Institut für Physikalische und Theoretische Chemie
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- radicals (3)
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Institute
Die ersten Beispiele für Lewis-Basen-Addukte des Stammboraphosphaketens H\(_{2}\)B-PCO und ihre cyclischen Dimere wurden hergestellt. Eines dieser Addukte zeigt unter milden Bedingungen eine Decarbonylierung und anschließende Insertion des Phosphinidens in die B-C-Bindung eines Borols, was in der Bildung sehr seltener Beispiele für 1,2-Phosphaborinine, B,P-Isostere von Benzol, resultiert. Die starken Donoreigenschaften dieser 1,2-Phosphaborinine wurden durch die Synthese ihrer π-Komplexe mit Metallen der Gruppe 6 bestätigt.
A 1,8-naphthyridine diphosphine (NDP) reacts with boron-containing Lewis acids to generate complexes featuring a number of different naphthyridine bonding modes. When exposed to diborane B\(_{2}\)Br\(_{4}\), NDP underwent self-deprotonation to afford [NDP-B\(_{2}\)Br\(_{3}\)]Br, an unsymmetrical diborane comprised of four fused rings. The reaction of two equivalents of monoborane BBr\(_{3}\) and NDP in a non-polar solvent provided the simple phosphine-borane adduct [NDP(BBr\(_{3}\))\(_{2}\)], which then underwent intramolecular halide abstraction to furnish the salt [NDP-BBr\(_{2}\)][BBr\(_{4}\)], featuring a different coordination mode from that of [NDP-B\(_{2}\)Br\(_{3}\)]Br. Direct deprotonation of NDP by KHMDS or PhCH2K generates mono- and dipotassium reagents, respectively. The monopotassium reagent reacts with one or half an equivalent of B\(_{2}\)(NMe\(_{2}\))\(_{2}\)Cl\(_{2}\) to afford NDP-based diboranes with three or four amino substituents.
The understanding of excimer formation and its interplay with the singlet-correlated triplet pair state \(^{1}\)(TT) is of high significance for the development of efficient organic electronics. Here, we study the photoinduced dynamics of the tetracene dimer in the gas phase by time-resolved photoionisation and photoion imaging experiments as well as nonadiabatic dynamics simulations in order to obtain mechanistic insight into the excimer formation dynamics. The experiments are performed using a picosecond laser system for excitation into the S\(_{2}\) state and reveal a biexponential time dependence. The time constants, obtained as a function of excess energy, lie in the range between ≈10 ps and 100 ps and are assigned to the relaxation of the excimer on the S\(_{1}\) surface and to its deactivation to the ground state. Simulations of the quantum-classical photodynamics are carried out in the frame of the semi-empirical CISD and TD-lc-DFTB methods. Both theoretical approaches reveal a dominating relaxation pathway that is characterised by the formation of a perfectly stacked excimer. TD-lc-DFTB simulations have also uncovered a second relaxation channel into a less stable dimer conformation in the S\(_{1}\) state. Both methods have consistently shown that the electronic and geometric relaxation to the excimer state is completed in less than 10 ps. The inclusion of doubly excited states in the CISD dynamics and their diabatisation further allowed to observe a transient population of the \(^{1}\)(TT) state, which, however, gets depopulated on a timescale of 8 ps, leading finally to the trapping in the excimer minimum.
We introduce a new approach to transient spectroscopy, fluorescence‐detected pump–probe (F‐PP) spectroscopy, that overcomes several limitations of traditional PP. F‐PP suppresses excited‐state absorption, provides background‐free detection, removes artifacts resulting from pump–pulse scattering, from non‐resonant solvent response, or from coherent pulse overlap, and allows unique extraction of excited‐state dynamics under certain conditions. Despite incoherent detection, time resolution of F‐PP is given by the duration of the laser pulses, independent of the fluorescence lifetime. We describe the working principle of F‐PP and provide its theoretical description. Then we illustrate specific features of F‐PP by direct comparison with PP, theoretically and experimentally. For this purpose, we investigate, with both techniques, a molecular squaraine heterodimer, core–shell CdSe/ZnS quantum dots, and fluorescent protein mCherry. F‐PP is broadly applicable to chemical systems in various environments and in different spectral regimes.
Within this work, an additive and a subtractive QM/MM interface were implemented into CAST. The interactions between QM and MM system are described via electrostatic embedding. Link atoms are used to saturate dangling bonds originating from the separation of QM and MM system. Available energy evaluation methods to be combined include force fields (OPLSAA and AMBER), semi-empirical programs (Mopac and DFTB+), and quantum-chemical methods (from Gaussian, Orca, and Psi4). Both the additive and the subtractive interface can deal with periodic boundary conditions. The subtractive scheme was extended to enable QM/QM, three-layer, and multi-center calculations. Another feature only available within the subtractive interface is the microiteration procedure for local optimizations.
The novel QM/MM methods were applied to the investigation of the reaction path for the complex formation between rhodesain and K11777. Benchmark calculations show a very good agreement with results from Gaussian-ONIOM. When comparing the relative energies obtained with different options to a computation where the whole system was treated with the “QM method” DFTB3, the electrostatic embedding scheme with option “delM3” gives the best results. “delM3” means that atoms with up to three bonds distance to the QM region are ignored when creating the external charges. This is done in order to avoid a double counting of Coulomb interactions between QM and MM system. The embedding scheme for the inner system in a three-layer calculation, however, does not have a significant influence on the energies. The same is true for the choice of the coupling scheme: Whether the additive or the subtractive QM/MM interface is applied does not alter the results significantly. The choice of the QM region, though, proved to be an important factor. As can be seen from the comparison of two QM systems of different size, bigger is not always better here. Instead, one has to make sure not to separate important (polar) interactions by the QM/MM border.
After this benchmark study with singlepoint calculations, the various possibilities of CAST were used to approximate the solution of a remaining problem: The predicted reaction energy for the formation of the rhodesain-K11777 complex differs significantly depending on the starting point of the reaction path.
The reason for this is assumed to be an inadequate adjustment of the environment during the scans, which leads to a better stabilization of the starting structure in comparison to the final structure. The first approach to improve this adjustment was performing the relaxed scan with a bigger QM region instead of the minimal QM system used before. While the paths starting from the covalent complex do not change significantly, those starting from the non-covalent complex become more exothermic, leading to a higher similarity of the two paths. Nevertheless, the difference of the reaction energy is still around 15 kcal/mol, which is far from a perfect agreement. For this reason, Umbrella Samplings were run. Here, the adjustment of the environment is not done by local optimizations like in the scans, but by MD simulations. This has the advantage that the system can cross barriers and reach different local minima. The relative free energies obtained by Umbrella Samplings with suitable QM regions are nearly identical, independently of the starting point of the calculation. Thus, \(\Delta A\) evaluated by these computations can be assumed to reproduce the real energy change best. An MD simulation that was started from the transition state in order to mimic a “real-time” reaction indicates a very fast adjustment of the environment during the formation of the complex. This confirms that Umbrella Sampling is probably better suitable to describe the reaction path than a scan, where the environment can never move strong enough to leave the current local minimum.
Reactive hydrocarbon species are important in a multitude of different scientific areas. In this thesis, the vibrational spectra of hydrocarbon radicals, biradicals and their reaction product have been studied in a gas-phase environment. The specific molecules investigated here, are of particular importance in the field of combustion and astrochemistry. They were produced from suitable precursors in a pyrolytically heated micro-reactor and subsequently seeded in an appropriate carrier gas. As methodology, IR/UV ion dip spectroscopy has been utilized, which delivers massselected gas-phase IR spectra of all ionizable species detectable in the molecular beam. These, with the help of DFT calculations, allow for determination of the fingerprint IR spectra, identification of mass carriers and formulation of potential reaction mechanisms. All studies have been conducted in collaboration with the group of Prof. Dr. Anouk M. Rjis and the necessary potent IR radiation has been provided by the free-electron laser FELIX. Thus, the IR/UV measurements have been executed at the FELIX Laboratory of the Radboud University in Nijmegen. The first study presented in this thesis is the investigation of ortho-benzyne in Chapter 3.1. This molecule is of particular interest due to its uncommon electronic structure and its role in high-temperature reactions. Although, the infrared spectrum of o-C6H4 was not accessible, a number of reaction products were identified via their fingerprint spectra. Masses in the range from 78 - 228 were assigned to their respective carrier. The identified species include typical PAHs like naphthalene, phenanthrene, up to triphenylene. The identified masses further suggest a PAH growth heavily influenced by diradical 1,4-cycloaddition followed by fragmentation, as well as by classical HACA- and PAC-like mechanisms. These results were augmented by threshold photoionization measurements from Engelbert Reusch, who identified lighter reaction products, which have insufficient IR absorption or unsuitable ionization characteristics to be identified in the IR/UV experiment. An interesting observation is the identification of m/z = 152. This carrier has been assigned differently by the IR and TPES experiments. Whereas the IR spectrum clearly identifies the species as 2-ethynylnaphthalene, the TPES evidently is in great agreement with biphenylene. This is a good example how different experimental methodologies can benefit from each other to gain a deeper insight into the actual science of a particular system. Probably, the prime example for an aromatically resonance stabilized radical is benzyl. This radical is of high importance for many combustion studies, as it represents the primary high-temperature decomposition product of toluene. The goal of the study was the identification of the benzyl self reaction products and the results are discussed in Section 3.2. The radical was pyrolytically produced by its respective nitrite precursor. The mass spectrum showed that the benzyl self reaction formed two products with C11 and three with C14 constitution. All mass peaks were evenly spaced by two mass units, respectively, which suggests a close relation in formation. Indeed, the C11 products were identified as diphenylmethane and fluorene, which are simply connected via cyclization. The heaviest product was identified as phenanthrene, which is formed via the cyclization of bibenzyl to 9,10-dihydrophenanthrene and subsequent elimination of hydrogen. This result was quiet interesting as the intermediate of this reaction was often assumed to be stilbene, which was not observed in the study. Hence, the reaction seems to undergo cyclization first before phenanthrene is finally formed via hydrogen elimination. Expanding the molecular frame of benzyl by an additional methyl group leads to the xylyl radicals and its decomposition product the xylylenes. Also important in combustion research, xylyl radicals represent the preferred decomposition products of xylene, a frequently used anti-knock agent in modern gasoline blends. After further hydrogen elimination the xylyl radicals can then form their respective xylylenes. The results of the xylyl experiments are discussed in Section 3.3. Here the gas-phase vibrational spectrum in the fingerprint region for all three isomers has been recorded for the first time in isolation. Although, all isomers have a very similar structure and symmetry, and consequently similar vibrational bands, the resolution of the experimental data was exceedingly sufficient for a clear assignment. Additionally, the dimerization products of meta- and para-xylyl could also be identified. A similar approach was taken to determine the fingerprint spectra for the xylylenes. Here, only para-xylylene could be unambiguously identified as the carrier of mass 104. For both ortho- and meta-xylylene precursors, only isomerization products were observed as the carriers of mass 104; benzocyclobutene and styrene, respectively. A possible explanation is elaborated upon in the troubleshooting Sec- tion 3.4.3.5. In the final experimental section a study on the decomposition of phthalide is presented. The objective of this experiment was mainly focused around the formation of C7 species, particularly the fulvenallenyl radical C7H5. In fact, the first experimental fingerprint spectrum of isolated C7H5 in the gas-phase was measured and is displayed in Fig. 3.45. Furthermore, the experiment demonstrates that the pyrolysis products of phthalide are excellent soot precursors, as many heavier reaction products have been identified. These include typical PAH species like naphthalene and phenanthrene as well as their methylated isomers. A large number of molecules with terminal ethynyl moieties indicate a strong influence of HACA growth in the experimental environment. However, many formation pathways of products have been discussed, which are formed involving experiment specific species, like C5H5 and C7H5, and often include expansion steps from 5- to 6-membered rings.
The concepts of aromaticity and antiaromaticity have a long history, and countless demonstrations of these phenomena have been made with molecules based on elements from the p, d, and f blocks of the periodic table. In contrast, the limited oxidation‐state flexibility of the s‐block metals has long stood in the way of their participation in sophisticated π‐bonding arrangements, and truly antiaromatic systems containing s‐block metals are altogether absent or remain poorly defined. Using spectroscopic, structural, and computational techniques, we present herein the synthesis and authentication of a heterocyclic compound containing the alkaline earth metal beryllium that exhibits significant antiaromaticity, and detail its chemical reduction and Lewis‐base‐coordination chemistry.
The NHC-stabilised diboryne (B\(_2\)(SIDep)\(_2\); SIDep=1,3-bis(2,6-diethylphenyl)imidazolin-2-ylidene) undergoes a high-yielding P−P bond activation with tetraethyldiphosphine at room temperature to form a B\(_2\)P\(_2\) heterocycle via a diphosphoryldiborene by 1,2-diphosphination. The heterocycle can be oxidised to a radical cation and a dication, respectively, depending on the oxidant used and its counterion. Starting from the planar, neutral 1,3-bis(alkylidene)-1,3-diborata-2,4-diphosphoniocyclobutane, each oxidation step leads to decreased B−B distances and loss of planarity by cationisation. X-ray analyses in conjunction with DFT and CASSCF/NEVPT2 calculations reveal closed-shell singlet, butterfly-shaped structures for the NHC-stabilised dicationic B\(_2\)P\(_2\) rings, with their diradicaloid, planar-ring isomers lying close in energy.
We investigate NCl\(_{3}\) and the NCl\(_{2}\) radical by photoelectron-photoion coincidence spectroscopy using synchrotron radiation. The mass selected threshold photoelectron spectrum (ms-TPES) of NCl\(_{3}\) is broad and unstructured due to the large geometry change. An ionization energy of 9.7±0.1 eV is estimated from the spectrum and supported by computations. NCl2 is generated by photolysis at 213 nm from NCl\(_{3}\) and its ms-TPES shows an extended vibrational progression with a 90 meV spacing that is assigned to the symmetric N−Cl stretching mode in the cation. An adiabatic ionization energy of 9.94 ± 0.02 eV is determined.
Die vorliegenden Arbeit behandelt VUV Valenz-Photoionisations-Experimente in der Gasphase. Zunächst wird die Photoionisation von stickstoffhaltigen Radikalen und deren Pyrolyseprodukten untersucht. Im Anschluss werden molekulare Biradikale betrachtet. Da in der Literatur bislang nur wenige solcher Biradikale als Intermediate experimentell zugänglich waren, war es das Ziel dieser Arbeit, neue reaktive Spezies dieser Substanzklassen in der Gasphase zu isolieren und deren Struktur, Eigenschaften und Reaktivität besser zu verstehen. Im Mittelpunkt stehen dabei Intermediate, die als echte Biradikale, Biradikaloide oder Triplett Carbene auftreten. Zu letzteren zählen das Methylbismut sowie die Pentadiinylidene. Biradikale bilden in Verbrennungsprozessen sehr effizient Ruß(vorläufer), was anhand des ortho-Benz-ins dargelegt wurde, indem dessen Pyrolyseprodukte charakterisiert und mögliche PAH-Bildungswege aufgezeigt wurden. Vakuum Flash Pyrolyse wurde verwendet, um in situ aus den geeigneten Vorläufermolekülen die radikalischen und biradikalischen Intermediate zu erzeugen. Während für biradikalische Zwischenstufen meist spezielle Verbindungen als Vorläufer synthetisiert werden müssen, waren die verwendeten Vorläufer für die stickstoffhaltigen Radikale kommerziell erhältlich. Die reaktiven Spezies wurden alle mittels monochromatischer VUV Synchrotronstrahlung an der Swiss Light Source in Villigen/ Schweiz ionisiert. Die Ionisationsereignisse wurden mit der Schwellenphotoelektronen-Photoionen-Koinzidenz (TPEPICO) Technik detektiert und ausgewertet. Anhand der resultierenden massenselektiven Schwellenphotoelektronenspektren wurden die Ionisierungsenergien der (Bi)radikale bestimmt und die Schwingungsstruktur der jeweiligen Kationen analysiert. Die erhaltenen Spektren und Daten wurden in Zusammenarbeit mit der theoretischen Chemie interpretiert.
Wichtige Erkenntnisse
• Es wurde die Ionisierungsenergie der 2-, 3- und 4-Picolylradikale auf 7.70\pm
0.02 eV, 7.59\pm
0.01 eV und 8.01\pm
0.01 eV bestimmt. Diese wurden in der Pyrolyse selektiv aus ihren zugehörigen Picolylaminen erzeugt. Zudem wurde analog zum Benzyl-Radikal für alle drei Radikale eine ausgeprägte Schwingungsprogression ermittelt, die der totalsymmetrischen Deformationsmode des aromatischen Rings entspricht.
• Die Picolyl-Radikale dissoziieren in der Pyrolyse thermisch zu weiteren Produkten. Die Fragmentierung verläuft dabei isomerenunabhängig über ein stickstoffhaltiges Siebenringintermediat, dem Azepinyl-Radikal. Der Fragmentierungsmechanismus wurde mit dem von Benzyl verglichen. Die gewonnenen Erkenntnisse haben Relevanz für Verbrennungsprozesse, beispielsweise von Biokraftstoffen.Im ersten Schritt entstehen vier Isomere, das Cyclopenta-1,4-dien-1-carbonitril, das Cyclopenta-1,3-dien-1-carbonitril, das 2-Ethynyl-1H-pyrrol und das3-Ethynyl-1H-pyrrol mit den zugehörigen Ionisierungsenergien von 9.25\pm
0.02 eV, 9.14\pm
0.02 eV, 7.99\pm
0.02 eV und 8.12\pm
0.02 eV. Durch einen zweiten H-Verlust konnte das Cyanocyclopentadienyl-Radikal mit einer Ionisierungsenergie für die zwei niedrigsten Zustände im Kation mit 9.07\pm
0.02 eV (T0) und 9.21\pm
0.02 eV (S1) untersucht werden. Weitere Pyrolyseprodukte, deren Ionisierungsenergien bereits literaturbekannt sind und die bestätigt wurden, sind das Cyclopentadienyl-Radikal, das Cyclopenta-1,3-dien, das Propargyl-Radikal, das Penta-1,3-diin und das Cyanopropenyl.
• Das ortho-Benz-in wurde pyrolytisch aus dem selbst synthetisierten Benzocyclobutendion erzeugt und ein Schwellenphotoelektronenspektrum frei von Störsignalen konnte aufgenommen werden. Mit Hilfe von Rechnungen aufCASPT2(11,14) Niveau, die neben dem elektronischen Übergang in den kationischen Grundzustand noch die Übergänge in zwei weitere angeregte kationische Zustände beinhalten, wurde die Ionisierungsenergie im Vergleich zu früheren Experimenten auf 9.51 eV revidiert. Eine verdrillte Geometrie für den kationischen Grundzustand konnte erstmals nachgewiesen werden. Zusätzlich wurden die offenkettigen Isomere cis- und trans-Hexa-1,5-diin-3-en im Spektrum detektiert und zugeordnet.
• Die Auftrittsenergien aus der DPI des Vorläufermoleküls Benzocyclobutendion betragen für den ersten CO-Verlust 9.62\pm
0.05 eV und für den zweiten CO-Verlust 12.14\pm
0.10 eV. Damit konnte über einen thermochemischen Kreisprozess eine Bindungsdissoziationsenergie für die Ph-CO Bindung im Benzoylkation von 2.52 eV berechnet werden.
• Verschiedenen Pyrolyseprodukte des ortho-Benz-ins, wie Ethin, Buta-1,3-diin, Benzol, Biphenylen und 2-Ethinylnaphthalin, werden entweder in bimolekularen Reaktionen gebildet oder ortho-Benz-in fragmentiert unimolekular zu diesen. Die beiden kompetitiven Reaktionspfade tragen zur PAH-Bildung des ortho-Benz-ins bei.
• Die Triplett-Carbene Pentadiinyliden, Methylpentadiinyliden und Dimethylpentadiinyliden wurden als Pyrolyseprodukt aus ihren zugehörigen Diazovorläufern identifiziert und die Ionisierungsenergien mit 8.36\pm
0.03 eV, 7.77\pm
0.04 eV und 7.27\pm
0.06 eV bestimmt. Jede Methylierung stabilisiert folglich das Carben. Zusätzlich konnte ein weiteres C5H2 Isomer, das 3-(Didehydrovinyliden)cyclopropen, mit einer Ionisierungsenergie von 8.60\pm
0.03 eV charakterisiert werden.
• Zwei bismuthaltige, reaktive Spezies, das Dimethylbismut-Radikal\cdot
BiMe2 (IE = 7.27\pm
0.04 eV) und das Methylbismut-Carben :BiMe(IE = 7.88\pm
0.02 eV) wurden als Pyrolyseprodukte aus dem BiMe3 identifiziert. Beide Verbindungen zeigen eine ausgeprägte Schwingungsstruktur, die der Bi-C Streckschwingung zugeordnet wurde. Weiterhin wurden elementares Bismut Bi und das Bismut-Dimer Bi2 nachgewiesen.
• Die homolytische Dissoziation der ersten Me2Bi-CH3 Bindung im BiMe3 wurde untersucht und eine BDE von 210\pm
7 kJ/ mol bestimmt. Sie liegt um +15 % bzw. +28 kJ/ mol über dem aus der Literatur abgeschätzten Wert.