Institut für Psychologie
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Encoding Redundancy for Task-dependent Optimal Control : A Neural Network Model of Human Reaching
(2008)
The human motor system is adaptive in two senses. It adapts to the properties of the body to enable effective control. It also adapts to different situational requirements and constraints. This thesis proposes a new neural network model of both kinds of adaptivity for the motor cortical control of human reaching movements, called SURE_REACH (sensorimotor unsupervised learning redundancy resolving control architecture). In this neural network approach, the kinematic and sensorimotor redundancy of a three-joint planar arm is encoded in task-independent internal models by an unsupervised learning scheme. Before a movement is executed, the neural networks prepare a movement plan from the task-independent internal models, which flexibly incorporates external, task-specific constraints. The movement plan is then implemented by proprioceptive or visual closed-loop control. This structure enables SURE_REACH to reach hand targets while incorporating task-specific contraints, for example adhering to kinematic constraints, anticipating the demands of subsequent movements, avoiding obstacles, or reducing the motion of impaired joints. Besides this functionality, the model accounts for temporal aspects of human reaching movements or for data from priming experiments. Additionally, the neural network structure reflects properties of motor cortical networks like interdependent population encoded body space representations, recurrent connectivity, or associative learning schemes. This thesis introduces and describes the new model, relates it to current computational models, evaluates its functionality, relates it to human behavior and neurophysiology, and finally discusses potential extensions as well as the validity of the model. In conclusion, the proposed model grounds highly flexible task-dependent behavior in a neural network framework and unsupervised sensorimotor learning.
Gegenstand der vorliegenden Arbeit war der Einfluss von emotionalem Gesichtsausdruck und wahrgenommener Blickrichtung auf die visuelle Aufmerksamkeitsausrichtung bei sozialer Ängstlichkeit. Dabei wurde zum einen die so genannte Hypervigilanz-Vermeidungs-Hypothese getestet (Experimente 1 und 2), wonach Hoch-Sozialängstliche (HSÄ) Personen ärgerliche Gesichter initial häufiger anschauen und im weiteren Verlauf vermeiden. Zum anderen wurde überprüft, ob soziale Ängstlichkeit mit einem Vermeiden von Blickkontakt und gleichzeitiger erhöhter physiologischer Erregung assoziiert ist (Experiment 3). Im ersten Experiment wurde das experimentelle Design zur Messung der visuellen Aufmerksamkeitsausrichtung mittels Eye-Tracking etabliert. HSÄ zeigten beim Betrachten zweier gleichzeitig präsentierter Gesichter (emotional vs. neutral) eine Aufmerksamkeitsverzerrung für emotionale Gesichter, die allerdings noch durch das Geschlecht moduliert wurde. HSÄ schauten initial vor allem häufiger auf weibliche freundliche und auf männliche ärgerliche Gesichter. Außerdem tendierten HSÄ dazu, emotionale Gesichter zwischen 1 s und 1.5 s nach Bild-Onset weniger lange anzuschauen, was auf ein Vermeidungsverhalten hindeuten könnte. Im zweiten Experiment wurde dieses Paradigma um eine emotionale Antisakkadenaufgabe erweitert, mit der die willentliche Inhibition der reflexiven Aufmerksamkeitsausrichtung auf soziale Stimuli überprüft werden sollte. Außerdem erfolgte hier eine Selektion von Probanden anhand der Fragebogenscores in einem Screening zur sozialen Ängstlichkeit, um extremere Gruppen zu erhalten. HSÄ zeigten in der freien Bildbetrachtung einen initialen Aufmerksamkeitsbias für freundliche Gesichter und mehr Fehler in der Antisakkadenaufgabe auf alle Gesichtsausdrücke, was auf eine generell verminderte Fähigkeit, die reflexive Aufmerksamkeit auf soziale Stimuli willentlich zu hemmen, hinweist. Die Befunde deuten zum einen auf einen Aufmerksamkeitsverzerrung hin zu freundlichen Gesichtern bei sozialer Ängstlichkeit hin, was als Konsequenz eine Modifizierung der Hypervigilanz-Vermeidungs-Hypothese notwendig erscheinen lässt. Zum anderen zeigen die Ergebnisse der Antisakkadenaufgabe, dass soziale Ängstlichkeit möglicherweise mit einer grundsätzlich verminderten Aufmerksamkeitskontrolle auf soziale Stimuli assoziiert ist. Im dritten Experiment wurden dynamische Videos von Gesichtern eingesetzt, um die Vermeidungsreaktion auf direkten Blickkontakt bei sozialer Ängstlichkeit zu untersuchen. Zusätzlich wurden die Herzraten- (HR) und Hautleitfähigkeitsreaktion (SCR) als Maße autonomer Aktivierung erhoben. Auch hier wurden anhand eines Screenings gebildete Gruppen untersucht. HSÄ zeigten eine verstärkte HR-Akzeleration auf direkten Blick, was als defensive Reaktion gedeutet werden kann, wie sie bei ängstlichen Probanden häufig in Reaktion auf phobie-relevante Stimuli auftritt. Direkter Blick könnte also tatsächlich ein Angst auslösender Stimulus bei sozialer Ängstlichkeit sein, allerdings resultiert dies nicht zwangsläufig in Vermeidung von Blickkontakt. Zusammen deuten die vorliegenden Studien daraufhin, dass sowohl emotionaler Ausdruck als auch Blickrichtung kritische Variable bei sozialer Ängstlichkeit sind. Weitergehende Untersuchungen sollten insbesondere die Wirkung der Interaktion dieser beiden Variablen auf die visuelle Aufmerksamkeitsausrichtung bei sozialer Ängstlichkeit untersuchen.