective invasion strands, suggesting a microenvironmentally privileged niche. Whereas no radiosensitization was achieved by interference with EGFR or doxorubicin, the simultaneous inhibition of β1 and β3 integrins impaired cell proliferation and survival in spontaneously growing tumors and strongly enhanced the radiation response up to complete eradication of both main tumor and invasion strands. In conclusion, collective invasion in vivo is a robust process which follows preexisting tissue structures and is mainly independent of established adhesion and chemoattractant signaling. Due to its altered biological response to irradiation, collective invasion strands represent a microenvironmentally controlled and clinically relevant resistance niche to therapy. Therefore supportive regimens, such as anoikisinduction by anti-integrin therapy, may serve to enhance radio- and chemoefficacy and complement classical treatment regimens.
γ-Aminobutyric acid type A receptors (GABAARs) and glycine receptors (GlyRs) are the major mediators of fast synaptic inhibition in the central nervous system. For proper synaptic function their precise localization and exact concentration within the neuronal surface membrane is essential. These properties are mediated by scaffolding proteins which directly contact the large intracellular loops of the receptors and tether them to cytoskeletal elements of the neuronal cells. In my thesis I deciphered the molecular details of several underlying protein-protein interactions, namely the interaction of a subset of GABAAR and GlyR subunits with the scaffolding proteins gephyrin, radixin and collybistin. I determined short linear motifs within the large intracellular loops of the receptors that directly engage in subunit specific scaffold protein interactions. My quantitative binding studies revealed that gephyrins E domain primarily recognizes the GABAAR α1 (Kd = 17 M) and α3 (Kd = 5 M) subunits, in contrast, the SH3 domain of collybistin mainly interacts with the GABAAR α2 subunit (Kd = 1 µM), while the FERM domain of radixin tightly binds to the GABAAR α5 subunit (Kd = 8 µM). My work additionally demonstrated that this simple relationship is complicated by (i) missing or (ii) overlapping binding specificities between the scaffold proteins and the receptor subunits. Moreover, this thesis addressed the possibility of (iii) posttranslational negative regulation as well as amplification generated by (iv) avidity effects as summarized below. (i) First, using biochemical methods I mapped the radixin-GABAAR α5 interaction in detail. My structural analysis and competition assays suggest that radixin mediates the receptor subunit binding via a universal binding site within the F3 subdomain of its FERM domain. This binding site is formed by an α-helix that offers a large hydrophobic pocket, which accepts a variety of different hydrophobic residues adopting different conformations, and a β-strand that readily engages in peptide backbone interactions. Not surprisingly, this binding site has been implicated in a wide variety of different scaffold interactions, thus emphasizing the importance of the essential FERM activation mechanism described earlier and suggesting additional pathways to allow tight regulation of this interaction. (ii) Next, I analyzed in detail the process of gephyrin-mediated GABAAR clustering. My X-ray crystallographic studies and binding assays revealed that gephyrin mediates binding of the GABAAR α1, α2 and α3 subunit via a universal binding site that also mediates the interactions with the GlyR β subunit. Using structure-guided mutagenesis I identified key residues within gephyrin and the receptor subunits that act as major contributors to the overall binding strength. Namely, two conserved aromatic residues within the N-terminal half of the receptor binding region engage in crucial hydrophobic interactions with gephyrin. Accordingly, J. Mukherjee from the group of our collaborator Steven J. Moss verified a substantial decrease in GABAAR cluster number and size in primary hippocampal neurons upon exchange of these residues within the GABAAR α2 subunit. Extension of my studies to collybistin (CB) revealed an overlapping but reciprocal subunit preference for this protein in comparison to gephyrin. The GABAAR α3 subunit exclusively binds gephyrin, in contrast the GABAAR α1 subunit mainly targets gephyrin (Kd = 17 µM) but additionally displays a moderate affinity (Kd ≈ 400 µM) towards the SH3 domain of CB. The GABAAR α2 subunit binds tightly to the SH3 domain of CB (Kd = 1 µM) and additionally displays a weak gephyrin affinity (Kd ≈ 500 µM). Notably, I could exclude the possibility of synergistic effects between gephyrins E domain, the SH3 domain of CB and the GABAAR α2 subunit. Instead, I found that the GABAAR α2 subunit binds gephyrin and CB in a mutually exclusive manner. These results suggest that CBs role in receptor clustering is solely determined by competing binding events of its constituting domains. Namely, the intra-molecular association between the PH/DH domain and the SH3 domain within CB competes with different inter-molecular interactions of CB: GABAAR α2 binding to the SH3 domain, PIP2 binding to the PH domain and gephyrin presumably binding to the PH and DH domain of CB. (iii) Interestingly, the receptor motifs, which have been mapped in my thesis to directly interact with the scaffold proteins, were shown in earlier studies to be posttranslationally modified in vivo. In particular, the GABAAR α1 and GlyR β subunits have been implicated as targets of the ERK/MAPK and PKC phosphorylation-pathways, respectively, while the GABAAR α5 subunit motif was shown to be ubiquitinated. In this dissertation, I analyzed Thr348, a possible ERK phosphorylation site within GABAAR α1. My binding assays verified a severe reduction of the direct gephyrin binding strength upon introduction of the respective phosphomimetic residue. The relevance of this in vitro result was highlighted by J. Mukherjee who confirmed a significant reduction in GABAAR cluster number and size upon introduction of the same mutation. The ERK/MAPK pathway is therefore a promising candidate for regulation of GABAergic transmission. (iv) In vivo, gephyrin presumably forms a multivalent scaffold, which is based on the self-association of its G (GephG) and E domains (GephE). Given the multimeric nature of gephyrin and the pentameric receptor architecture, I tested the possibility of avidity in the clustering of inhibitory neurotransmitter receptors. Cocrystallization of selected minimum peptides with GephE and their crystal structure analyses enabled me to define a receptor-derived peptide that offers a maximized gephyrin affinity. The structure of the GephE-GlyR receptor complex reveals two receptor-binding sites in close spatial vicinity (15 Å). I therefore designed bivalent peptides that enable to target both GephE sites at the same time and, as expected, a variety of biophysical methods verified an avidity-potentiated and unmatched high gephyrin affinity for these bidentate compounds. Notably, I could extend the dimerization approach to low affinity gephyrin ligands, namely short GABAAR-derived peptides that could not be studied using conventional monomeric ligands. Additionally, I verified that this compound specifically targets GephEs receptor binding site, and that it thereby inhibits its receptor binding activity. Further development of this molecule may offer the possibility to specifically analyze the effect of uncoupling the gephyrin-receptor interaction in cell culture-based assays, without altering protein function or expression level that accompanies conventional methods such as protein knock-out, RNA interference or the usage of antibodies.
In this study we have investigated the possible role of c-Jun and it’s activation by the JNK pathway in neuronal cell death and in the inflammatory response of activated astrocytes. The first part of this thesis focuses on the role of site specific phosphorylation of c-Jun in neuronal cell death. The second part focuses on the function of c-Jun in LPS-mediated activation of Bergmann glia cells.
In the nervous system, activation of c-Jun transcription factor by different isoforms of c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) functions in various cellular programs, including neurite outgrowth, repair and apoptosis. Yet, the regulatory mechanism underlying the functional dichotomy of c-Jun remains to be elucidated. Serine (S) 63/73 and threonine (T) 91/93 of c-Jun are the target phosphorylation sites for JNKs in response to various stimuli. Yet, these two groups of phosphorylation sites are differentially regulated in vivo, as the S63/73 sites are promptly phosphorylated upon JNK activation, whereas T91/93 phosphorylation requires a priming event at the adjacent T95 site. In our study, we used cerebellar granule cell (CGC) apoptosis by trophic/potassium (TK) deprivation as a model system to investigate the regulation and function of site-specific c-Jun phosphorylation at the S63 and T91/T93 JNK-sites in neuronal cell death. In this model system, JNK induces pro-apoptotic genes through the c-Jun/Ap-1 transcription factor. On the other side, a survival pathway initiated by lithium leads to repression of pro-apoptotic c-Jun/Ap-1 target genes without interfering with JNK activity. Yet, the mechanism by which lithium inhibits c-Jun activity remains to be elucidated. We found that TK-deprivation led to c-Jun phosphorylation at all three JNK sites. However, immunofluorescence analysis of c-Jun phosphorylation at single cell level revealed that the S63 site was phosphorylated in all c-Jun-expressing cells, whereas the response of T91/T93 phosphorylation was more sensitive, mirroring the switch-like apoptotic response of cerebellar granular cells (CGCs). Furthermore, we observed that lithium impaired c-Jun phosphorylation at T91/93, without interfering with S63/73 phosphorylation or JNK activation, suggesting that T91/T93 phosphorylation triggers c-Jun pro-apoptotic activity. Notably, expression of a c-Jun mutant lacking the T95-priming site for T91/93 phosphorylation (c-Jun A95) mimicked the effect of lithium on both cell death and c-Jun site-specific phosphorylation, whereas it was fully able to induce neurite outgrowth in naïve PC12 cells. Vice-versa, a c-Jun mutant bearing aspartate-substitution of T95 overwhelmed lithium-mediate protection of CGCs from TK-deprivation, validating that inhibition of T91/T93/T95 phosphorylation underlies the effect of lithium on cell death. Mass-spectrometry analysis confirmed that c-Jun is phosphorylation at T91/T93/T95 in cells. Moreover, recombinant-JNK phosphorylated c-Jun at T91/T93 in a T95-dependent manner. Based on our results, we propose that T91/T93/T95 phosphorylation of c-Jun functions as a sensitivity amplifier of the JNK cascade, setting the threshold for c-Jun pro-apoptotic activity in neuronal cells.
In the central nervous system (CNS), the c-Jun transcription factor has been mainly studied in neuronal cells and coupled to apoptotic and regenerative pathways following brain injury. Besides, several studies have shown a transcriptional role of c-Jun in activated cortical and spinal astrocytes. In contrast, little is known about c-Jun expression and activation in Bergmann glial (BG) cells, the radial cerebellar astrocytes playing crucial roles in cerebellar development and physiology. In this study, we used neuronal/glial cerebellar cultures from neonatal mice to assess putative functions of c-Jun in BG cells. By performing double immunocytochemical staining of c-Jun and two BG specific markers, S100 and GLAST, we observed that c-Jun was highly expressed in radial glial cells derived from Bergmann glia. Bergmann glia-derived cells expressed toll-like receptor (TLR 4) and treatment with bacterial lipopolysaccharide (Le et al.) induced c-Jun phosphorylation at S63, exclusively in BG cells. Moreover, LPS induced IL-1β expression and inhibition of JNK activity abolished both c-Jun phosphorylation and the increase of IL-1β mRNA. Notably, we also observed that LPS failed to induce IL-1β mRNA in neuronal/glial cerebellar cultures generated from conditional knockout mice lacking c-Jun expression in the CNS. These results indicate that c-Jun plays a central role in c-Jun in astroglial-specific induction of IL-1β. Furthermore, we confirmed in vivo that c-Jun is expressed in BG cells, during the formation of the BG monolayer. Altogether, our finding underlines a putative role of c-Jun in astroglia-mediated neuroinflammatory dysfunctions of the cerebellum.
Thrombus formation at sites of vascular lesions is a dynamic process that requires a defined series of molecular events including the action of platelet adhesion/activation receptors, intracellular signal transduction, cytoskeletal rearrangements and activation of plasma coagulation factors. This process is essential to limit post-traumatic blood loss but may also contribute to acute thrombotic diseases such as myocardial infarction and stroke. With the help of genetically modified mice and the use of specific protein inhibitors and receptordepleting antibodies, the work presented in this thesis identified novel mechanisms underlying thrombus formation in hemostasis and thrombosis. In the first part of the study, it was shown that von Willebrand Factor (vWF) binding to glycoprotein (GP)Iba is critical for the formation of stable pathological thrombi at high shear rates, suggesting GPIba as an attractive pharmacological target for antithrombotic therapy. The subsequent analysis of recently generated phospholipase (PL)D1-deficient mice identified this enzyme, whose role in platelet function had been largely unknown, as a potential target protein downstream of GPIba. This was based on the finding that PLD1- deficient mice displayed severely defective GPIba-dependent thrombus stabilization under high shear conditions in vitro and in vivo without affecting normal hemostasis. The second part of the thesis characterizes the functional relevance of the immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activation motif (ITAM)-bearing collagen receptor GPVI and the recently identified hemITAM-coupled C-type lectin-like receptor 2 (CLEC-2) for in vivo thrombus formation. Genetic- and antibody-induced GPVI deficiency was found to similarly protect mice from arterial vessel occlusion in three different thrombosis models. These results confirmed GPVI as a promising antithrombotic target and revealed that antibody-treatment had no obvious off-target effects on platelet function. Similarly, immunodepletion of CLEC-2 by treating mice with the specific antibody INU1 resulted in markedly impaired thrombus growth and stabilization under flow in vitro and in vivo. Furthermore, it could be demonstrated that double-immunodepletion of GPVI and CLEC-2 resulted in severely decreased arterial thrombus formation accompanied by dramatically prolonged bleeding times. These data revealed an unexpected redundant function of the two receptors for in vivo thrombus formation and might have important implications for the potential development of anti-GPVI and anti-CLEC-2 antithrombotic agents. The third part of the thesis provides the first functional analysis of megakaryocyte- and platelet-specific RhoA knockout mice. RhoA-deficient mice displayed a defined signaling defect in platelet activation, leading to a profound protection from arterial thrombosis andand ischemic brain infarction, but at the same time also strongly increased bleeding times. These findings identified the GTPase as an important player for thrombus formation in hemostasis and thrombosis. Based on the previous proposal that the coagulation factor (F)XII might represent an ideal target for safe antithrombotic therapy without causing bleeding side effects, the last part of this thesis assesses the antithrombotic potential of the newly generated FXIIa inhibitor rHAInfestin- 4. It was found that rHA-Infestin-4 injection into mice resulted in virtually abolished arterial thrombus formation but no change in bleeding times. Moreover, rHA-Infestin-4 was similarly efficient in a murine model of ischemic stroke, suggesting that the inhibitor might be a promising agent for effective and safe therapy of cardio- and cerebrovascular diseases.
In their natural environment animals face complex and highly dynamic olfactory input. This requires fast and reliable processing of olfactory information, in vertebrates as well as invertebrates. Parallel processing has been shown to improve processing speed and power in other sensory systems like auditory or visual. In the olfactory system less is known about olfactory coding in general and parallel processing in particular. With its elaborated olfactory system and due to their specialized neuroanatomy, honeybees are well-suited model organism to study parallel olfactory processing. The honeybee possesses a unique neuronal architecture - a dual olfactory pathway. Two mirror-imaged output projection neuron (PN) pathways connect the first olfactory processing stage, the antennal lobe (analog to the vertebrates olfactory bulb, OB), with the second, the mushroom body (MB) known to be involved in orientation and learning and memory, and the lateral horn (LH). The medial antennal lobe-protocerebral tract (m-APT) first innervates the MB and thereafter the LH, while the other, the lateral-APT (l-APT) projects in opposite direction. The neuroanatomy and evolution of these pathways has been analyzed, yet little is known about its physiology. To analyze the function of the dual olfactory pathway a new established recording method was designed and is described in the first chapter of this thesis (multi-unit-recordings). This is now the first time where odor response from several PNs of both tracts is recorded simultaneously and with high temporal precision. In the second chapter the PN odor responses are analyzed. The major findings are: both tracts responded to all tested odors but with differing characteristics. Since recent studies describe the input to the two tracts being rather similar, the results now indicate differential odor processing along the tracts, therefore this is a good indicator for parallel processing. PNs of the m-APT process odors in a sparse manner with delayed response latencies, but with high odor-specificity. PNs of the l-APT in contrast respond to several odor stimuli and respond in general faster. In some PN originating from both tracts, characteristics of odor-identity coding via response latencies were found. Analyzing the over-all dynamic range of the PNs both l- and m-APT PNs were tested over a large odor concentration range (10-6 to 10-2) (3. chapter). The PNs responded with linear and non-linear correlation of the response strength to the odor concentration. In most cases the l-APT is comparatively more sensitive to low odor concentrations. Response latency decreases with increasing odor concentration in both tracts. Alternative coding principles and elaboration on the hypothesis whether the dual olfactory pathway may contribute coincidental innervation to the next higher-order neurons, the Kenyon cells (KC), is subject of the 4. chapter. Cross-correlations and synchronous responses of both tracts show that in principle odors may be coded via temporal coding. Results suggest that odor processing is enhanced if both tracts contribute to olfactory coding together. In another project the distribution of the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) was measured in the bee’s MB during adult maturation (5. chapter). GABAergic inhibition is of high importance in odor coding. An almost threefold decrease in the total amount of GABAergic innervation was found during adult maturation in the l- and m-APT target region, in particular at the change in division of labor during the transition from a young nurse bee to an older forager bee. The results fit well into the current understanding of brain development in the honeybee and other social insects during adult maturation, which was described as presynaptic pruning and KC dendritic outgrowth. Combining anatomical and functional properties of the bee’s dual olfactory pathway suggests that both rate and temporal coding are implemented along two parallel streams. Comparison with recent work on analog output pathways of the vertebrate’s OB indicates that parallel processing of olfactory information may be a common principle across distant taxa.
Scientific surveys provide sufficient evidence that anxiety disorders are one of the most common psy-chiatric disorders in the world. The lifetime prevalence rate of anxiety disorder is 28.8% (Kessler, et al., 2005). The most widely studied anxiety disorders are as follows panic disorder (PD), post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), social phobia (or social anxiety disorder), specific phobias, and generalized anxiety disorder (GAD). (NIMH Article, 2009). Classical conditioning is the stable paradigm used from the last one century to understand the neurobi-ology of fear learning. Neurobiological mechanism of fear learning is well documented with the condi-tioning studies. In the therapy of anxiety disorders, exposure based therapies are known to be the most effective approaches. Flooding is a form of exposure therapy in which a participant is exposed to the fear situation and kept in that situation until their fear dissipates. The exposure therapy is based on the phenomena of extinction; this means that a conditioned response diminishes if the conditioned stimulus (CS) is repeatedly presented without an unconditioned stimulus (UCS). One problem with extinction as well as with exposure-based therapy is the problem of fear return (for e.g. renewal, spontaneous recov-ery and reinstatement) after successful extinction. Therefore, extinction does not delete the fear memory trace. It has been well documented that memory processes can be modulated or disrupted using several sci-entific paradigms such as behavioral (for e.g. exposure therapy), pharmacological (for e.g. drug manipu-lation), non-invasive stimulation (for e.g. non-invasive stimulation such as electroconvulsive shock (ECS), transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), etc. However, modulation of memory processes after reactivation or via non-invasive stimulation is still not clear, which is the focus of the current study. In addition, study of genetic variant suggests that genetic differences play a vital role in the psychiatric disorder especially in fear learning. Hence, it is also one of the concerns of the current dissertation to investigate the interaction between gene and reconsolidation of memory. With respect to fear-conditioning, there are three findings in the current dissertation, which are as fol-lows: (i) In the first study we investigated that non-invasive weak electrical stimulation interferes with the consolidation process and disrupts the fear consolidation to attain stable form. This might offer an effective treatment in the pathological memories, for e.g. PTSD, PD, etc. (ii) In the second study we demonstrated whether a brief single presentation of the CS will inhibit the fear recovery. Like earlier studies we also found that reactivation followed by reconsolidation douses fear return. Attenuation of fear recovery was observed in the reminder group compared to the no-reminder group. (iii) Finally, in our third study we found a statistically significant role of brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) polymorphism in reconsolidation. Results of the third study affirm the involvement of BDNF variants (Met vs. Val) in the modulation of conditioned fear memory after its reactivation. In summary, we were able to show in the current thesis modulation of associative learning and recon-solidation via transcranial direct current stimulation and genetic polymorphism.
Bone Morphogenetic Proteins (BMPs) are key regulators for a lot of diverse cellular processes. During embryonic development these proteins act as morphogens and play a crucial role particularly in organogenesis. BMPs have a direct impact on distinct cellular fates by means of concentration-gradients in the developing embryos. Using the diverse signaling input information within the embryo due to the gradient, the cells transduce the varying extracellular information into distinct gene expression profiles and cell fate decisions. Furthermore, BMP proteins bear important functions in adult organisms like tissue homeostasis or regeneration. In contrast to TGF-ß signaling, currently only little is known about how cells decode and quantify incoming BMP signals. There is poor knowledge about the quantitative relationships between signal input, transducing molecules, their states and location, and finally their ability to incorporate graded systemic inputs and produce qualitative responses. A key requirement for efficient pathway modulation is the complete comprehension of this signaling network on a quantitative level as the BMP signaling pathway, just like many other signaling pathways, is a major target for medicative interference. I therefore at first studied the subcellular distribution of Smad1, which is the main signal transducing protein of the BMP signaling pathway, in a quantitative manner and in response to various types and levels of stimuli in murine c2c12 cells. Results indicate that the subcellular localization of Smad1 is not dependent on the initial BMP input. Surprisingly, only the phospho-Smad1 level is proportionally associated to ligand concentration. Furthermore, the activated transducer proteins were entirely located in the nucleus. Besides the subcellular localization of Smad1, I have analyzed the gene expression profile induced by BMP signaling. Therefore, I examined two endogenous immediate early BMP targets as well as the expression of the stably transgenic Gaussia Luciferase. Interestingly, the results of these independent experimental setups and read-outs suggest oscillating target gene expression. The amplitudes of the oscillations showed a precise concentration-dependence for continuous and transient stimulation. Additionally, even short-time stimulation of 15’ activates oscillating gene-expression pulses that are detectable for at least 30h post-stimulation. Only treatment with a BMP type I receptor kinase inhibitor leads to the complete abolishment of the target gene expression. This indicated that target gene expression oscillations depend directly on BMP type I receptor kinase activity.
Dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) represents an important subgroup of patients suffering from heart failure. The disease is supposed to be associated with autoimmune mechanisms in about one third of the cases. In the latter patients functionally active conformational autoantibodies directed against the second extracellular loop of the β1-adrenergic receptor (AR, β1ECII-aabs) have been detected. Such antibodies chronically stimulate the β1-AR thereby inducing the adrenergic signaling cascade in cardiomyocytes, which, in the long run, contributes to heart failure progression. We analyzed the production of cAMP after aab-mediated β1-AR activation in vitro using a fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) assay. This assay is based on HEK293 cells stably expressing human β1-AR as well as the cAMP-sensor Epac1-camps. The assay showed a concentration-dependent increase in intracellular cAMP upon stimulation with the full agonist (-) isoproterenol. This response was comparable to results obtained in isolated adult murine cardiomyocytes and was partially blockable by a selective β1-AR antagonist. In the same assay poly- and monoclonal anti-β1ECII-abs (induced in different animals) could activate the adrenergic signaling cascade, whereas isotypic control abs had no effect on intracellular cAMP levels. Using the same method, we were able to detect functionally activating aabs in the serum of heart failure patients with ischemic and hypertensive heart disease as well as patients with DCM, but not in sera of healthy control subjects. In patients with DCM we observed an inverse correlation between the stimulatory potential of anti-β1-aabs and left ventricular pump function. To adopt this assay for the detection of functionally activating anti-β1ECII-aabs in clinical routine we attempted to establish an automated large-scale approach. Neither flow cytometry nor FRET detection with a fluorescence plate reader provided an acceptable signal-to-noise ratio. It was possible to detect (-) isoproterenol in a concentration-dependent manner using two different FRET multiwell microscopes. However, due to focus problems large-scale detection of activating anti-β1ECII-abs could not be implemented. Neutralization of anti-β1-aabs with the corresponding epitope-mimicking peptides is a possible therapeutic approach to treat aab-associated autoimmune DCM. Using our FRET assay we could demonstrate a reduction in the stimulatory potential of anti-β1ECII-abs after in vitro incubation with β1ECII-mimicking peptides. Cyclic (and to a lesser extent linear) peptides in 40-fold molar excess acted as efficient ab-scavengers in vitro. Intravenously injected cyclic peptides in a rat model of DCM also neutralized functionally active anti-β1ECII-abs efficiently in vivo. For a detailed analysis of the receptor-epitope targeted by anti-β1ECII-abs we used sequentially alanine-mutated β1ECII-mimicking cyclic peptides. Our data revealed that the disulfide bridge between the cysteine residues C209 and C215 of the human β1-AR appears essential for the formation of the ab-epitope. Substitution of further amino acids relevant for ab-binding in the cyclic scavenger peptide by alanine reduced its affinity to the ab and the receptor-activating potential was blocked less efficiently. In contrast, the non-mutant cyclic peptide almost completely blocked ab-induced receptor activation. Using this ala-scan approach we were able to identify a “NDPK”-epitope as essential for ab binding to the β1ECII. In summary, neutralization of conformational activating anti-β1ECII-(a)abs by cyclic peptides is a plausible therapeutic concept in heart failure that should be further exploited based on the here presented data.
Das Signal-zu-Rausch-Verhältnis (SNR) stellt bei modernen Bildgebungstechniken in der Magnetresonanz-Tomographie heutzutage oftmals die entscheidende Limitation dar. Eine Verbesserung durch Modifikation der Hardware ist kostspielig und führt meistens zu einer Verstärkung anderer Probleme, wie zum Beispiel erhöhte Energiedeposition ins Gewebe. Im Gegensatz dazu ist Dichtegewichtung eine Methode, die eine SNR-Erhöhung durch Modifikation der Aufnahmetechnik ermöglicht. In der MR-Bildgebung erfolgt oftmals eine retrospektive Filterung des aufgenommenen Signalverlaufs, beispielsweise zur Artefaktreduktion. Damit einhergehend findet eine Veränderung der Modulationstransferfunktion (MTF) bzw. ihrer Fouriertransformierten, der räumlichen Antwortfunktion (SRF), statt. Optimales SNR wird nach dem Matched Filter-Theorem erzielt, wenn die nachträgliche Filterung dem aufgenommenen Signalverlauf proportional ist. Dies steht dem Ziel der Artefaktreduktion entgegen. Bei Dichtegewichtung steht durch nicht-kartesische Abtastung des k-Raums mit der k-Raum-Dichte ein zusätzlicher Freiheitsgrad zur Verfügung. Dieser ermöglicht es, im Falle eines konstanten Signalverlaufs eine gewünschte MTF ohne Filterung zu erreichen. Bei veränderlichem Signalverlauf kann ein SNR Matched Filter angewendet werden, dessen negative Einflüsse auf die MTF durch Dichtegewichtung kompensiert werden. Somit ermöglicht Dichtegewichtung eine vorgegebene MTF und gleichzeitig ein optimales SNR. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde Dichtegewichtung erstmals bei den schnellen Multi-Echo-Sequenzen Turbo-Spin-Echo und Echoplanar-Bildgebung (EPI) angewendet. Im Gegensatz zu bisherigen Implementierungen muss hier der Signalabfall durch T2- bzw. T2*-Relaxation berücksichtigt werden. Dies führt dazu, dass eine prospektiv berechnete dichtegewichtete Verteilung nur bei einer Relaxationszeit optimal ist. Bei Geweben mit abweichenden Relaxationszeiten können sich wie auch bei den kartesischen Varianten dieser Sequenzen Änderungen an SRF und SNR ergeben. Bei dichtegewichteter Turbo-Spin-Echo-Bildgebung des Gehirns konnte mit den gewählten Sequenzparametern ein SNR-Vorteil von 43 % gegenüber der kartesischen Variante erzielt werden. Die Akquisition wurde dabei auf die T2-Relaxationszeit von weißer Substanz optimiert. Da die meisten Gewebe im Gehirn eine ähnliche Relaxationszeit aufweisen, blieb der visuelle Gesamteindruck identisch zur kartesischen Bildgebung. Der SNR-Gewinn konnte in der dichtegewichteten Implementierung zur Messzeithalbierung genutzt werden. Dichtegewichtete EPI weist eine hohe Anfälligkeit für geometrische Verzerrungen, welche durch Inhomogenitäten des Hauptmagnetfeldes verursacht werden, auf. Die Verzerrungen konnten erfolgreich mit einer Conjugate Phase-Methode korrigiert werden. Dazu muss die räumliche Verteilung der Feldinhomogenitäten bekannt sein. Dazu ist zusätzlich zur eigentlichen EPI-Aufnahme die zeitaufwendige Aufnahme einer sogenannten Fieldmap erforderlich. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit konnte eine Methode entwickelt werden, welche die zur Erlangung einer Fieldmap notwendige Aufnahmedauer auf wenige Sekunden reduziert. Bei dieser Art der Fieldmap-Aufnahme müssen jedoch durch Atmung hervorgerufene Effekte auf die Bildphase berücksichtigt werden. Die Fieldmap-Genauigkeit kann durch Aufnahme unter Atempause, Mittelung oder retrospektiver Phasenkorrektur erhöht werden. Für die gewählten EPI-Sequenzparameter wurde mit Dichtegewichtung gegenüber der kartesischen Variante ein SNR-Gewinn von 14 % erzielt. Anhand einer funktionellen MRT (fMRI)-Fingertapping-Studie konnte demonstriert werden, dass die SNR-Steigerung auch zu einer signifikant erhöhten Aktivierungsdetektion in Teilen der Hirnareale führt, die bei der Fingerbewegung involviert sind. Die Verwendung von zusätzlicher EPI-Phasenkorrektur und iterativer Optimierung der dichtegewichteten k-Raum-Abtastung führt zu weiteren Verbesserungen der dichtegewichteten Bildgebung mit Multi-Echo-Sequenzen.
Stimulatory or superagonistic (SA) CD28-specific monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) are potent polyclonal activators of regulatory T cells and have proven highly effective as treatment in a wide range of rodent models for autoimmune and inflammatory diseases. In these models, a preferential activation of regulatory T cells was observed by in vivo administration of CD28SA. In stark contrast, human volunteers receiving TGN1412, a humanized CD28-specific mAb, experienced a life-threatening cytokine release syndrome during the first-in-man trial. Preclinical tests employing human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) failed to announce the rapid cytokine release measured in the human volunteers in response to TGN1412. The aim of this thesis project was to find an explanation of why standard PBMC assays failed to predict the unexpected TGN1412-induced "cytokine storm" observed in human volunteers. CD28 superagonists can activate T cells without T cell receptor (TCR) ligation. They do depend, however, on “tonic” TCR signals received by MHC scanning, signals that they amplify. PBMC do not receive these signals in the circulation. Short-term in vitro preculture of human PBMC at a high cell density (HDC) resulted in massive cytokine release during subsequent TGN1412 stimulation. Restoration of reactivity was cell-contact dependent, associated with TCR polarization and tyrosine-phosphorylation, and blocked by HLA-specific mAb. In HDC, both CD4 T cells and monocytes functionally mature in a mutually dependent fashion. However, only CD4 memory T-cells proliferate upon TGN1412 stimulation, and were identified as the main source of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Importantly, responses to other T-cell activating agents were also enhanced if PBMC were first allowed to interact under tissue-like conditions. A new in vitro protocol is provided that returns circulating T-cells to a tissue-like status where they respond to TGN1412 stimulation, and it might represent a more reliable preclinical in vitro test for both activating and inhibitory immunomodulatory drugs. Finally, the surprising observation was made that the IgG1 “sibling” of TGN1412, which is of the poorly Fc receptor-binding IgG4 isotype, has a much lower stimulatory activity. We could exclude steric hindrance as an explanation and provide evidence for removal of TGN1112 from the T-cell surface by trans-endocytosis.
b-adrenergic receptors (b-ARs) participate strongly in the development of cardiac hypertrophy and human heart failure. Stimulation of b-adrenergic receptors with catecholamines as well as cardiac overexpression of b1-ARs or of Gas-proteins in transgenic mice induces cardiac hypertrophy. However, direct activation of their downstream targets, such as adenylyl cyclase (AC) or protein kinase A do not promote a significant degree of cardiac hypertrophy. These findings suggest that additional events may occur and that these events require Gas-protein activation. A hypertrophic pathway involving Gaq-protein coupled receptors has recently been described. Upon activation of Gaq-coupled receptors Gbg-subunits are released from Gaq and bind directly to the activated Raf/Mek/Erk cascade. Direct interaction between bg-subunits and activated Erk1/2 leads to an additional autophosphorylation of Erk2 at threonine 188, which mediates cardiac hypertrophy. Murine hearts, as well as isolated cardiomyocytes present an increase in Erk2Thr188-phosphorylation upon b-AR activation. Similarly overexpression of phosphorylation deficient Erk2 mutants (Erk2T188S and Erk2T188A) reduces b-AR mediated cardiomyocyte hypertrophy. Increase in left ventricular wall thickness, fibrosis and up-regulation of natriuretic peptide synthesis, which are physiological features for cardiac hypertrophy, are strongly inhibited in transgenic mice with a cardiac expression of Erk2T188S after two weeks of sustained isoproterenol treatment. It could further be shown in this work that b-AR mediated cardiac hypertrophy requires two distinct pathways initiated by Gs-protein activation: the canonical phosphorylation of Erk1/2 via adenylyl cyclase and the direct interaction of released bg-subunits with activated Erk1/2. Coincidence of both events leads to Erk2Thr188-phosphorylation, which activates then different transcription factors responsible for cardiac hypertrophy. Sequestration of bg-subunits by overexpression of the C-terminus of GRK2 bark-ct and inhibition of adenylyl cyclase efficiently reduced the hypertrophic response to isoproterenol, whereas direct activation of AC by forskolin failed to induce Erk2Thr188-phosphorylation and cardiomyocyte hypertrophy. These findings may help to develop new therapeutic strategies for the prevention of cardiac hypertrophy and maladaptive remodeling of the heart.
Platelet activation and aggregation are essential to limit posttraumatic blood loss at sites of vascular injury, but also contribute to arterial thrombosis, leading to myocardial infarction and stroke. Thrombus formation is the result of well-defined molecular events, including agonist-induced elevation of intracellular calcium ([Ca2+]i) and series of cytoskeletal rearrangements. With the help of genetically modified mice, the work presented in this thesis identified novel mechanisms underlying the process of platelet activation in hemostasis and thrombosis. Store-operated calcium entry (SOCE) through Orai1 was previously shown to be the main Ca2+ influx pathway in murine platelets. The residual Ca2+ entry in the Orai1 deficient platelets suggested a role for additional non-store-operated Ca2+ (non-SOC) and receptor operated Ca2+ entry (ROCE) in maintaining platelet calcium homeostasis. Canonical transient receptor potential channel 6 (TRPC6), which is expressed in both human and murine platelets, has been attributed to be involved in SOCE as well as in diacylglycerol (DAG)-triggered ROCE. In the first part of the study, the function of TRPC6 in platelet Ca2+ signaling and activation was analyzed by using the TRPC6 knockout mice. In vitro agonist induced Ca2+ responses and in vivo platelet function were unaltered in Trpc6-/- mice. However, Trpc6-/- mice displayed a completely abolished DAG mediated Ca2+-influx but a normal SOCE. These findings identified TRPC6 as the major DAG operated ROC channel in murine platelets, but DAG mediated ROCE has no major functional relevance for hemostasis and thrombosis. In the second part of the thesis, the involvement of the PDLIM family member CLP36 in the signaling pathway of the major platelet collagen receptor glycoprotein (GP) VI was investigated. The GPVI/FcR-chain complex initiates platelet activation through a series of tyrosine phosphorylation events downstream of the FcR-chain-associated immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activation motif (ITAM). GPVI signaling has to be tightly regulated to prevent uncontrolled intravascular platelet activation, but the underlying mechanisms are not fully understood. The present study reports the adaptor protein CLP36 as a major inhibitor of GPVI-ITAM signaling in platelets. Platelets from mice expressing a truncated form of CLP36, (Clp36ΔLIM) and platelets from mice lacking the entire protein (Clp36-/-) displayed profound hyper-activation in response to GPVI-specific agonists, whereas GPCR signaling pathways remained unaffected. These alterations translated into accelerated thrombus formation and enhanced pro-coagulant activity of Clp36ΔLIM platelets and a pro-thrombotic phenotype in vivo. These studies revealed an unexpected inhibitory function of CLP36 in GPVI-ITAM signaling and established it as a key regulator of arterial thrombosis.
Objective: Brain Computer Interfaces (BCI) provide a muscle independent interaction channel making them particularly valuable for individuals with severe motor impairment. Thus, different BCI systems and applications have been proposed as assistive technology (AT) solutions for such patients. The most prominent system for communication utilizes event-related potentials (ERP) obtained from the electroencephalogram (EEG) to allow for communication on a character-by-character basis. Yet in their current state of technology, daily life use cases of such systems are rare. In addition to the high EEG preparation effort, one of the main reasons is the low information throughput compared to other existing AT solutions. Furthermore, when testing BCI systems in patients, a performance drop is usually observed compared to healthy users. Patients often display a low signal-to-noise ratio of the recorded EEG and detection of brain responses may be aggravated due to internally (e.g. spasm) or externally induced artifacts (e.g. from ventilation devices). Consequently, practical BCI systems need to cope with mani-fold inter-individual differences. Whilst these high demands lead to increasing complexity of the technology, daily life use of BCI systems requires straightforward setup including an easy-to-use graphical user interface that nonprofessionals can handle without expert support. Research questions of this thesis: This dissertation project aimed at bringing forward BCI technology toward a possible integration into end-users' daily life. Four basic research questions were addressed: (1) Can we identify performance predictors so that we can provide users with individual BCI solutions without the need of multiple, demanding testing sessions? (2) Can we provide complex BCI technology in an automated, user-friendly and easy-to-use manner, so that BCIs can be used without expert support at end-users' homes? (3) How can we account for and improve the low information transfer rates as compared to other existing assistive technology solutions? (4) How can we prevent the performance drop often seen when bringing BCI technology that was tested in healthy users to those with severe motor impairment? Results and discussion: (1) Heart rate variability (HRV) as an index of inhibitory control (i.e. the ability to allocate attention resources and inhibit distracting stimuli) was significantly related to ERP-BCI performance and accounted for almost 26% of variance. HRV is easy to assess from short heartbeat recordings and may thus serve as a performance predictor for ERP-BCIs. Due to missing software solutions for appropriate processing of artifacts in heartbeat data (electrocardiogram and inter-beat interval data), our own tool was developed that is available free of charge. To date, more than 100 researchers worldwide have requested the tool. Recently, a new version was developed and released together with a website (www.artiifact.de). (2) Furthermore, a study of this thesis demonstrated that BCI technology can be incorporated into easy-to-use software, including auto-calibration and predictive text entry. Naïve, healthy nonprofessionals were able to control the software without expert support and successfully spelled words using the auto-calibrated BCI. They reported that software handling was straightforward and that they would be able to explain the system to others. However, future research is required to study transfer of the results to patient samples. (3) The commonly used ERP-BCI paradigm was significantly improved. Instead of simply highlighting visually displayed characters as is usually done, pictures of famous faces were used as stimulus material. As a result, specific brain potentials involved in face recognition and face processing were elicited. The event-related EEG thus displayed an increased signal-to-noise ratio, which facilitated the detection of ERPs extremely well. Consequently, BCI performance was significantly increased. (4) The good results of this new face-flashing paradigm achieved with healthy participants transferred well to users with neurodegenerative disease. Using a face paradigm boosted information throughput. Importantly, two users who were highly inefficient with the commonly used paradigm displayed high accuracy when exposed to the face paradigm. The increased signal-to-noise ratio of the recorded EEG thus helped them to overcome their BCI inefficiency. Significance: The presented work at hand (1) successfully identified a physiological predictor of ERP-BCI performance, (2) proved the technology ready to be operated by naïve nonprofessionals without expert support, (3) significantly improved the commonly used spelling paradigm and (4) thereby displayed a way to effectively prevent BCI inefficiency in patients with neurodegenerative disease. Additionally, missing software solutions for appropriate handling of artifacts in heartbeat data encouraged development of our own software tool that is available to the research community free of charge. In sum, this thesis significantly improved current BCI technology and enhanced our understanding of physiological correlates of BCI performance.
Der Hitzeschock-Transkriptionsfaktor 1 (HSF1) als neues potenzielles Ziel im Multiplen Myelom
(2013)
Die evolutionär hoch konservierte Hitzeschock-Antwort (heat shock stress response, HSR) ermöglicht Zellen sich an Stresssituationen anzupassen und so dem programmierten Zelltod zu entgehen. Die Regulation der HSR unterliegt dem Hitzeschock-Transkriptionsfaktor 1 (HSF1), der nach einem Stress-Impuls umgehend die Synthese der Hitzeschock-Proteine (HSP) initiiert. Als molekulare Chaperone assistieren die HSP bei der Faltung und den intrazellulären Transport ihrer Klientenproteine und erhalten so die lebensnotwendigen zellulären Funktionen aufrecht. Während das HSF1/HSP-System vorteilhaft für normale Zellen ist, kann es aber auch den Prozess der malignen Transformation unterstützen. In verschiedenen Tumorentitäten wurde eine Abhängigkeit der malignen Zellen von HSP, vereinzelt auch von HSF1, beschrieben. Im multiplen Myelom (MM) stabilisieren HSP u.a. Klientenproteine in einem komplexen onkogenen Signalnetzwerk und erhalten so eine aberrante Signalweiterleitung aufrecht. Wegen dieser wichtigen Funktion ist die Inhibition der HSP (insbesondere HSP90) bereits ein therapeutischer Ansatzpunkt, der jedoch im MM noch nicht zu dem erhofften Erfolg führte. Darüber hinaus wurde beobachtet, dass es zu einer Induktion der HSP nach einer Behandlung mit neuen, antitumoralen Medikamenten (Proteasom-, HDAC- und HSP90-Inhibitoren) kommt. Diese kompensatorische Hochregulation der HSP ist assoziiert mit einem Resistenzverhalten gegenüber der Therapie und ist somit unerwünscht. Die bisherigen Untersuchungen legen aber auch nahe, dass HSF1 selbst eine wichtige Funktion bei der malignen Transformation einnimmt. So wurde gezeigt, dass der funktionelle Verlust von HSF1 vor der onkogenen Ras oder mutierten Trp53 getriebenen Tumorigenese schützt. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurden daher die Expression von HSF1, seine Rolle in der HSP-Regulierung und den Beitrag zum Überleben und Resistenzen in MM-Zellen analysiert. Untersuchungen der HSF1-Expression in Knochenmarkbiopsien von Myelompatienten und in Myelomzelllinien zeigten, dass in ca. 50 % der untersuchten Biopsien und Zelllinien eine hohe HSF1-Expression vorhanden ist. Sowohl der shRNA-vermitteltem Knockdown von HSF1 als auch die pharmakologische Inhibition mit Triptolid induzierten Apoptose in MM-Zellen. Durch Microarrayanalysen nach shRNA-vermitteltem Knockdown und der anschließenden Verifikation über Western Blot konnte gezeigt werden, dass nach der HSF1-Depletion zahlreiche HSP (HSP90, HSP70, HSP40 and HSP27) vermindert exprimiert wurden. Einzelne Knockdown Experimente der HSP40 und HSP27 führten zu moderaten Zellsterben, so dass geschlussfolgert werden kann, dass die gleichzeitige Minderung multipler HSP, durch die Depletion von HSF1, zu einem summierten starken apoptotischen Effekt führt. In weiteren Studien stellte sich heraus, dass in MM-Zellen, trotz des deregulierten Systems und der aberrant hohen Expression der HSP, eine Stressantwort ausgelöst werden kann. Dies konnte durch den „klassischen“ Hitzschock und durch die Behandlung mit pharmakologischen Inhibitoren von HSP90 und des Proteasoms erreicht werden. Diese unerwünschte Reaktion auf Therapeutika wird vermutlich durch einen kompensatorischen Zellrettungsmechanismus ausgelöst, der zu Resistenzen gegenüber der Behandlung führen kann. Durch die Inhibition von HSF1 mit Triptolid und durch shRNA-vermitteltem Knockdown, konnte diese zelluläre Antwort unterbunden werden. Darüber hinaus führte die pharmakologische Inhibition von HSF1 in Kombination mit HSP90 (mit NVP-AUY922) oder Proteasom-Inhibition (mit Bortezomib) zu einem verstärkten apoptotischen Effekt in MM-Zellen. Zusammenfassend deuten diese Ergebnisse darauf hin, dass HSF1 essenziell für die Regulation der HSP im MM ist. Darüber hinaus kann die Inhibition von HSF1, besonders in Kombination mit HSP90- oder Proteasom-Inhibition, eine neue hoffnungsvolle Therapieoption für Myelompatienten darstellen.
The superfamily of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCR) regulates numerous physiological and pathophysiological processes. Hence GPCRs are of significant interest for pharmacological therapy. Embedded into cytoplasmic membranes, GPCRs represent the core of large signaling complexes, which are critical for transduction of exogenous stimuli towards activation of downstream signaling pathways. As a member of the GPCR family B, the parathyroid hormone receptor (PTHR) activates adenylyl cyclases, phospholipases C β as well as mitogen-activated protein kinase-dependent signaling pathways, thereby mediating endocrine and paracrine effects of parathyroid hormone (PTH) and parathyroid hormone-related peptide (PTHrP), respectively. This regulates, calcium homeostasis, bone metabolism and bone development. Paradoxically, PTH is able to induce both catabolic and anabolic bone metabolism. The anabolic effect of PTH is successfully applied in the therapy of severe osteoporosis. Domination of anabolic or catabolic bone-metabolism is entailed by temporal and cell-type specific determinants. The molecular bases are presumably differential arrangements of adaptor proteins within large signaling complexes that may lead to differential activation of signaling pathways, thereby regulating physiological effects. The molecular mechanisms are largely unclear; thus, there is significant interest in revealing a better understanding of PTHR-related adaptor proteins. To identify novel adaptor proteins which direct PTHR signaling pathways, a proteomic screening approach was developed. In this screening, vav2, a guanine-nucleotide exchange factor (GEF) for small GTPases which regulates cytoskeleton reorganization, was found to interact with intracellular domains of PTHR. Evidence is provided that vav2 impairs PTH-mediated phospholipase C β (PLCβ) signaling pathways by competitive interactions with G protein αq subunits. Vice versa, PTH was shown to regulate phosphorylation and subsequent GEF activity of vav2. These findings may thus shed new light on the molecular mechanisms underlying the effects of PTH on bone metabolism by PLC-signaling, cell migration and cytoskeleton organization. In addition to the understanding of intracellular molecular signaling processes, screening for ligands is a fundamental and demanding prerequisite for modern drug development. To this end, ligand binding assays represent a fundamental technique. As a substitution for expensive and potentially harmful radioligand binding, fluorescence-based ligand-binding assays for PTHR were developed in this work. Based on time-resolved fluorescence, several assay variants were established to facilitate drug development for the PTHR.
Der Catechol-O-Methyltransferase (COMT) Val158Met Polymorphismus (rs4680) ist am Abbau von Dopamin und Noradrenalin im menschlichen Gehirn beteiligt. In bisherigen Studien konnte gezeigt werden, dass das Met-Allel mit einer erhöhten Reaktivität auf negative Stimuli assoziiert ist. Auf Basis der Tonischen/ Phasischen Dopaminhypothese wird postuliert, dass diese erhöhte Reaktivität auf negative Reize durch defizitäre Disengagementprozesse verursacht sein könnte. Das Ziel dieser Arbeit war es daher, diese theoretische Annahme mithilfe von Blickbewegungsmessungen zu überprüfen und zu untersuchen, ob die erhöhte Reaktivität sich auch in verlängerten Disengagementlatenzen von negativen Reizen widerspiegelt. Es wurden dafür drei Studien durchgeführt, in denen eine adaptierte Version der emotionalen Antisakkadenaufgabe in Verbindung mit einer Blickbewegungsmessung eingesetzt wurde. In der zweiten Studie wurde zusätzlich eine EEG-Messung durchgeführt. Außerdem wurde in der dritten Studie die Aufmerksamkeitslokation manipuliert. In der ersten und zweiten Studie zeigte sich nicht wie erwartet ein linearer Effekt in Relation zum COMT Val158Met Polymorphismus, sondern ein Heterosiseffekt. Dieser Effekt zeigte sich nur in der einfacheren Prosakkadenbedingung. In der ersten Studie wurde der Heterosiseffekt bei negativen Reizen gefunden, wohingegen in der zweiten Studie der Heterosiseffekt nur in einer EEG- Komponente, der Early Posterior Negativity (EPN), aber sowohl bei positiven als auch negativen Reizen gefunden wurde. In der dritten Studie zeigte sich kein Genotypeffekt. Es wird vermutet, dass der COMT Effekt in der emotionalen Verarbeitung aufgabenspezifisch sein könnte und daher, neben linearen Zusammenhängen, unter bestimmten Umständen auch ein Heterosiseffekt auftreten kann. Die Ergebnisse sollten nicht auf eine männliche Stichprobe generalisiert werden, da in allen Studien lediglich weibliche Versuchspersonen teilnahmen.
Serotonin (5-HT) has been implicated in the regulation of emotions as well as in its pathological states, such as anxiety disorders and depression. Mice with targeted deletion of genes encoding various mediators of central serotonergic neurotransmission therefore provides a powerful tool in understanding contributions of such mediators to homeostatic mechanisms as well as to the development of human emotional disorders. Within this thesis a battery of electrophysiological recordings were conducted in the dorsal raphe nucleus (DRN) and the hippocampus of two murine knockout lines with deficient serotonergic systems. Serotonin transporter knockout mice (5-Htt KO), which lack protein responsible for reuptake of 5-HT from the extracellular space and tryptophan hydroxylase 2 knockout (Tph2 KO) mice, which lack the gene encoding the neuronal 5-HT-synthesising enzyme. First, 5-HT1A receptor-mediated autoinhibition of serotonergic neuron firing in the DRN was assessed using the loose-seal cell-attached configuration. Stimulation of 5-HT1A receptors by a selective agonist, R-8-hydroxy-2-(di-n-propylamino)tetralin (R-8-OH-DPAT), showed a mild sensitisation and a marked desensitisation of these receptors in Tph2 KO and 5-Htt KO mice, respectively. While application of tryptophan, a precursor of 5-HT and a substrate of Tph2, did not cause autoinhibition in Tph2 KO mice due to the lack of endogenously produced 5-HT, data from 5-Htt KO mice as well as heterozygous mice of both KO mice lines demonstrated the presence of autoinhibitory mechanisms as normal as seen in wildtype (WT) controls. When the Tph2-dependent step in the 5-HT synthesis pathway was bypassed by application of 5-hydroxytryptophan (5-HTP), serotonergic neurons of both Tph2 KO and 5-Htt KO mice showed decrease in firing rates at lower concentrations of 5-HTP than in WT controls. Elevated responsiveness of serotonergic neurons from Tph2 KO mice correspond to mild sensitisation of 5-HT1A receptors, while responses from 5-Htt KO mice suggest that excess levels of extracellular 5-HT, created by the lack of 5-Htt, stimulates 5-HT1A receptors strong enough to overcome desensitisation of these receptors. Second, the whole-cell patch clamp recording data from serotonergic neurons in the DRN showed no differences in basic electrophysiological properties between Tph2 KO and WT mice, except lower membrane resistances of neurons from KO mice. Moreover, the whole-cell patch clamp recording from CA1 pyramidal neurons in the hippocampus of 5-Htt KO mice showed increased conductance both at a steady state and at action potential generation. Lastly, magnitude of long-term potentiation (LTP) induced by the Schaffer collateral/commissural pathway stimulation in the ventral hippocampus showed no differences among Tph2 KO, 5-Htt KO, and WT counterparts. Taken together, lack and excess of extracellular 5-HT caused sensitisation and desensitisation of autoinhibitory 5-HT1A receptors, respectively. However, this may not directly translate to the level of autoinhibitory regulation of serotonergic neuron firing when these receptors are stimulated by endogenously synthesised 5-HT. In general, KO mice studied here showed an astonishing level of resilience to genetic manipulations of the central serotonergic system, maintaining overall electrophysiological properties and normal LTP inducibility. This may further suggest existence of as-yet-unknown compensatory mechanisms buffering potential alterations induced by genetic manipulations.
Nitrogen-regulated pathogenesis describes the expression of virulence attributes as direct response to the quantity and quality of an available nitrogen source. As consequence of nitrogen availability, the opportunistic human fungal pathogen Candida albicans changes its morphology and secretes aspartic proteases [SAPs], both well characterized virulence attributes. C. albicans, contrarily to its normally non-pathogenic relative Saccharomyces cerevisiae, is able to utilize proteins, which are considered as abundant and important nitrogen source within the human host. To assimilate complex proteinaceous matter, extracellular proteolysis is followed by uptake of the degradation products through dedicated peptide transporters (di-/tripeptide transporters [PTRs] and oligopeptide transporters [OPTs]). The expression of both traits is transcriptionally controlled by Stp1 - the global regulator of protein utilization - in C. albicans. The aim of the present study was to elucidate the regulation of virulence attributes of the pathogenic fungus C. albicans by nitrogen availability in more detail. Within a genome wide binding profile of Stp1, during growth with proteins, more than 600 Stp1 target genes were identified, thereby confirming its role in the usage of proteins, but also other nitrogenous compounds as nitrogen source. Moreover, the revealed targets suggest an involvement of Stp1 in the general adaption to nutrient availability as well as in the environmental stress response. With the focus on protein utilization and nitrogen-regulated pathogenesis, the regulation of the major secreted aspartic protease Sap2 - additionally one of the prime examples of allelic heterogeneity in C. albicans - was investigated in detail. Thereby, the heterogezygous SAP2 promoter helped to identify an unintended genomic alteration as the true cause of a growth defect of a C. albicans mutant. Additionally, the promoter region, which was responsible for the differential activation of the SAP2 alleles, was delimited. Furthermore, general Sap2 induction was demonstrated to be mediated by distinct cis-acting elements that are required for a high or a low activity of SAP2 expression. For the utilization of proteins as nitrogen source it is also crucial to take up the peptides that are produced by extracellular proteolysis. Therefore, the function and importance of specific peptide transporters was investigated in C. albicans mutants, unable to use peptides as nitrogen source (opt1Δ/Δ opt2Δ/Δ opt3Δ/Δ opt4Δ/Δ opt5Δ/Δ ptr2Δ/Δ ptr22Δ/Δ septuple null mutants). The overexpression of individual transporters in these mutants revealed differential substrate specificities and expanded the specificity of the OPTs to dipeptides, a completely new facet of these transporters. The peptide-uptake deficient mutants were further used to elucidate, whether indeed proteins and peptides are an important in vivo nitrogen source for C. albicans. It was found that during competitive colonization of the mouse intestine these mutants exhibited wild-type fitness, indicating that neither proteins nor peptides are primary nitrogen sources required to efficiently support growth of C. albicans in the mouse gut. Adequate availability of the preferred nitrogen source ammonium represses the utilization of proteins and other alternative nitrogen sources, but also the expression of virulence attributes, like Sap secretion and nitrogen-starvation induced filamentation. In order to discriminate, whether ammonium availability is externally sensed or determined inside the cell by C. albicans, the response to exterior ammonium concentrations of ammonium-uptake deficient mutants (mep1Δ/Δ mep2Δ/Δ null mutants) was investigated. This study showed that presence of an otherwise suppressing ammonium concentration did not inhibit Sap2 proteases secretion and arginine-induced filamentation in these mutants. Conclusively, ammonium availability is primarily determined inside the cell in order to control the expression of virulence traits. In sum, the present work contributes to the current understanding of how C. albicans regulates expression of virulence-associated traits in response to the presence of available nitrogen sources - especially proteins and peptides - in order to adapt its lifestyle within a human host.
Toleranz gegenüber Selbstantigenen in den peripheren Geweben kann durch CD4+ CD25+ Foxp3+ regulatorische T-Zellen (Tregs) vermittelt werden. Diese Zellen entstehen entweder in Folge der thymischen T-Zellselektion (natürlich vorkommende Tregs, nTreg) oder durch Konversion aus naiven T-Zellen in den peripheren lymphatischen Organen (induzierte Tregs, iTregs). Im Vorfeld der Arbeit war bereits bekannt, dass Dendritische Zellen (DZ) eine wichtige Rolle bei der Generierung von iTreg spielen. Allerdings bestand weitestgehend Unklarheit darüber, welche DZ in welchem Reifungszustand dazu in der Lage sind, iTregs gegen peripher-exprimierte Selbstantigene zu induzieren. Steady-state migratorische DZ (ssmDZ) gelten in dieser Hinsicht als potentielle Kandidaten, da bekannt ist, dass diese DZ bereits unter homöostatischen Bedingungen Selbstantigene aus peripheren Geweben in die drainierenden Lymphknoten transportieren und dort T-Zellen präsentieren können. Ein Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit war daher, den Phänotyp und die tolerogene Kapazität der ssmDZ in den hautdrainierenden Lymphknoten näher zu untersuchen. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass ssmDZ einen semireifen MHC IIint CD40hi CD80/CD86int CCR7+ Phänotyp aufweisen und in vitro mit Hilfe von endogenem TGF-β iTregs induzieren können. Darüber hinaus belegt diese Arbeit zusammen mit weiteren Daten aus unserer Arbeitsgruppe, dass ssmDZ in transgenen K5mOVA-Mäusen zellassoziertes epidermales OVA aus der Haut in die drainierenden Lymphknoten transportieren und dort an CD4+ OVA-spezifische TZR-transgene OT-II T-Zellen präsentieren können. Innerhalb der ssmDZ konnten die Langerin+ dermalen DZ als die DZ-Subpopulation eingegrenzt werden, die für die Konversion von naiven OT-II T-Zellen in CD4+ CD25+ Foxp3+ iTregs verantwortlich war. Ferner zeigte sich, dass CD103 nicht als Marker für ssmDZ in den hautdrainierenden Lymphknoten herangezogen werden kann. Ein weiteres Ziel dieser Arbeit war, herauszufinden, welchen Einfluss der Transkriptionsfaktor RelB auf die partielle Reifung und Migration der ssmDZ hat. RelB ist ein Mitglied der NF-κB-Familie und wird mit der Reifung von DZ in Verbindung gebracht. Erste Experimente zeigten eine nukleäre Translokation von RelB in ssmDZ sowie eine verringerte Frequenz dieser DZ in den hautdrainierenden Lymphknoten von relB+/- Mäusen und Mäusen mit einer Defizienz für den RelB-Bindungspartner p52. Allerdings konnte bei Mäusen mit einer DZ-spezifischen RelB-Inaktivierung (RelBDCko Mäuse) eine erhöhte Frequenz an ssmDZ in den hautdrainierenden Lymphknoten festgestellt, die nicht auf einer Zunahme an DZ in der Haut der Tiere zurückzuführen war. Diese Ergebnisse legen einerseits die Vermutung nahe, dass es sich bei den beobachteten Effekte in den relB+/- Mäusen um DZ-extrinsische Auswirkungen auf die ssmDZ handelt. Andererseits scheint RelB unter homöostatischen Bedingungen die Erhaltung und Migration der ssmDZ eher negativ zu beeinflussen. Weitere durchflusszytometrische Analysen wiesen zudem darauf hin, dass RelB in ssmDZ die Expression von Reifungsmarkern nur partiell reguliert. So konnte auf den ssmDZ in den hautdrainierenden Lymphknoten von RelBDCko Mäusen eine erhöhte Expression von CD40 beobachtet werden, während andere Reifungsmarker wie MHC II, CD80 und CD86 nicht signifikant in ihrer Expression betroffen waren. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurde zudem untersucht, wie sich eine RelB-Defizienz in DZ auf die Homöostase und Induktion von Tregs auswirkt. Die hierzu analysierten RelBDCko Mäuse wiesen eine erhöhte Frequenz und absolute Zellzahl an Tregs in allen untersuchten lymphatischen Organen (hautdrainierende Lymphknoten, Milz und Thymus) auf. Darüber hinaus war in diesen Organen auch eine verstärkte Proliferation der Tregs gegenüber den Kontrolltieren festzustellen. Weitere Untersuchungen zeigten, dass die Proliferation der Tregs in RelBDCko Mäusen in den hautdrainierenden Lymphknoten sogar stärker ausfiel als in der Milz. RelB scheint somit die tolerogene Kapazität der DZ zur Regulation der Treg-Expansion im Thymus und in der Peripherie zu beeinflussen. Unter Verwendung von neutralisierenden αIL-2-Antikörpern konnte zudem belegt werden, dass die periphere Proliferation der Tregs in den RelBDCko Mäusen von IL-2 abhängig ist. Damit einhergehend zeigten erste Vorversuche eine erhöhte IL-2-Produktion in den peripheren lymphatischen Organen von RelBDCko Mäusen. Zusammenfassend legen die Daten dieser Arbeit den Schluss nahe, dass ssmDZ in den hautdrainierenden Lymphknoten in der Lage sind, Toleranz durch Induktion von iTregs gegen epidermale Selbstantigene zu induzieren. Untersuchungen an neuartigen Mäusen mit einer konditionalen RelB-Inaktivierung spezifisch in DZ deuten darauf hin, dass die Migration und Reifung von ssmDZ partiell durch RelB reguliert wird. Da Tregs eine Schlüsselrolle bei der Erhaltung der peripheren Toleranz einnehmen, ist die Beobachtung, dass eine RelB-Defizienz in allen DZ zu einer verstärkten Treg-Proliferation und somit zu einer veränderten Treg-Homöostase führt, ein intererssanter Ausgangspunkt für weitere Untersuchungen.
Der Hefepilz Candida albicans gehört zu den opportunistischen Infektionserregern. Er ist Teil der natürlichen Mikroflora der Schleimhäute des Gastrointestinal- und Urogenitaltraktes des Menschen. Bei Störungen des natürlichen Gleichgewichts dieser Flora kann es zu oberflächlichen Mykosen, z. B. der oropharyngealen Candidiasis (Mundsoor), kommen. Besonders immunsupprimierte Patienten, wie AIDS-Patienten, leiden häufig unter immer wiederkehrenden Infektionen, die mitunter auch zu schwerwiegenden Infektionsverläufen, bis hin zu lebensbedrohlichen systemischen Mykosen führen können. Zur Therapie solcher Erkrankungen werden oft Ergosterolbiosyntheseinhibitoren, wie Fluconazol, eingesetzt. Besonders bei wiederkehrenden Infektionen und wiederholender Therapie ist C. albicans in der Lage, gegen diese häufig verabreichten Antimykotika Resistenzen zu entwickeln. Hierbei spielen Zink-Cluster-Transkriptionsfaktoren eine zentrale Rolle. Zink-Cluster-Proteine gehören zu einer pilzspezifischen Familie von Transkriptionsfaktoren, die ein großes Spektrum an zellulären Prozessen regulieren. Die gut charakterisierten Regulatoren Upc2, Tac1 und Mrr1 gehören zu den Zink-Cluster-Transkriptionsfaktoren, die maßgeblich zur Resistenzentwicklung von C. albicans beitragen. Upc2 kontrolliert die Expression vieler Ergosterolbiosynthesegene, besonders die von ERG11, welches für die Zielstruktur des gängigen Antimykotikums Fluconazol kodiert. Tac1 und Mrr1 hingegen regulieren die Expression von Multidrug-Effluxpumpen, den ABC-Transportern CDR1 und CDR2 bzw. dem Major Facilitator MDR1. Gain-of-function-Mutationen in diesen Transkriptionsfaktoren resultieren in einer konstitutiven Überexpression ihrer Zielgene und sind verantwortlich für die Resistenz vieler klinischer Isolate. In dieser Arbeit wurde gezeigt, dass die Fusion von Mrr1 mit der Gal4-Aktivierungsdomäne von Saccharomyces cerevisiae zu einem konstitutiv aktiven Hybridtranskriptionsfaktor führte, der eine MDR1-Überexpression bewirkte und Fluconazolresistenz vermittelte. Dieses Hybridprotein vermittelte sogar eine höhere Resistenz als ein Mrr1 mit natürlich vorkommenden gain-of-function-Mutationen. Analoge Fusionen mit Tac1 und Upc2 resultierten ebenfalls in einer konstitutiven Aktivierung dieser Transkriptionsfaktoren, die einen starken Anstieg der Fluconazolresistenz zur Folge hatte. Daraus ergab sich die Schlussfolgerung, dass dies eine generelle Methode sein könnte, die Zink-Cluster-Transkriptionsfaktoren künstlich zu aktivieren und so ihre biologischen Funktionen zu offenbaren, ohne die genauen Bedingungen für ihre Aktivität zu kennen. Deshalb wurde auf der Basis dieser Strategie eine Bibliothek von C.-albicans-Stämmen konstruiert, in der alle 82 putativen Zink-Cluster-Transkriptionsfaktoren in dieser möglicherweise hyperaktiven Form exprimiert werden. Untersuchungen dieser Bibliothek offenbarten neue Transkriptionsfaktoren, die Fluconazolresistenz vermittelten, aber auch noch unbekannte Regulatoren der Morphogenese und andere Phänotypen konnten beobachtet werden. Um einen tieferen Einblick in die Funktionsweise zu bekommen, wurden die Transkriptionsprofile der vier Transkriptionsfaktoren ermittelt, die in ihrer hyperaktiven Form die höchste Fluconazolresistenz bewirkten. Dabei stellte sich heraus, dass die zwei künstlich aktivierten (*) Regulatoren ZCF34* und ZNC1* die Expression der wichtigsten Multidrug-Effluxpumpe CDR1 stark hochregulierten. Der Transkriptionsfaktor mit dem vorläufigen Namen ZCF34 konnte im Verlauf dieser Arbeit als ein wichtiger Regulator für die CDR1-Expression identifiziert werden. Er ist sowohl an der Aktivierung der Expression von CDR1 beteiligt als auch für die basale CDR1-Promotoraktivität notwendig. Aus diesem Grund wurde er in MRR2 (multidrug resistance regulator 2) umbenannt. Mit der Entdeckung eines neuen Regulators der wichtigsten Multidrug-Effluxpumpe von C. albicans wurde ein wichtiger Beitrag zum Verständnis der Regulation solcher Transporter geleistet. Die Überexpression dieser Pumpen ist einer der häufigsten Resistenzmechanismen in C. albicans. Auf diesem Wege kann Resistenz gegen strukturell völlig unterschiedliche Antimykotika bewirkt werden. Somit stellen sowohl diese Effluxpumpen, als auch deren Regulatoren mögliche Angriffsziele für die Entwicklung neuer oder Weiterentwicklung bereits vorhandener Antimykotika dar.
Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) endophenotypes as a link between phenotype and genotype were the focus of the present work. Candidate endophenotypes were investigated via neuropsychological tasks during the simultaneous recording of a 21-channel electroencephalogram. Since endophenotypes are assumed to more closely reflect genetic variation, the influence of ADHD-associated genes Catechol-O-methyl transferase (COMT), the dopamine transporter (DAT, SLC6A3) and Latrophilin-3 (LPHN3) was analysed. Response inhibition was assessed with a cued Continuous Performance Test, for working memory we used an n-back task, sensory gating was measured via the paired clicks paradigm and response time variability (RTV) was quantified by the standard deviation of reaction times. The sample comprised medicated (N=36) and unmedicated (N=42) ADHD patients and matched control children and adolescents (N=41). The electrophysiological correlate of response inhibition was the centroid location during response execution and inhibition, and the degree of anteriorization (NGA). Sensory gating reflects the attenuation of the P50 response to the second of two auditory stimuli presented in short succession. Working memory was examined during target and non-target trials, reflecting specific information processing stages: early sensory processing (P100 and N100), selection of material (P150), memory retrieval (N300), event categorization (P300) and updating of working memory content (P450). Performance was quantified in terms of omission errors reflecting inattention and false alarms reflecting impulsivity, as well as speed and variability of reactions. Unmedicated ADHD patients had more omission errors and more variable reaction times, pointing to difficulties with attention and state regulation. NGA did not prove an optimal endophenotype candidate, since it was not yet developed in approximately half of the examined children and adolescents. It was independent of diagnosis; however ADHD risk alleles for DAT conferred lower NGA as well as more variable reaction times across groups. DAT genotype interacted with diagnosis on the level of centroid location, however, it did not manifest in performance deficits. In the case of sensory gating, homozygosity for the DAT allele associated with ADHD (10R) conferred impairment. ADHD was only relevant in participants without genetic risk, where patients without medication struggled most with suppression. In the working memory task, DAT modulated the timing of material selection in interaction with cognitive load and diagnosis: under high load unmedicated patients showed delayed responses, while under low load risk carriers on medication had faster responses than controls. Early processing and event-categorization were stronger in unmedicated ADHD with risk genotype, but dampened without risk. An interesting trend emerged for LPHN3, where carrying all risk variants was associated with higher NGA in ADHD patients irrespective of medication. This warrants further study, as the haplotype also exerts a positive influence on sensory gating specifically in patients. At the same time within the genetic risk group, unmedicated patients had the weakest NGA. However, the LPHN3 risk haplotype effected more posterior Go centroids, putatively facilitating response execution, which is supported by a higher number of false alarms. When inhibition was required, the risk variants led to more posterior centroids in unmedicated compared to medicated patients as well as controls, speaking to differences in inhibition-related brain activation. While as expected the risk haplotype led to compromised gating in unmedicated ADHD, this was reversed in healthy controls where the haplotype was acting in a protective manner with enhanced filtering. During working memory operations, the risk haplotype showed stronger N300 responses suggesting investment of more resources. While COMT did not exert an influence on NGA directly, carriers of the risk allele (met) had more posterior centroids both during response execution and inhibition, and displayed more variable responses in addition to being more prone to false alarms. Unmedicated patients produced smaller P300 during successful execution of responses than controls in absence of the risk allele, while with risk they had shorter latencies and presumably tend towards premature reactions. Additionally, it brought out impairments in sensory gating, thus making unmedicated patients less able to filter out irrelevant information, while they were able to compensate with the protective genotype. The influence of COMT on sensory gating seems to be specific for ADHD, as this gene was of no consequence in healthy controls. In the working memory task, met was beneficial for updating as reflected by P450 amplitude. In ADHD irrespective of medication COMT did not change P450 strength, but for controls this effect was observed.
The seed coat is the barrier controlling exchange of solutes between the plant embryo and its environment. This exchange is of importance for example in the uptake of germination inhibitors or in the uptake of agrochemicals applied as seed treatment. A thorough understanding of the basic mechanisms underlying solute permeation across the seed coat would help to improve the effectiveness of seed treatment formulations. In seed treatment formulations, additives can be used to enhance or decrease mobility or uptake of the active ingredient (AI). In the present study the seed coat barrier properties and the seed coat permeation process was examined with the model species Pisum sativum and with a set of model solutes. The lipophilic fraction of the seed coat was analysed by gas chromatography and mass spectrometry and it was found that the total lipophilic compartment of the seed coat represents 0.61 % of the weight of a swollen seed coat. The seed is covered by a lipophilic cuticle. The seed coat coverage with cuticular waxes is ten to 18-fold lower than wax coverage of pea leaves, though. In order to examine sorption of solutes in the small lipophilic compartment of the seed coat, seed coat/water partition coefficients were determined. These cover a much smaller range than the corresponding n-octanol/water partition coefficients. The lipophilic sorption compartment as calculated from the seed coat/water partition coefficient data is smaller than the analysed total lipophilic compartment of the seed coat since not all of the lipid components can act as sorption compartment. During seed swelling, the pea seed nearly doubles its weight. The uptake of water is driven by the very low water potential of the dry seed and controlled by the seed coat hydraulic conductivity both of which increase during seed swelling. Depending on the available form of water, water uptake can take place by diffusion from air humidity or by mass flow from liquid water. Water uptake by a seed in moist sand takes place by a combination of both uptake mechanisms. The basic transport mechanism underlying solute permeation of seed coats was analysed by steady-state experiments with a newly devised experimental setup. The permeance P for permeation of the set of model compounds across isolated seed coat halves ranged from 3.34 x 10-8 m s-1 for abamectin to 18.9 x 10-8 m s-1 for caffeine. It was found that solute permeation across the seed coat takes aqueous pathways. This was concluded from the facts that molar volume instead of lipophilicity of the solutes determine permeation and that the temperature effect on permeation is very small. This is in contrast to typical leaf and fruit cuticular uptake where lipophilic pathways dominate. Solute uptake across the seed coat can take place by two different mechanisms both of which take aqueous pathways. Uptake can be by diffusion and in the presence of a bulk flow of water driven by a water potential difference also by solvent drag. The presence of the solvent drag uptake mechanism shows that the aqueous pathways form an aqueous continuum across the seed coat. These findings indicate that the seed coat covering cuticle does not form a continuous barrier enclosing the seed. In order to examine solute uptake across the seed coat under conditions close to a situation taking place in the field, the process of uptake of a seed treatment AI in the field was simulated. In the situation of a treated seed in the field, the seed treatment residue dissolves and then the AI can move either into the surrounding soil or across the seed coat into the seed. Uptake across the seed coat can take place either by diffusion or during seed swelling by the solvent drag mechanism. Since the seed treatment residue depletes over time, non-steady-state uptake takes place. To simulate these processes, laboratory scale seed treatment methods were established to produce treated seeds and isolated treated seed coat halves. Experimental setups for non-steady-state uptake experiments were established with whole treated seeds and with isolated treated seed coat halves as simplified screening tool. By modelling of the AI uptake as a first-order process the rate constant k and the final relative uptake amount Mt→∞ M0-1 were obtained. With k and Mt→∞ M0-1 a quantification and comparison of the uptake curves was possible. Both in the experiments with whole treated seeds and with isolated treated seed coats, uptake of metalaxyl-M was much faster than uptake of sedaxane. In the uptake of a seed treatment AI, not only the solute's molar volume but also its water solubility determine uptake. The solute's water solubility is important for dissolution of the AI from the seed treatment residue and thus determines availability of the AI for uptake. Water solubility also controls the possible concentration in solution and thus the driving force for diffusive uptake. Furthermore, the AI amount taken up by solvent drag is determined by concentration in the inflowing water and thus by water solubility. In the experiments with whole treated seeds the additive effects on uptake were smaller than in the experiments with isolated treated seed coats or not significant. Adigor functions as an emulsifier and can lead to a slight increase of AI mobilisation from the seed treatment residue. NeoCryl A-2099 can cause a slowed down release of the AI from the seed treatment residue. The effects of both additives were smaller than the effect caused by different AI physico-chemical properties. Therefore, the most important factor determining uptake of a seed treatment AI are the AI's physico-chemical properties, especially its water solubility.
Melanoma is the most aggressive skin cancer with very limited treatment options. Upon appearance of metastases chemotherapeutics are used to either kill or slow down the growth of cancer cells by inducing apoptosis or senescence, respectively. With melanomas originating from melanocytes, it is vital to elucidate the mechanisms that distinguish senescence induction from proliferation and tumourigenicity. Xmrk (Xiphophorus melanoma receptor kinase), the fish orthologue of the human epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), causes highly aggressive melanoma in fish. Using an inducible variant, HERmrk, I showed that high receptor levels result in melanocyte senescence, whereas low and medium expression allows for cell proliferation and tumourigenicity. Mechanistically, HERmrk leads to increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels, which trigger a DNA damage response. Consequently, multinucleated, senescent cells develop by both endomitosis and fusion. Furthermore, oncogenic N‐RAS (N-‐RAS61K) induces a similar multinucleated phenotype in melanocytes. In addition, I found that both overexpression of C‐MYC and the knockdown of miz‐1 (Myc‐interacting zinc finger protein 1) diminished HERmrk‐induced senescence entry. C‐MYC prevent ROS induction, DNA damage and senescence, while acting synergistically with HERmrk in conveying tumourigenic features to melanocytes. Further analyses identified cystathionase (CTH) as a novel target gene of Myc and Miz-1 crucial for senescence prevention. CTH encodes an enzyme involved in the synthesis of cysteine from methionine, thereby allowing for increased ROS detoxification. Even though senescence was thought to be irreversible and hence tumour protective, I demonstrated that prolonged expression of the melanoma oncogene N‐RAS61K in pigment cells overcomes initial OIS by triggering the emergence of tumour‐initiating, mononucleated stem‐like cells from multinucleated senescent cells. This progeny is dedifferentiated, highly proliferative, anoikis‐resistant and induces fast‐growing, metastatic tumours upon transplantation into nude mice. Our data demonstrate that induction of OIS is not only a cellular failsafe mechanism, but also carries the potential to provide a source for highly aggressive, tumour‐initiating cells.
Investigation on Distinct Roles of Smad Proteins in Mediating Bone Morphogenetic Proteins Signals
(2011)
Bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) belong to the transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) superfamily and play important roles in numerous biological events in the development of almost all multi-cellular organisms. Dysregulated BMP signaling is the underlying causes of numerous heritable and non-heritable human diseases including cancer. The vast range of biological responses induced by BMPs converges on three closely related Smad proteins that convey intracellular signals from BMP receptors to the nucleus. The specificity of BMP signaling has been intensively investigated at the level of ligand-receptor interactions, but how the different Smad proteins contribute to differential signals elicited by BMPs remains unclear. In this work, we investigated the BMP/Smad signaling in different aspects. In search for an appropriate fluorescence reporter in zebrafish, we compared different photo-switchable proteins and found EosFP the best candidate this model system for its fast maturation and fluorescence intensity. We modified and created appropriate vectors enabling Tol2-transposon based trangenesis in zebrafish, with which transgenic zebrafish lines were generated. We combined fluorescence protein tagging with high resolution microscopy and investigate the dynamics of Smad proteins in model system zebrafish. We observed that Smad5 undergoes nucleo-translocation as BMP signal transmitter during zebrafish gastrulation. We explored the Smad involvement during myogenic-to-osteogenic conversion of C2C12 cell line induced by BMP4. We created transient loss-of-function of Smads by siRNA-mediated knockdowns and analyzed the effects on these coupled yet distinct procedures by quantitative real-time PCR and terminal marker staining. We found that different Smad-complex stoichiometry might be responsible for distinct cellular signals elicited by BMPs.
Platelet activation and adhesion results in thrombus formation that is essential for normal hemostasis, but can also cause irreversible vessel occlusion leading to myocardial infarction or stroke. The C-type lectin-like receptor 2 (CLEC-2) was recently identified to be expressed on the platelet surface, however, a role for this receptor in hemostasis and thrombosis had not been demonstrated. In the current study, the involvement of CLEC-2 in platelet function and thrombus formation was investigated using mice as a model system. In the first part of the thesis, it was found that treatment of mice with a newly generated monoclonal antibody against murine CLEC-2 (INU1) led to the complete and highly specific loss of the receptor in circulating platelets (a process termed “immunodepletion”). CLEC-2-deficient platelets were completely unresponsive to the CLEC-2-specific agonist rhodocytin, whereas activation induced by all other tested agonists was unaltered. This selective defect translated into severely decreased platelet aggregate formation under flow ex vivo; and in vivo thrombosis models revealed impaired stabilization of formed thrombi with enhanced embolization. Consequently, CLEC-2 deficiency profoundly protected mice from occlusive arterial thrombus formation. Furthermore, variable bleeding times in INU1-treated mice indicated a moderate hemostatic defect. This reveals for the first time that CLEC-2 significantly contributes to thrombus stability in vitro and in vivo and plays a crucial role in hemostasis and arterial thrombosis. Thus, CLEC-2 represents a potential novel anti-thrombotic target that can be functionally inactivated in vivo. This in vivo down-regulation of platelet surface receptors might be a promising approach for future anti-thrombotic therapy. The second part of the work investigated the effect of double-immunodepletion of the immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activation motif (ITAM)- and hemITAM-coupled receptors, platelet glycoprotein (GP) VI and CLEC-2, on hemostasis and thrombosis using a combination of the GPVI- and CLEC-2-specific antibodies, JAQ1 and INU1, respectively. Isolated targeting of either GPVI or CLEC-2 in vivo did not affect expression or function of the respective other receptor. However, simultaneous treatment with both antibodies resulted in the sustained loss of GPVI and CLEC-2 signaling in platelets, while leaving other activation pathways intact. In contrast to single deficiency of either receptor, GPVI/CLEC-2 double-deficient mice displayed a dramatic hemostatic defect. Furthermore, this treatment resulted in profound impairment of arterial thrombus formation that far exceeded the effects seen in single-depleted animals. Importantly, similar results were obtained in Gp6-/- mice that were depleted of CLEC-2 by INU1-treatment, demonstrating that this severe bleeding phenotype was not caused by secondary effects of combined antibody treatment. These data suggest that GPVI and CLEC-2 can be independently or simultaneously down-regulated in platelets in vivo and reveal an unexpected functional redundancy of the two receptors in hemostasis and thrombosis. Since GPVI and CLEC-2 have intensively been discussed as potential anti-thrombotic targets, these results may have important implications for the development of novel, yet save anti-GPVI or anti-CLEC-2-based therapies.
Acute graft-versus-host disease (aGvHD) is an immune syndrome associated with allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation (allo-HCT) that is mediated by alloreactive donor T cells attacking the gastrointestinal tract, liver, and skin of the host. Early diagnosis remains problematic and to date mainly relies on clinical symptoms and histopathology. Previously, different groups demonstrated that in order to cause aGvHD, alloreactive T cells require the expression of appropriate homing receptors to efficiently migrate from their priming sites to their target tissues. Therefore, the development of a predictive test based on the homing receptor expression profile of peripheral blood T cells seems attractive to identify patients at risk before the onset of aGvHD. The aim of this study was to analyze migrating alloreactive donor T cell kinetics in the peripheral blood early after allo-HCT in a murine model across minor histocompatibility antigens (miHAg) followed by a precise characterization of the homing receptor expression profile of migrating donor lymphocytes in order to identify suitable predictive markers. Combining daily bioluminescence imaging (BLI) and flow cytometry (FC) allowed defining two weeks of massive alloreactive donor T cell migration before clinical aGvHD symptoms became apparent. Peripheral blood donor T lymphocytes highly up-regulated the homing markers α4β7 integrin, and P- and E-selectin-ligand at peak time points of cell migration. The combination with the activation markers CD25 and CD69 and low expression levels of L-selectin allowed alloreactive donor T cell definition. Based on this migration phase we postulated a potential diagnostic window to precisely identify alloreactive donor T cells upon their homing receptor expression profile. Consequently, targeted pre-emptive treatment with rapamycin starting at the earliest detection time point of alloreactive donor T cells in the peripheral blood (day+6) significantly prolonged survival of treated mice. Based on this data, we propose a potential diagnostic window for alloreactive cell detection based on their homing receptor expression profile for a timely and effective therapeutic intervention before the clinical manifestation of aGvHD.
Optical in vivo imaging methods have advanced the fields of stem cell transplantation, graft-versus–host disease and graft-versus-tumor responses. Two well known optical methods, based on the transmission of light through the test animal are bioluminescence imaging (BLI) and fluorescence imaging (FLI). Both methods allow whole body in vivo imaging of the same animal over an extended time span where the cell distribution and proliferation can be visualized. BLI has the advantages of producing almost no unspecific background signals and no necessity for external excitation light. Hence, BLI is a highly sensitive and reliable detection method. Yet, the BLI reporter luciferase is not applicable with common microscopy techniques, therefore abolishing this method for cellular resolution imaging. FLI in turn, presents the appealing possibility to use one fluorescent reporter for whole body imaging as well as cellular resolution applying microscopy techniques. The absorption of light occurs mainly due to melanin and hemoglobin in wavelengths up to 650 nm. Therefore, the wavelength range beyond 650 nm may allow sensitive optical imaging even in deep tissues. For this reason, significant efforts are undertaken to isolate or develop genetically enhanced fluorescent proteins (FP) in this spectral range. “Katushka” also called FP635 has an emission close to this favorable spectrum and is reported as one of the brightest far-red FPs. Our experiments also clearly showed the superiority of BLI for whole body imaging over FLI. Based on these results we applied the superior BLI technique for the establishment of a pre-clinical multiple myeloma (MM) mouse model. MM is a B-cell disease, where malignant plasma cells clonally expand in the bone marrow (BM) of older people, causing significant morbidity and mortality. Chromosomal abnormalities, considered a hallmark of MM, are present in nearly all patients and may accumulate or change during disease progression. The diagnosis of MM is based on clinical symptoms, including the CRAB criteria: increased serum calcium levels, renal insufficiency, anemia, and bone lesions (osteolytic lesions or osteoporosis with compression fractures). Other clinical symptoms include hyperviscosity, amyloidosis, and recurrent bacterial infections. Additionally, patients commonly exhibit more than 30% clonal BM plasma cells and the presence of monoclonal protein is detected in serum and/or urine. With current standard therapies, MM remains incurable and patients diagnosed with MM between 2001 and 2007 had a 5-year relative survival rate of only 41%. Therefore, the development of new drugs or immune cell-based therapies is desirable and necessary. To this end we developed the MOPC-315 cell line based syngeneic MM mouse model. MOPC-315 cells were labeled with luciferase for in vivo detection by BLI. We validated the non-invasively obtained BLI data with histopathology, measurement of idiotype IgA serum levels and flow cytometry. All methods affirmed the reliability of the in vivo BLI data for this model. We found that this orthotopic MM model reflects several key features of the human disease. MOPC-315 cells homed efficiently to the BM compartment including subsequent proliferation. Additionally, cells disseminated to distant skeletal parts, leading to the typical multifocal MM growth. Osteolytic lesions and bone remodeling was also detected. We found evidence that the cell line had retained plasticity seen by dynamic receptor expression regulation in different compartments such as the BM and the spleen.
Introduction: Colon cancer is one of the major human malignancies worldwide, and much effort has been applied to understand the process of colon carcinogenesis, as well as the role of potential treatments and co-therapeutical agents against it. A growing body of evidence suggests that the use of fluoxetine (FLX), an antidepressant belonging to the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), may be associated with a reduced colon cancer risk. However, controversial opinions have been published and an identification of the mechanisms of the activity of FLX on colon cells would help in the clarification of this controversy. Objectives: Using several in vitro and in vivo-based methods and analyses, we aimed to verify whether FLX has antioxidant, pro-oxidant or DNA-damaging potential in standard toxicological assays; to check whether and how FLX could prevent and reduce colon preneoplastic lesions; to ascertain whether FLX has any oncostatic potential against colon tumors; and, to investigate whether FLX activity could be comparable with a known and current applied chemotherapeutic agent against colon cancer. Results: FLX did not have any antioxidant potential in our experiments. Although it did not induce reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation or DNA-damage in fibroblast and colon tumor cell lines, FLX reduced dysplasia and proliferation in two different carcinogen models. Further, a significant decrease in colon stromal reactivity and angiogenesis was found in both carcinogen-induced preneoplasia models. In a xenograft model of colon cancer, FLX shrank tumors, reduced tumor proliferation, arrested cancer cells at the G0/G1 cell-cycle phase, and took ROS generation under control. Such effects were detected together with an intracellular acidification and loss of mitochondrial membrane potential in FLX-treated cells. Modulating mitochondrial respiratory chain, HIF-1 expression and Akt/mTOR signaling pathway, FLX was found to reduce colon tumors similar to the widely used chemotherapeutic agent 5-Fluoracil activity. Conclusion: Our collective data suggest that FLX is a remarkable chemopreventive and oncostatic agent against colon preneoplastic lesions and tumors, acting without DNA-damage or ROS generation.
Die komplexe Pathogenese von Angst und insbesondere der Panikstörung wird sowohl von genetischen Faktoren wie dem Adenosin A2A Rezeptorgen (ADORA2A) 1976T/C Polymorphismus (rs5751876) als auch von neuropsychologischen Faktoren wie einer verzerrten Emotionsverarbeitung und Defiziten in der frühen Informationsverarbeitung beeinflusst. Ziel der vorliegenden doppelblinden, Placebo-kontrollierten Studie war, ein mehrstufiges pathogenetisches Angstmodell zu etablieren, in dem der Einfluss von 300 mg Koffeinzitrat – einem Antagonisten am Adenosin A2A Rezeptor – versus Placebo 1) auf den emotionspotenzierten Startlereflex (negative, neutrale und positive Bilder aus dem International Affective Picture System (IAPS) sowie zusätzlich panikspezifisches Bildmaterial) an 115 gesunden Probanden (m = 57, w = 58) und 2) auf die frühe Informationsverarbeitung (Prepulse-Modifikation (PPM)-Paradigma mit Interstimulus Intervallen (ISI) von 60, 120, 240, 480 und 2000 ms) an vorwiegend derselben Stichprobe von 114 gesunden Probanden (m = 57, w = 57) getestet wurde. Die Probanden wurden dabei für die genetische ADORA2A 1976T/C Variante stratifiziert und mittels des Angstsensitivitäts-Index (ASI) für Angstsensitivität (AS) charakterisiert. Zusätzlich zum erwarteten Haupteffekt der Bildkategorien (höchste Startlemagnituden für negative, niedrigste für positive Bilder) konnte eine Genotyp X Intervention Interaktion auf die Bildkategorien beobachtet werden: Sowohl Trägerschaft des ADORA2A 1976TT Risikogenotyps unter Placebo als auch der Konsum von Koffein bei ADORA2A 1976CC/CT Nicht-Risikogenotypträgerschaft stellten ein Risiko für eine ähnliche, d.h. undifferenzierte physiologische Erregung in Antwort auf negative und neutrale Reize und damit womöglich für eine erhöhte Angstbereitschaft dar. In Übereinstimmung mit dem hypothetisierten multifaktoriellen Risikomodell potenzierte Koffein in Synergie mit dem ADORA2A 1976TT Risikogenotyp die Startlereaktion spezifisch für negative emotionale Reize. Dieser Effekt wurde maßgeblich durch eine hohe Angstsensitivität verursacht. Die höchsten Startlemagnituden nach Koffeineinnahme bei negativen Bildern zeigten sich insbesondere in der weiblichen Stichprobe. Bei panikspezifischen Bildern führte Koffein bei ADORA2A 1976CC/CT Nicht-Risikogenotypträgern dazu, dass im Vergleich zu Placebo weniger zwischen negativen und Panikbildern unterschieden wurde. Bei ADORA2A 1976TT Risikogenotypträgern ergaben sich bzgl. der panikspezifischen Bilder weder unter Koffein- noch unter Placebobedingungen Unterschiede. Bezüglich der frühen Informationsverarbeitung konnte eine Vierfachinteraktion zwischen Genotyp, Intervention, Geschlecht und ISI beobachtet werden. Eine Stratifikation nach ISI ergab, dass die Prepulse Inhibition (PPI) nach Koffeineinnahme für das ISI von 120 ms und von 240 ms bei weiblichen ADORA2A 1976TT Risikogenotypträgern im Vergleich zu männlichen ADORA2A 1976TT Homozygoten eingeschränkt war, während es keine signifikanten Effekte bei ADORA2A 1976CC/CT Nicht-Risikogenotypträgern oder in der Placebogruppe gab. Nur bei hoch ängstlichen Probanden konnte ein signifikanter Interventionseffekt mit verminderter Prepulse Fazilitation (PPF; ISI von 2000 ms) unter Koffein beobachtet werden. Unsere Ergebnisse weisen auf ein komplexes, mehrstufiges und potenziell geschlechtsspezifisches pathogenetisches Angstmodell hin, bei dem genetische und biochemische Faktoren interaktiv das Risiko für defizitäre emotionale Verarbeitungsprozesse und somit möglicherweise auch für Angststörungen erhöhen. Die Ergebnisse zeigen weiterhin, dass weibliche ADORA2A 1976TT Homozygote unter Koffein eine eingeschränkte Fähigkeit haben, irrelevante sensorische Informationen zu filtern, was die Rolle des adenosinergen Systems bei der Pathogenese von Angst zusätzlich stützt. Durch die Definition von multifaktoriellen Risikoprofilen für Angst und insbesondere die Panikstörung, wie in der vorliegenden Arbeit exemplarisch demonstriert, können in Zukunft Fortschritte in der individuellen Primär- und Sekundärprävention erzielt werden.