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Anxiety is an affective state characterized by a sustained, long-lasting defensive response, induced by unpredictable, diffuse threat. In comparison, fear is a phasic response to predictable threat. Fear can be experimentally modeled with the help of cue conditioning. Context conditioning, in which the context serves as the best predictor of a threat due to the absence of any conditioned cues, is seen as an operationalization of sustained anxiety.
This thesis used a differential context conditioning paradigm to examine sustained attention processes in a threat context compared to a safety context for the first time. In three studies, the attention mechanisms during the processing of contextual anxiety were examined by measuring heart rate responses and steady-state-visually evoked potentials (ssVEPs). An additional focus was set on the processing of social cues (i.e. faces) and the influence of contextual information on these cues. In a last step, the correlates of sustained anxiety were compared to evoked responses by phasic fear, which was realized in a previously established paradigm combining predictable and unpredictable threat.
In the first study, a contextual stimulus was associated with an aversive loud noise, while a second context remained unpaired. This conditioning paradigm created an anxiety context (CTX+) and a safety context (CTX-). After acquisition, a social agent vs. an object was presented as a distractor in both contexts. Heart rate and cortical responses, with ssVEPs by using frequency tagging, to the contexts and the distractors were assessed. Results revealed enhanced ssVEP amplitudes for the CTX+ compared to the CTX− during acquisition and during presentation of distractor stimuli. Additionally, the heart rate was accelerated in the acquisition phase, followed by a heart rate deceleration as a psychophysiological marker of contextual anxiety.
Study 2 used the same context conditioning paradigm as Study 1. In contrast to the first study, persons with different emotional facial expressions were presented in the anxiety and safety contexts in order to compare the differential processing of these cues within periods of threat and safety. A similar anxiety response was found in the second study, although only participants who
Abstract
VIII
were aware of the contingency between contexts and aversive event showed a sensory amplification of the threat context, indicated by heart rate response and ssVEP activation. All faces irrespective of their emotional expression received increased attentional resources when presented within the anxiety context, which suggests a general hypervigilance in anxiety contexts.
In the third study, the differentiation of predictable and unpredictable threat as an operationalization of fear and anxiety was examined on a cortical and physiological level. In the predictable condition, a social cue was paired with an aversive event, while in the unpredictable condition the aversive event remained unpaired with the respective cue. A fear response to the predictable cue was found, indicated by increased oscillatory response and accelerated heart rate. Both predictable and unpredictable threat yielded increased ssVEP amplitudes evoked by the context stimuli, while the response in the unpredictable context showed longer-lasting ssVEP activation to the threat context.
To sum up, all three studies endorsed anxiety as a long-lasting defensive response. Due to the unpredictability of the aversive events, the individuals reacted with hypervigilance in the anxiety context, reflected in a facilitated processing of sensory information and an orienting response. This hypervigilance had an impact on the processing of novel cues, which appeared in the anxiety context. Considering the compared stimuli categories, the stimuli perceived in a state of anxiety received increased attentional resources, irrespective of the emotional arousal conveyed by the facial expression. Both predictable and unpredictable threat elicited sensory amplification of the contexts, while the response in the unpredictable context showed longer-lasting sensory facilitation of the threat context.
The individual sensitivity for ones internal bodily signals ("interoceptive awareness") has been shown to be of relevance for a broad range of cognitive and affective functions. Interoceptive awareness has been primarily assessed via measuring the sensitivity for ones cardiac signals ("cardiac awareness") which can be non-invasively measured by heartbeat perception tasks. It is an open question whether cardiac awareness is related to the sensitivity for other bodily, visceral functions. This study investigated the relationship between cardiac awareness and the sensitivity for gastric functions in healthy female persons by using non-invasive methods. Heartbeat perception as a measure for cardiac awareness was assessed by a heartbeat tracking task and gastric sensitivity was assessed by a water load test. Gastric myoelectrical activity was measured by electrogastrography (EGG) and subjective feelings of fullness, valence, arousal and nausea were assessed. The results show that cardiac awareness was inversely correlated with ingested water volume and with normogastric activity after water load. However, persons with good and poor cardiac awareness did not differ in their subjective ratings of fullness, nausea and affective feelings after drinking. This suggests that good heartbeat perceivers ingested less water because they subjectively felt more intense signals of fullness during this lower amount of water intake compared to poor heartbeat perceivers who ingested more water until feeling the same signs of fullness. These findings demonstrate that cardiac awareness is related to greater sensitivity for gastric functions, suggesting that there is a general sensitivity for interoceptive processes across the gastric and cardiac modality.
Gambling is a popular activity in Germany, with 40% of a representative sample reporting having gambled at least once in the past year (Bundeszentrale für gesundheitliche Aufklärung, 2014). While the majority of gamblers show harmless gambling behavior, a subset develops serious problems due to their gambling, affecting their psychological well-being, social life and work. According to recent estimates, up to 0.8% of the German population are affected by such pathological gambling. People in general and pathological gamblers in particular show several cognitive distortions, that is, misconceptions about the chances of winning and skill involvement, in gambling. The current work aimed at elucidating the biopsychological basis of two such kinds of cognitive distortions, the illusion of control and the gambler’s and hot hand fallacies, and their modulation by gambling problems. Therefore, four studies were conducted assessing the processing of near outcomes (used as a proxy for the illusion of control) and outcome sequences (used as a proxy for the gambler’s and hot hand fallacies) in samples of varying degrees of gambling problems, using a multimethod approach.
The first study analyzed the processing and evaluation of near outcomes as well as choice behavior in a wheel of fortune paradigm using electroencephalography (EEG). To assess the influence of gambling problems, a group of problem gamblers was compared to a group of controls. The results showed that there were no differences in the processing of near outcomes between the two groups. Near compared to full outcomes elicited smaller P300 amplitudes. Furthermore, at a trend level, the choice behavior of participants showed signs of a pattern opposite to the gambler’s fallacy, with longer runs of an outcome color leading to increased probabilities of choosing this color again on the subsequent trial. Finally, problem gamblers showed smaller feedback-related negativity (FRN) amplitudes relative to controls.
The second study also targeted the processing of near outcomes in a wheel of fortune paradigm, this time using functional magnetic resonance imaging and a group of participants with varying degrees of gambling problems. The results showed increased activity in the bilateral superior parietal cortex following near compared to full outcomes.
The third study examined the peripheral physiology reactions to near outcomes in the wheel of fortune. Heart period and skin conductance were measured while participants with varying degrees of gambling problems played on the wheel of fortune. Near compared to full outcomes led to increased heart period duration shortly after the outcome. Furthermore, heart period reactions and skin conductance responses (SCRs) were modulated by gambling problems. Participants with high relative to low levels of gambling problems showed increased SCRs to near outcomes and similar heart period reactions to near outcomes and full wins.
The fourth study analyzed choice behavior and sequence effects in the processing of outcomes in a coin toss paradigm using EEG in a group of problem gamblers and controls. Again, problem gamblers showed generally smaller FRN amplitudes compared to controls. There were no differences between groups in the processing of outcome sequences. The break of an outcome streak led to increased power in the theta frequency band. Furthermore, the P300 amplitude was increased after a sequence of previous wins. Finally, problem gamblers compared to controls showed a trend of switching the outcome symbol relative to the previous outcome symbol more often.
In sum, the results point towards differences in the processing of near compared to full outcomes in brain areas and measures implicated in attentional and salience processes. The processing of outcome sequences involves processes of salience attribution and violation of expectations. Furthermore, problem gamblers seem to process near outcomes as more win-like compared to controls. The results and their implications for problem gambling as well as further possible lines of research are discussed.
Emotionale Esser neigen dazu, in emotional belastenden Situationen überwiegend süße und fettreiche Nahrung häufig in Abwesenheit von Hunger zu essen, um negative Gefühle zu bewältigen. In unangenehmen emotionalen Zuständen setzen sie sich kaum mit den Emotionen auseinander und essen stattdessen. Es fällt ihnen oft schwer, ihren Emotionen, aber auch ihren Hunger- und Sättigungsgefühlen Aufmerksamkeit zu schenken und diese zu erkennen. Emotionales Essverhalten kann Betroffene davon abhalten, einen konstruktiven Umgang mit den emotionalen Belastungen zu erlernen, und kann zu Übergewicht, den mit Übergewicht einhergehenden ernährungsbedingten Erkrankungen oder gar zu Essstörungen führen. Um diese langfristigen Folgen gar nicht erst entstehen zu lassen, ist es von zentraler Bedeutung, problematischen Formen des emotionalen Essverhaltens vorzubeugen oder sie zu verändern. Die vorliegende Dissertation umfasst 3 empirische Studien, in denen anhand von standardisierten und selbst entwickelten Fragebögen sowie mithilfe der Experience-Sampling-Methode die Auslöser und die Modifikation emotionalen Essverhaltens untersucht wurden. Die Experience-Sampling-Methode basiert auf alltagsnahen, zeitlich präzisen, multiplen Messungen im Feld. In der 1. Studie wurde bei gesunden Personen die Wirkung der negativen Gefühle als Auslöser des emotionalen Essverhaltens im Alltag beobachtet. Die Befunde deuten darauf hin, dass keine bestimmten negativen Emotionen zu existieren scheinen, die einen stärkeren Einfluss auf das emotionale Essverhalten haben als andere, und dass alle negativen Gefühle nahezu gleichermaßen das Potenzial bergen, emotionales Essverhalten hervorzurufen. Diese Erkenntnis ist in die Konzeption eines Trainingsprogramms zur Veränderung des emotionalen Essverhaltens für emotionale Esser eingeflossen, das achtsamkeitsbasierte Konzepte mit verhaltenstherapeutischen Behandlungsmethoden kombiniert. Die 2. und die 3. Studie überprüften mit einem randomisierten, kontrollierten Design die Machbarkeit und die Wirksamkeit des Gruppentrainings im ambulanten und klinischen Setting. Das Training ließ sich ambulant und in einer Klinik sehr gut umsetzen und wurde von den Teilnehmern weitgehend positiv bewertet. Im Anschluss an das Training aßen emotionale Esser weniger emotional, indem sie durch die achtsame Selbstbeobachtung lernten, die Essauslöser besser zu erkennen und sie von den körperlichen Hungerempfindungen zu unterscheiden. Vielmehr fingen sie bis zu einem gewissen Grad an, achtsamer zu essen und das Essen zu genießen. Die Emotionsregulation verbesserte sich ebenfalls in vielen Aspekten. Die Trainingsteilnehmer entwickelten die Kompetenzen oder tendierten dazu, ihre Gefühle aufmerksamer wahrzunehmen, klarer zu erkennen und zu benennen, sie stärker positiv zu beeinflussen und sie leichter zu akzeptieren, wenn sie im Augenblick nicht verändert werden konnten. Somit konnten die Machbarkeit und die Wirksamkeit des entwickelten Trainingsprogramms sowohl im ambulanten Setting als auch in den bedeutendsten Aspekten im klinischen Kontext als Teil eines breiter angelegten Therapiekonzepts nachgewiesen werden. Die drei vorgelegten Arbeiten liefern einen Beitrag zum Verständnis und zur Veränderung des emotionalen Essverhaltens. Weitergehende Untersuchungen sollten die Merkmale der äußeren Situation als Risikofaktoren für das emotionale Essverhalten analysieren sowie die zeitliche Stabilität der Trainingseffekte testen, die außerhalb einer Katamnese von 3 Monaten liegt. Die Wirksamkeit des Trainingsprogramms könnte ferner gegenüber anderen Therapieverfahren und multizentrisch in unterschiedlichen Kliniken unter zahlreichen Rahmenbedingungen geprüft werden.
Die begrenzte Reichweite ist einer der Hauptgründe für das derzeitige mangelnde Kaufinteresse an Elektrofahrzeugen. Neben rein komponentenoptimierenden Maßnahmen, wie der Verbesserung der Batterie, ist die Förderung von Eco-Driving, also einer energieeffizienten Fahrweise, ein effektiver Ansatz zur Steigerung der Reichweite. Trainings und visuell dargebotene Eco-Assistenten können Eco-Driving wirksam steigern, schöpfen aber nicht dessen gesamtes Potential aus. Angepasste Pedal- und Motorkennlinien könnten Eco-Driving zusätzlich fördern. Für deren Bewertung sind die Wirksamkeit und Akzeptanz bisher nicht gemeinsam berücksichtig worden oder sie wurden nicht im Elektrofahrzeug evaluiert und validiert. Zu diesen Anpassungen zählen eine Veränderung des Beschleunigungspedals, sodass mit diesem gleichzeitig beschleunigt und rekuperiert werden kann, die Limitierung von Drehmoment und Leistung und der Einsatz eines aktiven Beschleunigungspedals, welches Widerstände abhängig von Fahrzeug- oder Situationsparametern aktiviert.
Für diese Arbeit habe ich daher die Pedal- und Motorkennlinien entsprechend angepasst und in ein validiertes Elektroautomodell implementiert. Ziel war es, verschiedene Fahrverhaltensbereiche im Elektrofahrzeug, die Eco-Driving kennzeichnen (energieoptimales Beschleunigen und Verzögern, Einhalten von Geschwindigkeitsbegrenzungen, vorausschauendes Fahren), benutzerfreundlich, akzeptabel und wirksam zu unterstützen. Zu diesem Zweck habe ich vier Probandenstudien im bewegten Fahrsimulator durchgeführt und geeignete Pedal- und Motorkennlinien empirisch bestimmt. In der ersten Studie habe ich untersucht, ob und warum eine Pedalkennlinie zu bevorzugen ist, bei der mit dem Beschleunigungspedal anstelle des Bremspedals rekuperiert wird. Das Ziel der zweiten Studie war es, eine geeignete Rekuperationsstärke für ein kombiniertes Beschleunigungspedal, bei dem mit dem Beschleunigungspedal rekuperiert wird, zu bestimmen. In der dritten Studie habe ich evaluiert, ob die Limitierung der Leistung oder die des Drehmoments zu bevorzugen ist, um das Beschleunigungsverhalten zu optimieren und wie stark die Limitierungen optimaler Weise sein sollten. Basierend auf den Ergebnissen der dritten Studie, habe ich schließlich einen optimierten Limitierungsansatz konzipiert, diesen mit einem aktiven Beschleunigungspedal verglichen und bestimmt, welcher Ansatz zu bevorzugen ist.
Aufgrund der Studienergebnisse werden folgende Ansätze für die jeweiligen Eco-Driving-Fahrverhaltensbereiche empfohlen und es werden folgende Gestaltungsempfehlungen abgeleitet: Zur Förderung eines energieeffizienten Beschleunigungsverhaltens ist die Limitierung von Drehmoment und Leistung geeignet. Die Limitierung des Drehmoments ist hierbei besonders wirksam in geringen, die Limitierung der maximalen Leistung in höheren Geschwindigkeitsbereichen. Zu empfehlen sind parallele mittelstarke Limitierungen von maximalem Drehmoment und maximaler Leistung, die Beschleunigungen mit 2.0 m/s² erlauben, bei gleichzeitiger Bereitstellung eines Kick-Downs. Ein aktives Beschleunigungspedal ist insbesondere aus Gründen der Benutzerfreundlichkeit zur Förderung eines energieeffizienten Beschleunigungsverhaltens nur eingeschränkt empfehlenswert.
Zur Förderung eines energieeffizienten Verzögerungsverhaltens wird die Implementierung der Rekuperationsfunktion auf dem Beschleunigungspedal anstelle des Bremspedals empfohlen, da dies einerseits ermöglicht, auf hydraulisches Bremsen zu verzichten und gleichzeitig mehr Energie rekuperiert werden kann. Ersteres trägt zu einer hohen Akzeptanz bei, letzteres zu einer günstigen Energiebilanz. Besonders effektiv und akzeptabel ist ein kombiniertes Fahrbremspedal, wenn es eine starke Rekuperation ermöglicht (zwischen -1.7 und -2.1 m/s²). Weiterhin ist ein aktives Beschleunigungspedal, das den geeigneten Zeitpunkt für eine maximal energieeffiziente Verzögerung mit einem kombinierten Fahrbremspedal anzeigt, wirksam, um die rekuperierte Energie zu steigern. Auf diese Weise kann zudem eine vorausschauende Fahrweise unterstützt werden. Hierbei muss jedoch die Funktionalität und Benutzerfreundlichkeit optimiert werden, um eine gesteigerte kognitive Fahrerbeanspruchung und Minderungen der Akzeptanz zu vermeiden. Zur Unterstützung der Einhaltung von Geschwindigkeitsbegrenzungen ist ebenfalls das aktive Beschleunigungspedal geeignet. Der Fahrer sollte hierbei aber die Möglichkeit haben, individuell Grenzwerte einzustellen.
Die Verknüpfung eines kombinierten Fahrbremspedals mit einer Limitierung von Drehmoment und Leistung sowie einem aktiven Beschleunigungspedal kann abschließend, unter Berücksichtigung der abgeleiteten Gestaltungsempfehlungen, als effektive und akzeptable Möglichkeit zur Förderung unterschiedlicher Verhaltensbereiche von Eco-Driving bewertet werden. Die erwarteten Synergieeffekte der evaluierten Ansätze in Verbindung mit Eco-Trainings und visuell dargebotenen Eco-Feedback-Assistenten sowie deren Langfristigkeit sollten Gegenstand weiterführender Forschung sein.
Abstract
Tobacco addiction is considered as a chronic relapsing disorder, characterized by compul-sive drug seeking and intake. Learning processes are stressed to account for the situational-specific expression of core features of the disorder, e.g., craving for drug, tolerance and ex-cessive consumption. According to incentive theories, smoke conditioned stimuli are hy-pothesized to be appetitive in nature, promoting craving, approach and consummatory be-havior. Commonly, smoking cues are treated as simple excitatory conditioned stimuli formed by a close and reliable overlap with the drug effect. However, the smoking ritual comprises a multitude of stimuli which may give rise to different forms of learning and con-ditioned responses partially opposing each other. Previous research suggests the predictive content and the temporal proximity of smoking stimuli to the drug effect as important de-terminants of cue reactivity. In contrast to stimuli related to the preparatory stage of smok-ing and the start of consumption (BEGIN stimuli), stimuli from the terminal stage of smok-ing (END stimuli) apparently lack high cue reactivity. Several lines of evidence suggest the poor cue properties of terminal stimuli to be related to their signaling of poor smoke availa-bility. Indeed, cue reactivity is commonly decreased when smoking appears to be unavaila-ble. Moreover, the learning literature suggests that stimuli predictive for the non-availability of reward may acquire the capacity to modulate or oppose the responses of ex-citatory conditioned stimuli. Therefore, the aim of the present thesis was to enhance our knowledge of stimulus control in human drug addiction and incentive motivation by running a series of conditioning studies with smoke intake and monetary reward as reinforcer. Sub-jective report and physiological measures of motivational valence and consummatory re-sponse tendencies were used as dependent variables.
The first experiment of this thesis used a differential conditioning paradigm to reveal evi-dence for the conditioning of preparatory and consummatory responses to a CS+ for smok-ing. Neutral pictograms served as CSs and single puffs on a cigarette as US. In line with the predictions of incentive theories, the excitatory CS+ for smoking acquired the ability to evoke an appetitive conditioned response, as indicated by enhanced activity of the M. zy-gomaticus major. Moreover, anticipation of puffing on the cigarette increased the activity of the M. orbicularis oris (lip muscle), indicating the activation of consummatory response tendencies. Finally, the CS+ evoked stronger skin conductance responses, indicative of in-creased autonomic arousal and orienting in preparation for action. In contrast, the rating data were apparently unaffected by the experimental contingency. In sum, the physiological data provide support for the notion that excitatory smoke conditioning gives rise to appeti-tive and consummatory conditioned responses, which may at least partially contribute to the maintenance of tobacco addiction.
The second experiment of this thesis adapted the conditioning protocol of the first study to probe the functional significance of terminal stimuli in the control of addictive behavior. This study manipulated the predictive relationship of BEGIN and END stimuli to smoke rein-forcement to provide further support for the differential reactivity to both stimuli and the retarded (i.e., delayed) conditioning of END stimuli. Overall, the results of the first study of this thesis were conceptually replicated as the association of a BEGIN stimulus with smoke intake resulted in the acquisition of appetitive and consummatory physiological responses. Importantly, the results revealed evidence for a retarded excitatory conditioning of END stimuli. Thus, pairing of an END stimulus with smoke intake failed to produce a conditioned discrimination in terms of motivational valence and autonomic arousal, as indicated by the activity of the M. corrugator supercilii and the skin conductance data. These results provide further support for the notion that END stimuli may be weak cues for smoking. Moreover, in light of the results of the first study of this thesis, the retarded excitatory conditioning of terminal stimuli may be suggestive of an inhibitory response component, which may be re-lated to their signaling of poor smoke availability. In sum, these results add to a growing body of data, which suggest that the expression of cue reactivity may be modulated by the temporal proximity and the availability of the drug effect.
The aim of the third study of this thesis was to provide “proof of concept” for an inhibi-tory conditioning notion of terminal stimuli. In this analog study BEGIN and END stimuli were emulated as discriminative SD and S for monetary reward. During an acquisition phase conditioned inhibition was established to the S predictive of the non-availability of re-ward. Subsequently a retardation test was used to substantiate conditioned inhibition. In this test, excitatory conditioning of the previous S was compared to the excitatory condi-tioning of a novel control stimulus. Importantly, the results revealed evidence for reward conditioned inhibition as indicated by the retarded acquisition of subjective (pleasure and reward expectancy) and physiological (skin conductance and activity of the M. orbicularis oculi) responses. In sum, these results provide support for the notion that stimuli predictive for the non-availability of reward may acquire the capacity to oppose the responses of ex-citatory conditioned stimuli. Thus, future research may benefit from the consideration of inhibitory conditioning processes in drug addiction, which may be of theoretical, methodo-logical and clinical importance.
In sum, the present thesis revealed evidence for 1) an appetitive nature of excitatory condi-tioned smoking cues, 2) the dependency of this learning process on the temporal position of the conditioned stimuli in the intake ritual and 3) the acquisition of conditioned inhibition by a stimulus predictive for the non-availability of reward, as evident in retarded excitatory conditioning. Overall, these studies made a novel contribution to the field of human drug addiction and incentive motivation and provided valuable suggestions for further research.
Das Wissen über kognitive Prozesse oder metakognitives Wissen ist seit den 1970er-Jahren Gegenstand der entwicklungspsychologischen Forschung. Im Inhaltsbereich der mathematischen Informationsverarbeitung ist das Konstrukt jedoch – trotz elaborierter theoretischer Modelle über Struktur und Inhalt – empirisch nach wie vor weitgehend unerschlossen.
Die vorliegende Studie schließt diese Lücke, indem sie die Entwicklung des mathematischen metakognitiven Wissens im Längsschnitt untersucht. Dazu wurde nicht nur der Entwicklungsverlauf beschrieben, sondern auch nach den Quellen für die beobachteten individuellen Unterschiede in der Entwicklung gesucht. Auch die aus pädagogischen Gesichtspunkten interessanten Zusammenhänge zwischen der metakognitiven Wissensentwicklung und der parallel dazu verlaufenden Entwicklung der mathematischen Kompetenzen wurden analysiert.
RATIONALE:
The endocannabinoid (eCB) system is implicated in several psychiatric disorders. Investigating emotional-motivational dysfunctions as underlying mechanisms, a study in humans revealed that in the C385A polymorphism of the fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH), the degrading enzyme of the eCB anandamide (AEA), A carriers, who are characterized by increased signaling of AEA as compared to C/C carriers, exhibited reduced brain reactivity towards unpleasant faces and enhanced reactivity towards reward. However, the association of eCB system with emotional-motivational reactivity is complex and bidirectional due to upcoming compensatory processes.
OBJECTIVES:
Therefore, we further investigated the relationship of the FAAH polymorphism and emotional-motivational reactivity in humans.
METHODS:
We assessed the affect-modulated startle, and ratings of valence and arousal in response to higher arousing pleasant, neutral, and unpleasant pictures in 67 FAAH C385A C/C carriers and 45 A carriers.
RESULTS:
Contrarily to the previous functional MRI study, A carriers compared to C/C carriers exhibited an increased startle potentiation and therefore emotional responsiveness towards unpleasant picture stimuli and reduced startle inhibition indicating reduced emotional reactivity in response to pleasant pictures, while both groups did not differ in ratings of arousal and valence.
CONCLUSIONS:
Our findings emphasize the bidirectionality and thorough examination of the eCB system's impact on emotional reactivity as a central endophenotype underlying various psychiatric disorders.
Objective
Brain-computer interfaces (BCIs) provide a non-muscular communication channel for patients with late-stage motoneuron disease (e.g., amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS)) or otherwise motor impaired people and are also used for motor rehabilitation in chronic stroke. Differences in the ability to use a BCI vary from person to person and from session to session. A reliable predictor of aptitude would allow for the selection of suitable BCI paradigms. For this reason, we investigated whether P300 BCI aptitude could be predicted from a short experiment with a standard auditory oddball.
Methods
Forty healthy participants performed an electroencephalography (EEG) based visual and auditory P300-BCI spelling task in a single session. In addition, prior to each session an auditory oddball was presented. Features extracted from the auditory oddball were analyzed with respect to predictive power for BCI aptitude.
Results
Correlation between auditory oddball response and P300 BCI accuracy revealed a strong relationship between accuracy and N2 amplitude and the amplitude of a late ERP component between 400 and 600 ms. Interestingly, the P3 amplitude of the auditory oddball response was not correlated with accuracy.
Conclusions
Event-related potentials recorded during a standard auditory oddball session moderately predict aptitude in an audiory and highly in a visual P300 BCI. The predictor will allow for faster paradigm selection.
Significance
Our method will reduce strain on patients because unsuccessful training may be avoided, provided the results can be generalized to the patient population.
We examined whether a voluntary response becomes associated with the (affective) meaning of intended response effects. Four experiments revealed that coupling a keypress with positive or negative consequences produces affective compatibility effects when the keypress has to be executed in response to positively or negatively evaluated stimulus categories. In Experiment 1, positive words were evaluated faster with a keypress that turned the words ON (versus OFF), whereas negative words were evaluated faster with a keypress that turned the words OFF (versus ON). Experiment 2 showed that this compatibility effect is reversed if an aversive tone is turned ON and OFF with keypresses. Experiment 3 revealed that keypresses acquire an affective meaning even when the association between the responses and their effects is variable and intentionally reconfigured before each trial. Experiment 4 used affective response effects to assess implicit ingroup favoritism, showing that the measure is sensitive to the valence of categories and not to the valence of exemplars. Results support the hypothesis that behavioral reactions become associated with the affective meaning of the intended response goal, which has important implications for the understanding and construction of implicit attitude measures.