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Einleitung: Unter dem Begriff exekutive Funktionen (EF) werden häufig die Komponenten Inhibition, kognitive Flexibilität und Aktualisierung von Arbeitsgedächtnisrepräsentationen subsumiert. EF sind bereichsübergreifende Prädiktoren schulischer Leistungen. Verschiedene Operationalisierungen derselben Komponente, z.B. Performanztests und Elterneinschätzungen, zeigen häufig nur geringe Interkorrelationen. Die Methoden scheinen unterschiedliche Aspekte einer Komponente zu erfassen, daher könnte eine Kombination zur Vorhersage schulischer Leistungen sinnvoll sein. Methode: N = 96 Erst- und Zweitklässler_innen mit und ohne Entwicklungsauffälligkeiten wurden mittels EF-Performanztests und Schulleistungstests zu Mathematik und Lesen untersucht. Per Fragebogen wurden elternbeurteilte EF und als Kontrollvariablen der sozioökonomische Status (SÖS) und das Vorliegen von Merkmalen einer Aufmerksamkeitsdefizit-Hyperaktivitätsstörung (ADHS) erfasst. Ergebnisse: Elternbeurteilungen hatten über die Performanztests hinaus einen bedeutsamen Vorhersagewert für die Mathematik- und Leseleistung. Der Einfluss von Alter, SÖS und ADHS-Merkmalen wurde kontrolliert. Diskussion: Die kombinierte Anwendung beider Erfassungsmethoden scheint somit vorteilhaft für die Prognose schulischer Leistungen und die Prävention von Schulleistungsproblemen.
This paper argues that applied ethics can itself be morally problematic. As illustrated by the case of Peter Singer’s criticism of social practice, morally loaded communication by applied ethicists can lead to protests, backlashes, and aggression. By reviewing the psychological literature on self-image, collective identity, and motivated reasoning three categories of morally problematic consequences of ethical criticism by applied ethicists are identified: serious psychological discomfort, moral backfiring, and hostile conflict. The most worrisome is moral backfiring: psychological research suggests that ethical criticism of people’s central moral convictions can reinforce exactly those attitudes. Therefore, applied ethicists unintentionally can contribute to a consolidation of precisely those social circumstances that they condemn to be unethical. Furthermore, I argue that the normative concerns raised in this paper are not dependent on the commitment to one specific paradigm in moral philosophy. Utilitarianism, Aristotelian virtue ethics, and Rawlsian contractarianism all provide sound reasons to take morally problematic consequences of ethical criticism seriously. Only the case of deontological ethics is less clear-cut. Finally, I point out that the issues raised in this paper provide an excellent opportunity for further interdisciplinary collaboration between applied ethics and social sciences. I also propose strategies for communicating ethics effectively.
Objective
To examine the efficacy of reminder e-mails to continue yoga therapy on practice frequency and fatigue in cancer patients and long-term effects of yoga on fatigue, depression, and quality of life.
Methology
One hundred two cancer patients who completed an 8-week yoga therapy were randomly allocated to two groups: reminder (N = 51) vs. no-reminder group (N = 51). After completing yoga therapy, the reminder group received weekly e-mails for 24 weeks, which reminded them of practicing yoga, whereas the no-reminder group did not. Primary outcomes were fatigue and practice frequency, and long-term outcomes were fatigue, depression, and quality of life. Data were assessed using questionnaires after yoga therapy (T1) and 6 months after completing yoga therapy (T2).
Result
A significantly stronger reduction of general (p = 0.038, d = 0.42) and emotional fatigue (p = 0.004, d = 0.59) and a higher increase of practice frequency (p = 0.015, d = 0.52) between T1 and T2 were found for the reminder group compared to the no-reminder group. In the mediation model, practice frequency as a mediator partially explained the changes in emotional fatigue (indirect effect B = - 0.10). Long-term effects of yoga therapy regarding fatigue, depression, and quality of life were found (F > 7.46, p < 0.001, d > 0.54).
Conclusion
Weekly reminder e-mails after yoga therapy can positively affect general and emotional fatigue and help cancer patients with fatigue establish a regular yoga practice at home. However, higher practice frequency did not lead to higher physical or cognitive fatigue improvement, suggesting other factors that mediate efficacy on physical or cognitive fatigue, such as mindfulness or side effects of therapy.
Creativity, specifically divergent thinking, has been shown to benefit from unrestrained walking. Despite these findings, it is not clear if it is the lack of restriction that leads to the improvement. Our goal was to explore the effects of motor restrictions on divergent thinking for different movement states. In addition, we assessed whether spontaneous eye blinks, which are linked to motor execution, also predict performance. In experiment 1, we compared the performance in Guilford's alternate uses task (AUT) during walking vs. sitting, and analysed eye blink rates during both conditions. We found that AUT scores were higher during walking than sitting. Albeit eye blinks differed significantly between movement conditions (walking vs. sitting) and task phase (baseline vs. thinking vs. responding), they did not correlate with task performance. In experiment 2 and 3, participants either walked freely or in a restricted path, or sat freely or fixated on a screen. When the factor restriction was explicitly modulated, the effect of walking was reduced, while restriction showed a significant influence on the fluency scores. Importantly, we found a significant correlation between the rate of eye blinks and creativity scores between subjects, depending on the restriction condition. Our study shows a movement state-independent effect of restriction on divergent thinking. In other words, similar to unrestrained walking, unrestrained sitting also improves divergent thinking. Importantly, we discuss a mechanistic explanation of the effect of restriction on divergent thinking based on the increased size of the focus of attention and the consequent bias towards flexibility.
Observing physicians acting with different levels of empathy modulates later assessed pain tolerance
(2022)
Objectives
The patient–physician relationship is essential for treatment success. Previous studies demonstrated that physicians who behave empathic in their interaction with patients have a positive effect on health outcomes. In this study, we investigated if the mere perception of physicians as empathic/not empathic modulates pain despite an emotionally neutral interaction with the patients.
Methods
N = 60 women took part in an experimental study that simulated a clinical interaction. In the paradigm, each participant watched two immersive 360° videos via a head-mounted display from a patient’s perspective. The physicians in the videos behaved either empathic or not empathic towards a third person. Importantly, these physicians remained emotionally neutral in the subsequent virtual interaction with the participants. Finally, participants received a controlled, painful pressure stimulus within the narratives of the videos.
Results
The physicians in the high compared with the low empathy videos were rated as more empathic and more likable, indicating successful experimental manipulation. In spite of later neutral behaviour of physicians, this short observation of physicians’ behaviour towards a third person was sufficient to modulate pain tolerance of the participants.
Conclusions
The finding of this study that the mere observation of physicians’ behaviour towards a third person modulates pain, despite a neutral direct interaction with the participants, has important clinical implications. Further, the proposed paradigm enables investigating aspects of patient–physician communication that are difficult to examine in a clinical setting.
Anxiety research is one of the major psychological research domains and looks back on decades of research activity. Traditionally, novel theories and approaches are tested utilizing animal models. One way to study inherent anxiety in rodents is the elevated plus-maze (EPM). The EPM is a plus-shaped platform with two closed, i.e., walled, arms and two open unwalled arms. If given the opportunity to freely explore the apparatus, rodents instinctively avoid the open arms to protect themselves from predators. Hence, they spent less time on open and more time on closed arms, which is behaviorally associated with general anxiety. In the course of the pharmacological validation, it was found that this exploratory pattern can be reversed by anxiolytic substances, e.g., benzodiazepines, or potentiated by anxiogenics. One of the significant advantages of the EPM is that no prior training session is required in contrast to conditioning studies, thus allowing to observe natural behavior. Therefore, together with the economic and uncomplicated setup, the EPM has become a standard preclinical rodent anxiety test over the decades. In order to validate these rodent anxiety tests, there have recently been attempts to retranslate them to humans. A paramount of cross-species validation is not only the simple transferability of these animal tests but also the observation of anxiety behaviors that are evolutionarily conserved across species. Accordingly, it could be possible to conclude various factors associated with the etiology and maintenance of anxiety disorders in humans. So far, convincing translations of the EPM to humans are still lacking. For that reason, the primary aim of this dissertation is to retranslate the EPM throughout three studies and to evaluate cross-species validity critically. Secondly, the undertaken studies are set out to observe ambulatory activity equivalent to rodent EPM behavior, i.e., open arm avoidance. Thirdly, the undertaken studies aimed to assess the extent to which trait anxiety influences human exploratory activity on the platform to associate it with the assumption that rodent EPM-behavior is a reflection of general anxiety. Finally, virtual reality (VR) was the method of choice to maintain the economic advantage and adjust the EPM size to humans. Study 1 (N = 30) was set up to directly transfer the rodent EPM regarding test design and experimental procedure using a Computer Automatic Virtual Environment (CAVE). The results revealed that humans unlike rodents display a general open arms approach during free exploration. However, open arm avoidance was associated with high trait anxiety and acrophobia (fear of height), which was initially assessed as a control variable due to the virtual platform height. Regression analyses and subjective anxiety ratings hinted at a more significant influence of acrophobia on open arm avoidance. In addition, it was assumed that the open arms approach might have resulted from claustrophobic tendencies experienced in the closed arms due to the high walls. Study 2 (N = 61) sought to differentiate the influence of trait anxiety and acrophobia and adapt the virtual EPM to humans. Therefore, parts of the platform held a semi-transparent grid-floor texture, and the wall height on the closed arms was reduced to standard handrail level. Moreover, participants were priorly screened to exclude clinically significant levels of acrophobia, claustrophobia, and agoraphobia. The data on general exploratory activity showed no arm preference. Regression analyses confirmed that acrophobia is related to open arm avoidance, corroborating the finding of Study 1. Surprisingly, for trait anxiety, the result of Study 1 could not be replicated. Instead, for trait anxiety, no significant effect was found indicating that predominantly fear of heights shapes human EPM behavior even on a subclinical stage. In Study 3 (N = 57), the EPM was embedded into a city setting to 1) create a more natural human environment and 2) eliminate height. Furthermore, a head-mounted display was utilized for VR presentation, and arousal ratings were introduced. Participants were screened for high and low levels of trait anxiety and agoraphobia, and claustrophobia. Replicating the findings of Study 2, no difference in open and closed arm activity was observed, and no effect was found in relationship with trait anxiety. The data on anxiety ratings and claustrophobia suggest a positive correlation indicating that in this city EPM, claustrophobic tendencies might play a role in closed arm avoidance. In summary, this thesis added valuable insights into the retranslation of a well-established standard anxiety test used in rodents. However, it also majorly challenges current findings on the cross-species validity of the EPM. Various explanatory models for the results are critically discussed and associated with clinical implications concerning future research.
Die Rehabilitation von Gangstörungen bei Patienten mit MS und Schlaganfall erfolgt häufig mithilfe eines konventionellen Laufbandtrainings. Einige Studien haben bereits gezeigt, dass durch eine Erweiterung dieses Trainings um eine virtuelle Realität die Motivation der Patienten gesteigert und die Therapieergebnisse verbessert werden können.
In der vorliegenden Studie wurde eine immersive VR-Anwendung (unter Verwendung eines HMD) für die Gangrehabilitation von Patienten evaluiert. Hierbei wurden ihre Anwendbarkeit und Akzeptanz geprüft sowie ihre Kurzzeiteffekte mit einer semi-immersiven Präsentation (unter Verwendung eines Monitors) und mit einem konventionellen Laufbandtraining ohne VR verglichen. Der Fokus lag insbesondere auf der Untersuchung der Anwendbarkeit beider Systeme und der Auswirkungen auf die Laufgeschwindigkeit und Motivation der Benutzer.
Im Rahmen einer Studie mit Innersubjekt-Design nahmen zunächst 36 gesunde Teilnehmer und anschließend 14 Patienten mit MS oder Schlaganfall an drei experimentellen Bedingungen (VR über HMD, VR über Monitor, Laufbandtraining ohne VR) teil.
Sowohl in der Studie mit gesunden Teilnehmern als auch in der Patientenstudie zeigte sich in der HMD-Bedingung eine höhere Laufgeschwindigkeit als beim Laufbandtraining ohne VR und in der Monitor-Bedingung. Die gesunden Studienteilnehmer berichteten über eine höhere Motivation nach der HMD-Bedingung als nach den anderen Bedingungen. Es traten in beiden Gruppen keine Nebenwirkungen im Sinne einer Simulator Sickness auf und es wurden auch keine Erhöhungen der Herzfrequenzen nach den VR-Bedingungen detektiert. Die Bewertungen des Präsenzerlebens waren in beiden Gruppen in der HMD-Bedingung höher als in der Monitor-Bedingung. Beide VR-Bedingungen erhielten hohe Bewertungen für die Benutzerfreundlichkeit. Die meisten der gesunden Teilnehmer (89 %) und Patienten (71 %) präferierten das HMD-basierte Laufbandtraining unter den drei Trainingsformen und die meisten Patienten könnten sich vorstellen, es häufiger zu nutzen.
Mit der vorliegenden Studie wurde eine strukturierte Evaluation der Anwendbarkeit eines immersiven VR-Systems für die Gangrehabilitation geprüft und dieses erstmals in den direkten Vergleich zu einem semi-immersiven System und einem konventionellen Training ohne VR gesetzt. Die Studie bestätigte die Praktikabilität der Kombination eines Laufbandtrainings mit immersiver VR. Aufgrund ihrer hohen Benutzerfreundlichkeit und der geringen Nebenwirkungen scheint diese Trainingsform besonders für Patienten geeignet zu sein, um deren Trainingsmotivation und Trainingserfolge, wie z. B. die Laufgeschwindigkeit, zu steigern. Da immersive VR-Systeme allerdings nach wie vor spezifische technische Installationsprozeduren erfordern, sollte für die spezifische klinische Anwendung eine Kosten-Nutzen-Bewertung erfolgen.
Post-error slowing is one of the most widely employed measures to study cognitive and behavioral consequences of error commission. Several methods have been proposed to quantify the post-error slowing effect, and we discuss two main methods: The traditional method of comparing response times in correct post-error trials to response times of correct trials that follow another correct trial, and a more recent proposal of comparing response times in correct post-error trials to the corresponding correct pre-error trials. Based on thorough re-analyses of two datasets, we argue that the latter method provides an inflated estimate by also capturing the (partially) independent effect of pre-error speeding. We propose two solutions for improving the assessment of human error processing, both of which highlight the importance of distinguishing between initial pre-error speeding and later post-error slowing.
Previous research has revealed changes in the perception of objects due to changes of object-oriented actions. In present study, we varied the arm and finger postures in the context of a virtual reaching and grasping task and tested whether this manipulation can simultaneously affect the perceived size and distance of external objects. Participants manually controlled visual cursors, aiming at reaching and enclosing a distant target object, and judged the size and distance of this object. We observed that a visual-proprioceptive discrepancy introduced during the reaching part of the action simultaneously affected the judgments of target distance and of target size (Experiment 1). A related variation applied to the grasping part of the action affected the judgments of size, but not of distance of the target (Experiment 2). These results indicate that perceptual effects observed in the context of actions can directly arise through sensory integration of multimodal redundant signals and indirectly through perceptual constancy mechanisms.
Human attention is strongly attracted by direct gaze and sudden onset motion. The sudden direct-gaze effect refers to the processing advantage for targets appearing on peripheral faces that suddenly establish eye contact. Here, we investigate the necessity of social information for attention capture by (sudden onset) ostensive cues. Six experiments involving 204 participants applied (1) naturalistic faces, (2) arrows, (3) schematic eyes, (4) naturalistic eyes, or schematic facial configurations (5) without or (6) with head turn to an attention-capture paradigm. Trials started with two stimuli oriented towards the observer and two stimuli pointing into the periphery. Simultaneous to target presentation, one direct stimulus changed to averted and one averted stimulus changed to direct, yielding a 2 × 2 factorial design with direction and motion cues being absent or present. We replicated the (sudden) direct-gaze effect for photographic faces, but found no corresponding effects in Experiments 2-6. Hence, a holistic and socially meaningful facial context seems vital for attention capture by direct gaze. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: The present study highlights the significance of context information for social attention. Our findings demonstrate that the direct-gaze effect, that is, the prioritization of direct gaze over averted gaze, critically relies on the presentation of a meaningful holistic and naturalistic facial context. This pattern of results is evidence in favor of early effects of surrounding social information on attention capture by direct gaze.