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The geologic barrier represents the final contact between a landfill and the environment. Ideally suited are clays and mudstones because of sufficient vertical and lateral extent, low hydraulic conductivities and high sorptive characteristics. Since hydraulic conductivity is no longer the single criteria to determine transport and retardation of contaminants in geologic landfill barrier materials, diffusive and sorptive characteristics of 4 different clay and mudstone lithologies in Northern Bavaria, were investigated. Cored samples from various depths were included in this study and subjected to evaluations of geochemistry, mineralogy, physical parameters, sorption and diffusion. A transient double reservoir with decreasing source concentration was designed and constructed using clear polycarbonate cylinders for undisturbed clay plugs of 2 to 4cm thickness. Samples were also fitted with internal electrical conductivity probes to determine the migration of the diffusive front. A multi chemical species synthetic landfill leachate was contrived to simulate and evaluate natural pollutant conditions. A computational method for determining mineralogy from geochemical data was also developed. It was found that sorptive processes are mostly controlled by the quality and type of fine grained phyllosilicates and the individual chemical species involved exhibited linear, Freundlich, as well as Langmuir sorption properties. Effective diffusion and sorption coefficients were also determined using POLLUTEv6 (GAEA, 1997) software and receptor reservoir concentrations for K, Na, Ca, Cu, NH4, Cl, NO3, SO4, and concentration totals at predetermined time intervals. Anion exclusion proved to be a major factor in the diffusion process and was used to explain many observed anomalies. Furthermore, diffusion coefficients were found not to be static with a multi chemical species leachate, but actually varied during the course of the experiment. Strong indications point toward the major role of pore space quality, shape, and form as control of diffusive properties of a geologic barrier. A correlation of CECNa of the samples with De may point to a possible deduction of diffusive properties for multi species leachates without extensive and time consuming laboratory tests
Burn severity was measured within the Mediterranean sclerophyll forests of south-west Western Australia (WA) using remote sensing data from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS). The region of south-west WA is considered as a high fire prone landscape and is managed by the state government’s Department of Conservation and Land Management (CALM). Prescribed fuel reduction burning is used as a management tool in this region. The measurement of burn severity with remote sensing data focused on monitoring the success and impact of prescribed burning and wildfire in this environment. The high temporal resolution of MODIS with twice daily overpasses in this area was considered highly favourable, as opportunities for prescribed burning are temporally limited by climatic conditions. The Normalised Burn Ratio (NBR) was investigated to measure burn severity in the forested area of south-west WA. This index has its heritage based on data from the Landsat TM/ETM+ sensors (Key and Benson, 1999 [1],[2]) and was transferred from Landsat to MODIS data. The measurement principally addresses the biomass consumption due to fire, whereas the change detected between the pre-fire image and the post-fire image is quantified by the ÄNBR. The NBR and the Normalised Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) have been applied to MODIS and Landsat TM/ETM+ data. The spectral properties and the index values of the remote sensing data have been analysed within different burnt areas. The influence of atmospheric and BRDF effects on MODIS data has been investigated by comparing uncorrected top of atmosphere reflectance and atmospheric and BRDF corrected reflectance. The definition of burn severity classes has been established in a field trip to the study area. However, heterogeneous fire behaviour and patchy distribution of different vegetation structure made field classification difficult. Ground truth data has been collected in two different types of vegetation structure present in the burnt area. The burn severity measurement of high resolution Landsat data was assessed based on ground truth data. However, field data was not sufficient for rigorous validation of remote sensing data. The NBR index images of both sensors have been calibrated based on training areas in the high resolution Landsat image. The burn severity classifications of both sensors are comparable, which demonstrates the feasibility of a burn severity measurement using moderate spatial resolution 250m MODIS data. The normalisation through index calculation reduced atmospheric and BRDF effects, and thus MODIS top of at-mosphere data has been considered suitable for the burn severity measurement. The NBR could not be uniformly applied, as different structures of vegetation influenced the range of index values. Furthermore, the index was sensitive to variability in moisture content. However, the study concluded that the NBR on MODIS data is a useful measure of burn severity in the forested area of south-west WA.
In a three-year study the current aeolian transportation processes were examined in a linear dune area previously used for grazing near Nizzana at the Israeli-Egyptian border. The research area was subject to heavy grazing across the border, which led to the total destruction of the natural vegetation in the period of 1967 to 1982. As a consequence, intensified aeolian activity and significant changes of the morphology of the dunes were observed. After the end of the grazingg on the Israeli side, a rapid return of the vegetation in the interdune corridors and on the footslopes of the dunes took place. In addition also a reduction of obviously active areas on the dune crests was observed. The situation on Egyptian territory west the border remained unchanged until today. This study is aimed at understanding the changed aeolian morphodynamics east the border. The emphasis was placed on the investigation of the spatial and temporal distribution of aeolian sand transport as well as on the influencing factors morphology, surface condition and vegetation.
The Bafoussam area in west Cameroon is located within the Cameroon Neoproterozoic orogenic belt (north of the Congo craton) which is part of the Central African Fold Belt (CAFB).The evolution of the CAFB is related to the collision between the convergent West African craton, the São Francisco – Congo cratons and the Sahara Metacraton. The outcrop area stretches over a surface of ~1000 km2 and dominantly consists of granitoids which intruded wall-rocks of gneiss and migmatite during the Pan-African orogeny. The Bafoussam granitoid emplacement was influenced by the N 30 °E strike-slip shear zone in the prolongation of the Cameroon Volcanic Line, but also by the N 70 °E Central Cameroon Shear Zone. In the field, these two shear directions are expressed in the schistosity and foliation trajectories, fault orientation and the alignment of the volcanic cones as well. In the Bafoussam area, four types of granitoids can be distinguished, including: (i) the biotite granitoid, (ii) the deformed biotite granitoid, (iii) the mega feldspar granitoid, and (iv) the two-mica granitoid. These granitoids occur as elongated plutons hosting irregular mafic enclaves (amphibole-bearing, biotite-rich, and metagabbroic types) and are frequently cut by late pegmatites, aplite dykes and quartz veins. Petrographically, they range in composition from syenogranite (major), alkali-feldspar granite, granodiorite, monzogranite, quartz-syenite, quartzmonzonite to quartz-monzodiorite. Potassium feldspar, quartz, plagioclase and biotite are the principal phases, in cases accompanied by amphibole and accessory minerals such as apatite,zircon, monazite, titanite, allanite, ilmenite and magnetite. Sericite, epidote and chlorite are secondary minerals. In addition, the two-mica granitoid contains primary muscovite and sometimes igneous garnet. In the granitoids, potassium feldspar is orthoclase (microcline and orthoclase: Or81–97Ab19–3), and plagioclase is mainly oligoclase with some albite and andesine (An3–35Ab96–64).Biotite is Fe-rich (meroxene and lepidomelane, with some siderophyllite), having high Fe2+/(Fe2+ + Mg) ratios of 0.40–0.80. It is a re-equilibrated primary biotite and suggests calc-alkaline and peraluminous nature of the host granitoids. Amphibole is edenitic and magnesian hastingsitic hornblende, with high Mg/(Mg + Fe2+) ratios of 0.50–0.62. The evolution of the hornblende was dominated by the edenitic, tschermakitic, pargasitic and hastingsitic substitution types. Primary muscovite is iron-rich [Fe2+/(Fe2+ + Mg) = 0.52–0.82] and has experienced celadonite and paragonite substitutions. Igneous garnet is almandine–spessartine (XFe = 0.99 and XMn = 0.46–0.56). The euhedral grain shapes of garnet crystals and the absence of inclusions coupled with the high Mn and Fe2+contents (2.609–3.317 a.p.f.u and 2.646–3.277 a.p.f.u,respectively) and low Mg contents (0.012–0.038 a.p.f.u) clearly point to its plutonic origin. The Mn-depletion crystallization model is suggested for the origin of the analyzed garnet, i.e. initial crystallization of garnet inducing early decrease of Mn in the original melt. Aluminum-in-hornblende and phengite barometric estimates show that the granitoids crystallized at 4.2 ± 1.1 to 6.6 ± 1.0 kbar, corresponding to emplacement depths of 15–24 km.Zircon and apatite saturation temperature calibrations and hornblende–plagioclase thermometry yielded emplacement temperatures between 772 ± 41 and 808 ± 34 °C. Except the two-mica granitoid, the titanite–magnetite–quartz assemblage gives oxygen fugacities ranging from 10–17 to 10–13, suggesting that the granitoids were produced by an oxidized magma. Since the twomica granitoid lacks magnetite, it was originated from a magma under reducing conditions, below the quartz–fayalite–magnetite buffer. Fluid inclusions in quartz from hydrothermal veins are secondary in nature and are found in trails along healed microcracks or in clusters. Two types of fluid inclusion have been recognized, mixed aqueous–non-aqueous volatile fluid inclusions subdivided into aqueous-rich mixed and non-aqueous volatile-rich mixed fluid inclusions, and pure aqueous fluid inclusions.The non-aqueous volatile-rich mixed fluid inclusions are one-, two-, or three-phase inclusions, whereas the aqueous-rich mixed fluid inclusions are exclusively three-phase inclusions. Both have similar low to moderate salinities (1 to 10 equiv. wt. %). The total homogenization temperatures of the aqueous-rich mixed fluid inclusions are slightly lower than those of the nonaqueous volatile-rich mixed fluid inclusions, ranging from 150 to 250 °C and 170 to 300 °C,respectively. They contain nearly pure CO2, or CO2 with addition of 4.1–13.5 mole % CH4 as volatile constituents. Pure aqueous fluid inclusions are two-phase with lower total homogenization temperatures (130–150 °C) and salinities ranging from 3 to 8 equiv. wt. %. They display mixing salt system characteristics, having NaCl as the dominant salt and considerable amounts of other divalent cations. Aqueous-rich mixed fluid inclusions and pure aqueous fluid inclusions exhibit a low geothermal gradient value of 18 °C/km, whereas the non-aqueous volatiles-rich mixed fluid inclusions have a high density which correspond to high geothermal gradient of 68 °C/km. The studied granitoids are intermediate to felsic in compositions (56.9–74.6 wt. % SiO2)and have high contents of alkalis K2O (1.73–7.32 wt. %) and Na2O (1.25–5.13 wt. %) but low abundances in MnO (0.01–0.20 wt. %), MgO (0.10–3.97 wt. %), CaO (0.37–4.85 wt. %), P2O5(up to 0.90 wt. %). They display variable contents in TiO2 (0.07–0.91 wt. %), Fe2O3* (total Fe = 0.96–7.79 wt. %) and Al2O3 (12.0–17.6 wt. %) contents. The granitoids show a wide range of high-field-strength elements (HFSE) and large ion lithophile elements (LILE) contents, with felsic granitoids being enriched in HFSE and the intermediate granitoids displaying in contrast high LILE concentrations. They exhibit chemical characteristics of non-alkaline to mid-alkaline, alkali-calcic, calc-alkaline, K-rich to shoshonitic, ferriferous affinities. Chondrite-normalized rare earth element (REE) patterns are characterized by a strong enrichment in light compared to heavy REEs [(La/Sm)N = 3.23–9.65 and (Ga/Lu)N = 1.45–5.54, respectively], with small to significant negative Eu anomalies (Eu/Eu* = 0.28–1.08). Ocean ridge granites (ORG)normalized multi-elements spidergrams display typical collision-related granites pattern, with characteristic negative anomalies of Ba, Nb and Y, and positive anomalies in Rb, Th and Sm. The granitoids under study are genetically I-type granitoids (biotite granitoid, deformed biotite granitoid and mega feldspar granitoid) and one S-type granitoid (two-mica granitoid). The I-type granitoids are metaluminous (ASI: 0.70–1.00) or moderately peraluminous if highly fractionated (ASI: 1.01–1.06). The geochemistry and petrological features of these I-type granitoids argue for close genetic relationships and it is suggest that they originated from a single parent magma. The observed variability in mineralogy and major and trace element compositions in these granitoids are then the reflection of the fractional crystallization that evolved separation of plagioclase, biotite, K-feldspar and accessory minerals at the level of emplacement. The two mica S-type granitoid is exclusively peraluminous (ASI: 1.07–1.25) and classified as a peraluminous leucocratic granitoid or leucogranite. It is marked in its CIPW normative composition by the permanent presence of corundum, ranging between 0.12 and 3.03. The Bafoussam granitoids were emplaced in a syn- to post-collisional tectonic environment. The observed deformational features and the concentrations in Y, less than 40 ppm, confirm that they are related to an orogenesis. Whole-rock Rb–Sr isochrons defines an igneous crystallization ages of 540 ± 27 Ma for the biotite granitoid and 587 ± 41 Ma for the mega feldspar granitoid. These ages fit with the range of Pan-African granitoid ages (650–530 Ma) in West Cameroon and correspond to the Pan-African D2 deformation event in the Neoproterozoic Cameroon orogenic belt. The two-mica granitoid yields an older Rb–Sr isochron age of 663 ± 62 Ma which is considered to be probably a mixing age. The Nd–Sr isotopic compositions indicate that the I-type granitoids have been produced by partial melting of a tonalite–granodiorite source in the lower crust. This is supported by their initial 87Sr/86Sr(600 Ma) ratios (0.705–0.709) and by their WNd(600 Ma) values (0.2 to –6.3, mainly < 0). The two-mica granitoid was generated by partial melting of a greywacke-dominated source involving biotite-limited, biotite dehydration melting. Chemical data of the two-mica granitoid that support this hypothesis are low CaO/Na2O (0.11–0.38) and Sr/Ba (0.20–0.30), the high Rb/Sr (2.26–7.00), the high initial 87Sr/86Sr(600 Ma) ratios ranging from 0.708 to 0.720, the large range in Al2O3/TiO2 (47–204) and the negative WNd(600 Ma) values (–9.9 to –14.0). Moreover,the higher initial 87Sr/86Sr(600 Ma) ratios of the two-mica granitoid are consistent with an upper crust origin. The depleted mantle Nd model ages (TDM) of 1.3–2.3 Ga indicate that the studied granitoids originated by partial melting of Paleoproterozoic and Mesoproterozoic crust, with limited mantle-derived magma contribution. The high initial 87Sr/86Sr(600 Ma) ratios of these granitoids coupled with the wide negative WNd(600 Ma) values strongly suggest a very long residence time in the crust of their protoliths before the melting event. The petrologic signatures of the Bafoussam granitoids are similar to those described in other Pan-African belts of western Gondwanaland such as the neighbouring provinces of Nigeria and the Central African Republic, as well as in the Borborema Province of northeastern Brazil. This supports the previous hypothesis that the Central African fold Belt including Cameroon, Nigeria and the Central African Republic provinces has a continuation in Brazil.
This study explores and examines the geomorphology of a large endorheic basin, approximately twice the size of Luxemburg, situated in the Etosha National Park, Namibia. The main focus is directed on how and when this depression, known as Etosha Pan, came into being. Geomorphological investigation was complemented and guided primarily by the application and interpretation of satellite-derived information. Etosha Pan has attracted scientific investigations for nearly a century. Unfortunately, their efforts resulted into two diverging and mutually exclusive views with respect to its development. The first and oldest view dates back to the 1920s. It hypothesized Etosha Pan as a desiccated palaeolake which was abandoned following the river capture of its major fluvial system, the Kunene River. The river capture was assumed to have taken place in the Pliocene/Early Pleistocene. In spite of the absence of fluvial input that the Kunene contributed, the original lake was thought to have persisted until some 35 ka ago, long after the Kunene severed its ties with the basin. The current size of the basin and its playa status was interpreted to have resulted from deteriorating climatic conditions. The opposing view emerged in the 1980s and gained prominence in the 1990s. This view assumed that there were an innumerable number of small pans on the then surface of what later to become Etosha Pan. Since the turn of the Pliocene to Early Pleistocene, these individual pans started to experience a combined effect of fluvial erosion during the rainy season and wind deflation during the dry period. The climatic regime during that entire period was postulated to be semi-arid as today. This climatic status was used to rule out any existence of a perennial lake within the boundary of Etosha since the Quaternary. Ultimately, these denudational processes, taking place in a seasonal rhythm, caused the individual pans to deepen and widen laterally into each other and formed a super-pan that we call Etosha today. Thus the Kunene River had no role to play in the development of the Etosha Pan according to this model. However, proponents of this model acknowledged that the Kunene once fed into the Owambo Basin and assigned the end of the Tertiary to the terminal phase of that inflow. Findings of this study included field evidence endorsing the postulation that the Kunene River had once flowed into the Owambo Basin. Its infilled valley, bounding with the contemporary valley of the Kunene near Calueque, was identified and points towards the Etosha Pan. It is deliberated that a large lake, called Lake Kunene, existed in the basin during the time. Following the deflection of the Kunene River to the coast under the influence of river incision and neo-tectonic during the Late Pliocene, new dynamics were introduced over the Owambo Basin surface. After the basin was deprived of its major water and sediment budget that the Kunene River contributed, it was left with only smaller rivers, most notably the Cuvelai System, as the only remaining supplier. This resulted in the Cuvelai System concentrating and limiting its collective load deposition to a lobe of Lake Kunene basin floor. The accident of that lobe is unclear, but it is likely that it constituted the deepest part of the basin at the time or it was influenced by neo-tectonic that helped divert the Kunene River or both. Against the backdrop of fluvial action that was initiating the new lake, most parts of the rest of the basin, then denied of lacustrine activity, were intermittently riddled with a veneer of sediment, especially during phases of intensified aeolian activity. In the mean time, the area that was regularly receiving fluvial input started to shape up as a distinct lake with the depositions of sediments around the water-body, primarily via littoral action, serving as embankment. Gradually, a shoreline is formed and assisted in fixing and delineating the spatial extent of the new and much smaller lake, called Lake Etosha. That Lake Etosha is the predecessor of the modern day Etosha Pan. Indicators for a perennial lake found in this study at Etosha include fossil fragments of Clariidae species comparable to modern species measuring some 90 cm, and those of sitatunga dated to approximately 5 ka. None of these creatures exist today at Etosha because of their ecological requirements, which among others, include permanent water. The sitatunga, in addition, is known as the only truly amphibious antelope in the world. Since its inception, the new lake underwent a number of geomorphological modifications. A prominent character amongst these modifications is the orientation of the lake, which has its long-axis oriented in the ENE-WSW direction. It resulted from wave action affected by the prevailing dominant northeasterly wind, which is believed to have been in force since the Middle Pleistocene. Lake Etosha has also witnessed phases of waning and waxing under the influence of the prevailing climatic regime. Over the last 150 ka, the available data intercepted about seven phases of high lake levels. These data are generally in agreement with regional palaeoclimatic data, particularly when compared with those obtained from neighbouring Makgadikgadi Pans in Botswana. The last recorded episode of the wet phase at Etosha was some 2,400 years before the present.
Two phases of reef sampling were carried out. The first included regular samples taken along the coastline of Aqaba (27km long) at depths of 4-15m, and used to determine spatial distribution of pollution. The second phase included three 20cm-deep cores obtained from within the industrial zone. These cores were drilled from pre-dated communities, where the growth rate was determined earlier to be 10mm y-1, therefore the core obtained represented a period of 20 years (i.e. 1980-2000). The cores were used to reconstruct the metal pollution history at the most heavily used site along the coast (industrial zone).All samples were examined with respect to their metal content of Cd, Pb, Cu, Zn, Ni, and Cr. Almost all of them have shown records above the calculated background values. Mean values of Cd, Pb, Cu, Zn, Ni and Cr recorded along the coast were 1,25; 4,26; 9,76; 11,40; 2,29 and 10,522, µg g-1 respectively, and for core samples 1.4; 4.2; 5.7; 6.4; 2.3 and 8.21 µg g-1 respectively. Spatial distribution of metal enrichment in reef samples have shown a general and clear increasing trend towards the south. Same increasing trend was also in core samples where the six metals have shown a prominent increasing trend towards the core surface indicating an increase of coastal activities during the last twenty years. High and relatively high values were recorded at the oil port, the industrial area and main port, and thus categorized as highly impacted areas. Intermediate metal content were recorded in samples of the north beach, and thus classified as being relatively impacted, where the lowest metal concentrations were observed at the marine reserve, the least impacted site along the coast. The high enrichment of metal is attributed mainly to anthropogenic impacts. The natural inputs of the six metals studied in the Gulf of Aqaba are generally very low, due to the geographic positions and the absence of wadi discharge and as a result of low rainfall. Several potential sources of heavy metals were investigated. The industrial-related activities, port operations and phosphate dust were among the main sources currently threatening the marine ecosystem in Aqaba. Applying the Principle Components Analysis method (PCA) to all samples taken along the coastline has resulted in categorizing three different groups according to their metal enrichment, the first is composed of samples taken from the north beach and the main port with intermediate to high enrichment, the second joined the samples of the marine park and the marine reserve with low and relatively low enrichment, and the last group joined samples of the industrial zone and the oil port with high enrichment. The Principle Component Scores were also utilized to confirm the spatial distribution and relationships of the examined heavy metals along the coast. Two models (interpolated by SURFER  7.0 and ArcView 3.2a) were developed, the first was based on the PC scores of the first component, and shows clearly the positive anomalies in metal concentrations along the coast. The second model was developed by plotting the second factor scores on a landuse map of Aqaba. According to these models, it has shown that the positive anomalies are associated with three different zones; industrial area, the main port and the oil port. The results have shown that coral reefs can be used as good environmental indicator for assessments and monitoring processes, and they can provide data and information on both the spatial distribution of pollution and their history. The present work is the first to document the environmental status along the whole coast of Aqaba and the first to use coral reef as a tool/ indicator.
Rifting and breakup of Westgondwana in the Late Jurassic/ Early Cretaceous initiated the formation of the South Atlantic and its conjugated pair of passive continental margins. The Walvis Basin offshore NW-Namibia is an Early Cretaceous to recent depositional centre with a typically wedge-shaped postrift sedimentary succession covering an area of 105000km2. A 2D model transect across the central Walvis Basin and adjacent onshore areas is used as a case study to investigate quantitatively the denudational history of the evolving passive margin and the related contemporaneous depositional postrift evolution offshore. The database for both the onshore and offshore part of the model traverse is well constrained by own field work, published data as well as by seismic and well data supported by samples. The ultimate goal of this project is to present an integrated approach towards a quantitative link between surface processes and internal processes in terms of a mass and process balance.
The high-grade metamorphic Epupa Complex (EC) of north-western Namibia constitutes the south-western margin of the Archean to Proterozoic Congo Craton. The north-eastern portion of the EC has been geochemically and petrologically investigated in order to reconstruct its tectono-metamorphic evolution. Two distinct metamorphic units have been recognized, which are separated by ductile shear zones: (1) Upper amphibolite facies rocks (Orue Unit) and (2) ultrahigh-temperature (UHT) granulite facies rocks (Epembe Unit). The rocks of the EC are transsected by a large anorthosite massif, the Kunene Intrusive Complex (KIC). The Orue Unit and the Epembe Unit were affected by two distinct Mesoproterozoic metamorphic events, as is evident from differences in their metamorphic grade, in the P-T paths and in the age of peak-metamorphism: (1) The Orue Unit consists of a Palaeoproterozoic volcano-sedimentary sequence, which was intruded by large masses of I-type granitoids and by rare mafic dykes. During the Mesoproterozoic (1390-1318 Ma) the Orue Unit rocks underwent upper amphibolite facies metamorphism. The volcano-sedimentary sequence is constituted by interlayered basaltic amphibolites and rhyolitic felsic gneisses, with intercalations of migmatitic metagreywackes, migmatitic metapelites, metaarkoses and calc-silicate rocks. The Orue Unit was subdivided into three parts, which record similar heating-cooling paths but represent individual crustal levels: Heating led to the partial replacement of amphibole, biotite and muscovite through dehydration melting reactions. The peak-metamorphic P-T conditions of c. 700°C, 6.5 +/- 1.0 kbar (south-eastern part), c. 820°C, 8 +/- 0.5 kbar (south-western part) and c. 800°C, 6.0 +/- 1.0 kbar (northern part) correlate well with the mineral assemblage in the metapelites, i.e. Grt-Bt-Sil gneisses and schist in the south-eastern and south-western region and (Grt-)Crd-Bt gneisses in the northern part. Peak-metamorphism was followed by retrograde cooling to middle amphibolite facies conditions. Contact metamorphism, related with the intrusion of the anorthosites, is restricted to the direct contact to the KIC and recorded by massive metapelitic Grt-Sil-Crd felses, formed under upper amphibolite facies conditions (c. 750°C, c. 6.5 kbar). (2) The Epembe Unit consists of a Palaeoproterozoic volcano-sedimentary succession, which was intruded by small bodies of S-type granitoids and by andesitic dykes. All these rocks underwent UHT granulite facies metamorphism during the early Mesoproterozoic (1520-1447 Ma). The volcano-sedimentary succession is dominated by interlayered basaltic two-pyroxene granulites and rhyolitic felsic granulites. Migmatitic metapelites and metagreywackes are intercalated in the metavolcanites. Sapphirine-bearing MgAl-rich gneisses occur as restitic schlieren in the migmatitic metagreywackes. Reconstructed anti-clockwise P-T paths are subdivided into several distinct stages: During prograde near-isobaric heating to UHT conditions at c. 7 kbar biotite- or hornblende-bearing mineral assemblages were almost completely replaced by anhydrous mineral assemblages through various dehydration melting reactions. A subsequent pressure increase of 2-3 kbar led to the formation of the peak-metamorphic mineral assemblages Grt-Opx and (Grt-)Opx-Cpx in the orthogneisses and Grt-Opx, Grt-Sil and (Grt-)(Spr-)Opx-Sil-Qtz in the paragneisses. UHT-Metamorphism is proved by conventional geothermobarometry (970 +/- 70°C; 9.5 +/- 2.5 kbar), by the very high Al content of peak-metamorphic orthopyroxene (up to 11.9 wt.% Al2O3) in many paragneisses and by Opx-Sil-Qtz assemblages in the MgAl-rich gneisses. Post-peak decompression is recorded by several corona and symplectite textures, formed at the expense of the peak-metamorphic phases: Initial UHT decompression of about ca. 2 kbar to 940 +/- 60°C at 8 +/- 2 kbar is mainly evident from the formation of sapphirine-bearing symplectites in the Opx-Sil gneisses. Subsequent high-temperature decompression to 6 +/- 2 kbar at 800 +/- 60°C resulted in the formation of Crd-Opx-Spl, Crd-Opx and Spl-Crd symplectites. Subsequent near-isobaric cooling to upper amphibolite conditions of 660 +/- 30°C at 5 +/- 1.5 kbar led to the re-growth of biotite, hornblende, sillimanite and garnet. During continued decompression orthopyroxene and cordierite were formed at the expense of biotite in several paragneisses. In a geodynamic model UHT metamorphism of the Epembe Unit is correlated with the formation of a large magma chamber at the mantle-crust boundary, which forms the source for the anorthosites of the KIC. In contrast, amphibolite facies metamorphism of the Orue Unit is ascribed to a regional contact metamorphic event, caused by the emplacement of the anorthositic crystal mushes in the middle crust.
During the Mesoproterozoic large volumes of magma were repeatedly emplaced within the basement of NW Namibia. Magmatic activity started with the intrusion of the anorthositic rocks of the Kunene Intrusive Complex (KIC) at 1,385-1,347 Ma. At its south-eastern margin the KIC was invaded by syenite dykes (1,380-1,340 Ma) and younger carbonatites (1,140-1,120 Ma) along ENE and SE trending faults. Older ferrocarbonatite intrusions, the ‘carbonatitic breccia’, frequently contain wallrock fragments, whereas subordinate ferrocarbonatite veins are almost xenolith-free. Metasomatic interaction between carbonatite-derived fluids and the neighbouring and incorporated anorthosites led to the formation of economically important sodalite deposits. Investigated anorthosite samples display the magmatic mineral assemblage of Pl (An37-75) ± Ol ± Opx ± Cpx + Ilm + Mag + Ap ± Zrn. Ilmenite and pyroxene are surrounded by narrow reaction rims of biotite and pargasite. During the subsolidus stage sporadic coronitic garnet-orthopyroxene-quartz assemblages were produced. Thermobarometry studies on amphiboles yield temperatures of 985-950°C whereas the chemical composition of coronitic garnet and orthopyroxene indicate a subsolidus re-equilibration of the KIC at conditions of 760 ± 100°C and 7.3 ± 1 kbar. In the syenites Kfs, Pl, Hbl and/or Cpx crystallized first, followed by a second generation of Kfs, Hbl, Fe-Ti oxides and Ttn. Crystallization of potassium feldspar occurred under temperatures of 890-790°C. For the crystallization of hastingsite pressures of 6.5 ± 0.6 kbar are obtained. In order to constrain the source rocks of the two suites, oxygen isotope analyses of feldspar as well as geochemical bulk rock analyses were carried out. In case of the anorthosites, the general geochemical characteristics are in excellent agreement with their derivation from fractionated basaltic liquids, with the d18O values (5.88 ± 0.19 ‰) proving their derivation from mantle-derived magmas. The results obtained for the felsic suite, provide evidence against consanguinity of the anorthosites and the syenites, i.e. (1) compositional gaps between the geochemical data of the two suites, (2) trace element data of the felsic suite points to a mixed crustal-mantle source, (3) syenites do not exhibit ubiquitous negative Eu-anomalies in their REE patterns, which would be expected from fractionation products of melts that previously formed plagioclase cumulates and (4) feldspar d18O values from the syenites fall in a range of 7.20-7.92 ‰, which, however, is about 1.6 ‰ higher than the average d18O of the anorthosites. Conformably, the crustal-derived felsic and the mantle-derived anorthositic suite are suggested to be coeval but not consanguineous. Their spatial and temporal association can be accounted for, if the heat necessary for crustal melting is provided by the upwelling and emplacement of mantle-derived melts, parental to the anorthosites. In order to constrain the source of the 1,140-1,120 Ma carbonatites and to elucidate the fenitizing processes, which led to the formation of the sodalite, detailed mineralogical and geochemical investigations, stable isotope (C,O,S) analyses and fluid inclusion measurements (microthermometrical studies and synchrotron-micro-XRF analyses) have been combined. There is striking evidence that carbonatites of both generations are magmatic in origin. They occur as dykes with cross-cutting relationships and margins disturbed by fenitic aureoles, and contain abundant flow-oriented xenoliths. The mineral assemblage of both carbonatite generations of Ank + Cal + Ilm + Mag + Bt ± Ap ± pyrochlore ± sulphides in the main carbonatite body and Ank + Cal + Mag ± pyrochlore ± rutile in the ferrocarbonatite veins, their geochemical characteristics and the O and C isotope values of ankerite (8.91 to 9.73 and –6.73 to –6.98, respectively) again indicate igneous derivation, with the 18O values suggesting minor subsolidus alteration. NaCl-rich fluids, released from the carbonatite melt mainly caused the fenitization of both, the incorporated and the bordering anorthosite. This process is characterized by the progressive transformation of Ca-rich plagioclase into albite and sodalite. Applying conventional geothermobarometry combined with fluid-inclusion isochore data, it was possible to reconstruct the P-T conditions for the carbonatite emplacement and crystallization (1200-630°C, 4-5 kbar) and for several mineral-forming processes during metasomatism (e.g. formation of sodalite: 800-530°C). The composition and evolutionary trends of the fenitizing solution were estimated from both the sequence of metasomatic reactions within wallrock xenoliths in the carbonatitic breccia and fluid inclusion data. The fenitizing solutions responsible for the transformation of albite into sodalite can be characterised as of NaCl-rich aqueous brines (19-30 wt.% NaCl eq.), that contained only minor amounts of Sr, Ba, Fe, Nb, and LREE.
Sand ramps have been (and still are) neglected in geomorphological research. Only recently any awareness of their potential of being a major source of palaeoenvironmental information, thanks to their multi-process character, has been developed. In Namibia, sand ramps were terra incognita. This study defines, classifies and systematizes sand ramps, investigates the formative processes and examines their palaeoenvironmental significance. The study region is located between the coastal Namib desert and the Great Escarpment, between the Tiras Mountains to the north and the Aus area to the south. Two lines of work were followed: geomorphological and sedimentological investigations in the field, assisted by interpretation of satellite images, aerial photographs and topographic maps, and palaeopedological and sedimentological analytical work in the laboratory. Two generations of sand ramps could be identified. The older generation, represented by a single sand ramp within the study region, is characterized by the presence of old basal sediments. The bulk of the sand ramps is assigned to the young generation, which is divided into three morpho-types: in windward positions voluminous ramps are found, in leeward positions low-volume ramps exist, either of very high or very low slope angle. The most distinct characteristic of sand ramp sediments is their formation by interacting aeolian deposition and fluvial slope wash. The last period of deposition, which shaped all the entire young sand ramps, but also the upper part of the old ramp, is suggested to have occurred after c. 40 ka BP, implying a highly dynamic climatic system during that time, with seasonal aridity and low-frequency, but high-intensity rainfall. A phase of environmental stability followed, most likely around 25 ka BP, supporting growth of vegetation, stabilization and consolidation of the sediments as well as soil formation. Subsequently, the profile was truncated and a desert pavement formed, under climatic conditions comparable to those of the present semi-desert. The ramps were then largely cut off from the bedrock slopes, implying a change towards higher ecosystem variability. As the final major process, recent and modern aeolian sands accumulated on the upper ramp slopes. A luminescence date for the recent sand places their deposition at about 16 ka BP, close to the Last Glacial Maximum. Regarding the source of the sands, a local origin is proposed. For the sand ramp of the old generation the "basic cycle" of initial deposition, stabilization and denudation occurred twelve times, including a phase of calcrete and/or root-cast formation in each of them, adding up to around 60 changes in morphodynamics altogether. At least nine of these cycles took place between 105 ka BP and the LGM, indicating that the general cooling trend during the Late Pleistocene was subject to a high number of oscillations of the environmental conditions not identified before for southern Namibia. Due to the high resolution obtained by the study of sand ramp sediments, but also due to the very special situation of the study area in a desert margin, 100 km from the South Atlantic and in the transition zone between summer and winter rainfall, correlation with stratigraphies (of mostly lower resolution) established for different regions in southern Africa did not appear promising. In conclusion, sand ramps generally serve as a valuable tool for detailed deciphering of past morphodynamics and thereby palaeoenvironmental conditions. For south-west Namibia, sand ramps shed some more light on the Late Quaternary landscape evolution.
The Skeleton Coast forms part of the Atlantic coastline of NW Namibia comprising several ephemeral rivers, which flow west-southwest towards the Atlantic Ocean. The area is hyper-arid with less than 50 mm average annual rainfall and a rainfall variability of 72%. Therefore, the major catchment areas of the rivers are about 100-200 km further inland in regions with relatively high annual rainfall of 300-600 mm. The coastal plain in the river downstream areas is characterized by a prominent NNW trending, 165 km long belt of 20-50 m high, locally compound, barchanoid and transverse dunes. This dune belt, termed Skeleton Coast Erg, starts abruptly with a series of barchans and large compound dunes 15 km north of the Koigab River and extends from 2-5 km inland sub-parallel to the South Atlantic margin of NW Namibia over a width of 3-20 km. As the SSE-NNW trending dune belt is oriented perpendicular to river flow, the dunefield dams and interacts with the west-southwestward flowing ephemeral river systems. This study focused on three main topics: 1) investigation and classification of the Koigab Fan, 2) the investigation of the Cenozoic succession in the Uniabmond area and 3) comparative studies of fluvio-aeolian interaction between five ephemeral rivers and the Skeleton Coast Erg. Sedimentological and geomorphological investigations show that the Koigab Fan represents a yet undocumented type of a braided fluvial fan system, which operates in an arid climatic, tropical latitude setting, is dominated by ephemeral mixed gravel/sand braided rivers, lacks significant vegetation on the fan surface, has been relatively little affected by human activity, is a perfect study site for recording various types of fluvio-aeolian interaction and thereby acts additionally as a model for certain Precambrian and Early Palaeozoic fan depositional systems deposited prior to the evolution of land plants. The Cenozoic succession in the Uniabmond area consists of three major unconformity-bounded units, which have been subdivided into the Red Canyon, the Whitecliff, and the Uniabmond Formation. The Tertiary Red Canyon Fm. is characterized by continental reddish sediments documenting an alluvial fan and braided river to floodplain depositional environment. The Whitecliff Fm. displays a wide variety of continental and marine facies. This formation provides the possibility to examine fluvio-aeolian interactions and spectacular, steep onlap relationships towards older sediments preserved in ancient seacliffs. The Whitecliff Fm. has been subdivided into four sedimentary cycles, which resulted from sea level changes during the Plio- to Middle Pleistocene. The following Uniabmond Fm. provides a unique insight into the depositional history of the NW Namibian coast during the Last Pleistocene glacial cycle. The formation has been subdivided into four units, which are separated by unconformities controlled by sea level changes. Unit 1 represents deposits of an Eemian palaeo-beach. The overlying Units 2-4 build up the sedimentary body of the Uniab Fan, again a braided river dominated fan, which is nowadays degraded and characterized by deeply incised valleys, deflation surfaces and aeolian landforms. The Uniabmond Fm. is overlain by the dunes of the Skeleton Coast Erg, whose development is related to the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM). The damming of river flow by aeolian landforms has been previously recognized as one of several principal types of fluvio-aeolian interaction. Five ephemeral rivers (from S to N: Koigab, Uniab, Hunkab, Hoanib, Hoarusib), which variously interact with the Skeleton Coast Erg, were chosen for the purpose of this study to consider the variability of parameters within these fluvio-aeolian systems and the resulting differences in the effectiveness of aeolian damming. The fluvio-aeolian interactions between the rivers and the dune field are controlled by the climate characteristics and the geology of the river catchment areas, the sediment load of the rivers, their depositional architecture, the longitudinal river profiles as well as the anatomy of the Skeleton Coast Erg. Resulting processes are 1) aeolian winnowing of fluvially derived sediments and sediment transfer into and deposition in the erg; 2) dune erosion during break-through resulting in hyperconcentrated flow and intra-erg mass flow deposits; 3) the development of extensive flood-reservoir basins caused by dune damming of the rivers during flood; 4) interdune flooding causing stacked mud-pond sequences; and 5) the termination of the erg by more frequent river floods.
This work presents the analysis, 3D modeling and interpretation of gravity and aeromagnetic data of Jordan and Middle East. The potential field data delineate the location of the major faults, basins, swells, anticlines, synclines and domes in Jordan. The surface geology of Jordan and the immediate area east of the Rift is dominated by two large basins, the Al-Jafr basin in the south and the Al-Azraq-Wadi as Sirhan basin to the northeast. These two basins strike southeast-northwest and are separated by an anticlinal axis, the Kilwah-Bayir swell. The Karak Wadi El Fayha fault system occurs along the western flank of the swell. The Swaqa fault occurs on the southwest hinge of Al-Azraq basin and the Fuluq fault occurs on its northeast hinge. In the south west of Jordan, Wadi Utm-Quwaira and Disi-Mudawara fault zones are shown clearly in the aeromagnetic and gravity maps. The previous major faults are well correlated with the structural map of Jordan published by Bender (1968). 3D modeling of gravity data in the Dead Sea basin (DSB) was used together with existing geological and geophysical information to give a complete structural picture of the basin. The 3D models of the DSB show that the internal structure of the Dead Sea basin (DSB) is controlled by longitudinal faults and the basin is developed as a full graben bounded by sub-vertical faults along its long sides. In the northern planes of the 3D model, the accumulation of Quaternary (salt and marl) and Mesozoic (pre-rift) sediments are thinner than in the central and southern planes of the model. In the northern planes, the thickness of the Quaternary sediments is about 4 km, 5 km in the southern planes and it exceeds 8 km in the central planes of the DSR. The thickness of the pre-rift sediments reaches 10-12 km in the northern and southern planes and exceeds 15 km in the central planes of the DSR. The planes of the 3D models show that the depth to the crystalline basement under the eastern shoulders of the DSR is shallower than those beneath the western shoulders. It is about 3-5 km beneath the eastern shoulders and 7-9 km under the western shoulder of the DSR. The gravity anomaly maps of residual and first derivative gravity delineate the subsurface basins of widely varying size, shape, and depth along the Rift Valley. The basins are created by the combination of the lateral motion along a right-tending step over and normal faulting along the opposite sides. Al Bakura basin occupies the upper Jordanian River valley and extends into the southern Tiberias Lake. Bet Shean basin to the south of Al Bakura basin plunges asymmetrically toward the east. The Damia basin, comprising the central Jordan Valley and Jericho areas to the north of the Dead Sea is shallow basin (~600-800m deep). The Lisan basin is the deepest basin in the Rift. The 3D gravity models indicate a maximum of ~12 km of basin fill. Three basins are found in Wadi Araba area, Gharandal, Timna (Qa'-Taba) and Aqaba (Elat) basin. The three basins become successively wider and deeper to the south. The three regional gravity long E-W profiles (225 km) from the Mediterranean Sea crossing the Rift Valley to the east to the Saudi Arabia borders, show the positive correlation between topography and free air anomaly and strong negative Bouguer anomaly under the central part of the Dead Sea Basin (DSB) and normal regional Bouguer anomaly outside of the DSB in the transform valley. Depth to the top of the bedrock in the under ground of Jordan was calculated from potential field data. The basement crops out in the south west of Jordan and becomes deeper to northwards and eastwards to be about ~ 8 km below ground surface in the Risha area.
A quantitative model of groundwater flows contributing to the Goblenz state water scheme at the north-western fringe of the Kalahari was developed within this study. The investigated area corresponds to the Upper Omatako basin and encompasses an outer mountainous rim and sediments of the Kalahari sand desert in the centre. This study revealed the eminent importance of the mountainous rim for the water balance of the Kalahari, both in terms of surface and ground water. A hydrochemical subdivision of groundwater types in the mountain rim around the Kalahari was derived from cluster analysis of hydrochemical groundwater data. The western and south-western secondary aquifers within rocks of the Damara Sequence, the Otavi Mountain karst aquifers of the Tsumeb and Abenab subgroups as well as the Waterberg Etjo sandstone aquifer represent the major hydrochemical groups. Ca/Mg and Sr/Ca ratios allowed to trace the groundwater flow from the Otavi Mountains towards the Kalahari near Goblenz. The Otavi Mountains and the Waterberg were identified as the main recharge areas showing almost no or only little isotopic enrichment by evaporation. Soil water balance modelling confirmed that direct groundwater recharge in hard-rock environments tends to be much higher than in areas covered with thick Kalahari sediments. According to the water balance model average recharge rates in hard-rock exposures with only thin sand cover are between 0.1 and 2.5 % of mean annual rainfall. Within the Kalahari itself very limited recharge was predicted (< 1 % of mean annual rainfall). In the Upper Omatako basin the highest recharge probability was found in February in the late rainfall season. The water balance model also indicated that surface runoff is produced sporadically, triggering indirect recharge events. Several sinkholes were discovered in the Otavi Foreland to the north of Goblenz forming short-cuts to the groundwater table and preferential recharge zones. Their relevance for the generation of indirect recharge could be demonstrated by stable isotope variations resulting from observed flood events. Within the Kalahari basin several troughs were identified in the pre-Kalahari surface by GIS-based analyses. A map of saturated thickness of Kalahari sediments revealed that these major troughs are partly saturated with groundwater. The main trough, extending from south-west to north-east, is probably connected to the Goblenz state water scheme and represents a major zone of groundwater confluence, receiving groundwater inflows from several recharge areas in the Upper Omatako basin. As a result of the dominance of mountain front recharge the groundwater of the Kalahari carries an isotopic composition of recharge at higher altitudes. The respective percentages of inflow into the Kalahari from different source areas were determined by a mixing-cell approach. According to the mixing model Goblenz receives most of its inflow (70 to 80 %) from a shallow Kalahari aquifer in the Otavi Foreland which is connected to the Otavi Mountains. Another 15 to 10 % of groundwater inflow to the Kalahari at Goblenz derive from the Etjo sandstone aquifer to the south and from inflow of a mixed component. In conclusion, groundwater abstraction at Goblenz will be affected by measures that heavily influence groundwater inflow from the Otavi Mountains, the Waterberg, and the fractured aquifer north of the Waterberg.
In north-western Namibia the fills of the Karoo-Etendeka depositories can be subdivided into (1) a Carboniferous-Permian, (2) a Triassic-Jurassic and (3) a Cretaceous megasequence, each recording extensional periods related to successive rifting phases in the evolving South Atlantic. The tectonic environment of the depositories in north-western Namibia changes successively from the coast towards the continental interior, which is reflected by the facies distribution and the position of time-stratigraphic gaps. Close to the present-day coastline synsedimentary listric faults, trending parallel to the South Atlantic rift (N-S), caused the formation of wedge shaped sediment bodies. Here, the Karoo Supergroup is only represented by the Permian succession in the Huab area. A hiatus within the Permian can be recognised by the correlation with the main Karoo Basin in South Africa and the Brazilian Paraná Basin. This stratal gap correlates with a pre-Beaufort Group unconformity in the main Karoo Basin that might be related to an orogenic pulse in the Cape Fold Belt. The Permian succession itself is unconformably overlain by the Lower Cretaceous Etendeka Group. This hiatus extending from the Upper Permian to the Lower Cretaceous has probably been induced by a combination of rift shoulder uplift and additional crustal doming associated with Etendeka flood volcanism. The enhanced tectonism during the Early Cretaceous controlled accommodation space for the alluvial-fluvial and aeolian deposits of the lower Etendeka Group. Disconformities within those deposits and the overlying lava succession attribute to distinct phases of tectonic and volcanic activity heralding the South Atlantic breakup. Towards the south-east, the Karoo succession becomes successively more complete. In the vicinity of Mt. Brandberg Early Triassic strata (Middle Omingonde Formation) follow disconformably above the Upper Permian/Lowermost Triassic Doros Formation. The sedimentation there was essentially controlled by the SW-NE trending Damaraland Uplift. South of the Damaraland Uplift the SW-NE trending Waterberg-Omaruru Fault zone is interpreted as a sinistral oblique-slip fault that compartmentalised the South Atlantic rift. This fault controlled accommodation space of the entire Triassic Omingonde Formation and the Early Jurassic Etjo Formation in its associated pull-apart and transtension structures. A locally well developed angular unconformity defines a hiatus between the two formations. Correlation with the main Karoo Basin in South Africa confirms that this gap is of a regional extent and not only a local, fault induced feature. Furthermore, it might also correlate with an orogenic pulse of the Cape Fold Belt. In general, the Mesozoic megasequences record the long-lived history of the southern Atlantic rift evolution. Rifting has been controlled by orogenic pulses derived from the Samfrau active margin throughout the Mesozoic. The associated intracratonic E-W extension caused the formation of grabens and conjugated oblique-slip zones. The generation of voluminous flood basalts marks the climax of intracratonic extension that was accompanied by enhanced uplift of the rift shoulders.
Previous work on Jurassic bivalves from the Iberian Range is reviewed, whereby emphasis is placed on Callovian-Kimmeridgian species. The taxonomy, distribution pattern and ecology of the bivalve fauna occurring in Middle and Upper Jurassic rocks of the Aragonian Branch of the Iberian Range have been analysed. For this purpose 14 sections and 5 additional outcrops, selected according to the abundance of bivalves, were measured in detail and sampled. The rocks studied belong to the Chelva, Yátova, Sot de Chera and Loriguilla formations of Callovian-Kimmeridgian age. The distribution of species of bivalves is given for each section. More than 3000 specimens of bivalves representing 83 species that belong to 46 genera and subgenera of the subclasses Palaeotaxodonta, Pteriomorphia, Isofilibranchia. Palaeoheterodonta, Heterodonta and Anomaldesmata have been used for the taxonomic analysis. One species is new: Plagiostoma fuersichi from the Callovian of the Chelva Fm. The autecology (trophic group and life habit) of each bivalve has been discussed. 49 samples of four sections habe been selected for a quantitative palaeoecological analysis of the bivalve fraction of the benthic fauna. Five bivalve associations and two assemblages are recognised by a Q-mode hierarchical cluster analysis (Ward method). The main environmental factors controlling bivalve associations are thought to be substrate, water energy and distribution of organic matter. The bivalves exhibit a distinct spatial and temporal distribution pattern within the Aragonian Branch. Four of the bivalve associations occur in the Upper Oxfordian (Sot de Chera Fm) and one association in the Lower Callovian (Chelva Fm). In the Sot de Chera and Loriguilla formations, the abundance of bivalves decreases from NW to SE i.e., from relatively close to the shore line towards the distal-most part of the carbonate platform. In the Chelva Fm. bivalves are abundant in the Ariño region, interpreted as a palaeogeographic high. The distribution of bivalves might have been largely controlled by the availability of nutrients.
This study has focused on hydrogeological and hydrochemical settings of the Northern Namibian Kalahari Catchment which is the Namibian part of the Makgadikgadi-Kalahari-Catchment. Recharge has been the subject of process-understanding, quantification and regionalisation. Within the semiarid study area a bimodal surface constitution is prominent: hardrocks areas allow for fast infiltration along karsts and joints, whereas areas covered by unconsolidated sediments receive minor diffuse recharge and locally some preferred flow path recharge develops along shrinkage cracks and rootlets. Five substratum classes have been soil physically studied: Pans and vleis, brown to red soils, dune sand, soil with an aeolian influence, and calcrete. Aeolian sands are most promising for the development of direct diffuse recharge. Recharge by preferred flow might occur in all soil classes either due to joints in calcrete or structures and rootlets in soils. All soil classes contribute to indirect recharge because even the dune sand allows, albeit very locally, the generation of runoff. The occurrences of recharge through the unconsolidated soil and the hardrocks have been confirmed by hydrograph interpretation and by a study of hydrochemical data which identified groundwater of flood water and flood water after soil passage composition. Other prominent hydrochemical processes in the Kalahari are associated with the carbonate-equilibrium-system, mixing with highly mineralised water that is either sulphate (central area) or chloride dominated (fringe area) and development of sodium hydrogencarbonate water types. The latter is mostly generated by feldspar weathering. Variations of the hydrochemical compositions were observed for shallow groundwaters. They do not only reflect the recharge amount but also the recharge conditions, e.g. a wetter year is allowing more vegetation which increases the hydrogencarbonate content. Inverse determination of recharge by the chloride mass balance method gives recharge amounts between 0.2 and locally more than 100 mm/a. The least favoured recharge conditions are found for Kalahari covered areas, the largest amount occurs in the Otavi area. The distribution of recharge areas within the catchment is rather complex and regionalisation of recharge for the entire catchment was done by a forward approach using satellite images and by an inverse approach using hydrochemical data. From the inverse hydrochemical approach a basin-wide balanced recharge amount of 1.39 mm/a is achieved. The forward approach gave a basin-wide figure of 0.88 (minimum assumption) to 4.53 mm/a (maximum assumption). A simplistic groundwater flow model confirmed the results from the minimum recharge regionalisation by satellite images and the result from the hydrochemical approach. Altogether a mutually verified basin-wide recharge figure of ca. 1 mm/a turns out.
For many active volcanoes all over the world a civil protection program, normally combined with hazard maps, exists. Optimising of hazard maps and the associated hazard assessment implies a detailed knowledge of the volcanostratigraphy, because the deposits provoke information on the potential behaviour during a new activity cycle. Pyroclastic deposits, however, may vary widely in thickness and distribution over very short lateral distances. High resolution characterisation of single strata often cannot be archived, if solely sedimentological and geochemical methods are used. Gamma-ray measurements taken in the field combined with grain-size depended magnetic susceptibility measurements made in the laboratory are used in this work to optimise the resolution of volcanostratigraphic investigations. The island of Vulcano is part of the Aeolian Archipelago sited of the northern coast of Sicily. La Fossa cone is the active centre of Vulcano, where fumarolic and seismic activity can be observed. The cone was built up during the last 6,000 years, whereby the last eruption period is dated to historic times (1888-1890). For the tuff cone La Fossa the most likely volcanic hazards are the emplacement of pyroclastic deposits as well as gas hazards (especially SOx and CO2), due to this the detailed knowledge of the stratigraphy is mandatory. Most of the population resides in Vulcano Porto and the nearby sited peninsula of Vulcanello, which are highly endangered locations for a future eruption scenario. Measurements, made in standard outcrops, allow a characterisation of the successions Punte Nere, Tufi Varicolori, Palizzi, Commenda, and Cratere Attuale. A discrimination of all successions by solely one of the methods is rarely possible. In some cases, however, the combination of the methods leads to clear results. It can also be noticed that the exposition as well as the sedimentation type (wet-surge or dry-surge deposits) affect the measurements. In general it can be assumed that the higher the magma is evolved the higher the g -ray values and the lower the susceptibility values. Measurements from the Wingertsberg (Laacher See deposits, Eifel, W-Germany) show clearly that a higher degree of magma evolution correlates with lower susceptibility and higher gamma-ray values. Variations of the values can be observed not only by the change of the degree of magmatic evolution but also by the inhomogeneous deposition conditions. Particularly the gamma-ray measurements show lower values for the wet-surge deposits than for the dry-surge deposits, even though the erupted material has the same geochemical composition. This can be explained especially by reactions inside of the moist eruption cloud and short-time after deposition, when easily soluble elements like K, U, and Th can be leached by these aggressive fluids. Even extended exposition and high water content can provoke depletion of various elements within the complete or parts of the outcrop, too. If the deposits are affected by a fumarolic activity especially the susceptibility values show significant variations, whereas in general extreme low values are observed. Contamination of deposits also can occur, if they are overlain by weathered deposits of higher concentration of K, U, and Th. Weathering and mobilisation within the upper deposits can generate an element enrichment within the lower deposits. In general the element ratios of the barried underlying deposits are less affected than the exposed ones. After gauging the values of the well defined succession for standard outcrops undefined outcrops were measured. These outcrops are not clearly classified by sedimentological and geochemical methods, thus a correlation with the combined geophysical methods is useful. In general the combination of the methods allows a correlation, although in some cases more than one interpretation is possible. But in connection with time marker horizons as well as sedimentological features an interpretation is feasible. These situations show that a classification solely based on geophysical methods is possible for many cases but, if the volcanic system is more complex, a combination with sedimentological and geochemical methods may be needed. The investigations on Vulcano, documented in this work, recommend a re-interpretation of the dispersial of some successions of La Fossa cone, especially the presumption that Tufi Varicolori only exist inside of the Caldera of La Fossa. As a consequence the eruption and energy model especially for Tufi Varicolori have to be reviewed.
The coast of Aqaba and the Aqaba region (Jordan) were investigated on their hydrogeo-ecosystem. The results of the research were translated into digits to build a geo-spatial data base. The fillings of the graben aquifer receive indirect type of recharge through the side wadis which drain the highlands. Surface water balance was modeled for a period of 20 years of daily climate records using MODBIL program which attributes direct recharge to wet years only. The hydrodynamic fresh water/seawater interface in the coastal zones was investigated by applying vertical geoelectric surveys and models of several methods to confirm its coincidence with the aquifer’s flow amounts, where human impacts in terms of over-pumping allowed more encroachment of seawater into land, and unintended recharge which led to seaward interface migration. A groundwater balance and solute transport were approached by developing a flow model from the hydrogeological and hydrochemical data. The nature of soil cover and aquifer whose physical properties enhance human impacts indicated the vulnerability of groundwater to pollution. This certainly threatens the marine ecology which forms the sink where the in-excess flow ends. The constructed digital background was exported into GIS to sub-zone the study area in terms of the aquifer’s vulnerability to pollution risks using DRASTIC index. However, it was unable to meet all geo-spatial factors that proved to have significant impacts on the vulnerability. Consequently, a comprehensive index -SALUFT- was developed. This suggests the suitable land use units for each zone in the light of vulnerability grades aiming at protecting the available groundwater resources.
There are ample sand dune and sand sheets in the Texas Rolling Plains, U.S.A. Their varied location, morphology and paleosol content pointed to differnces in their historical develpment throughout the Holocene. Younger dunes, so called fence line dunes have been identified as remnants of unsound agricultural practices which just recently formed at the beginning of this century. Correspondingly soils were eroded, in parts, down to the C-horizon in some of these areas. More mature sand were dated with the radiocarbon method and identified having formed during the Altithermal warming period. This study identifies major eolian anthropogenic and climatic reactivation and stabilisation phases in the Rolling Plains of Texas during the Holocene, but also ties them into the existing Southern High Plains and Great Plains climatic record. This study also researched the reasons for the regional and local sand reactivation phases and contributes to the eolian history in the Great Plains region. The outline of this dissertation is oriented towards a comprehensive regional approach in cultural and physical geography. Chapter 1 covers the physiographic setting of the Rolling Plains region including geology, geomorphology, climate and vegetation. Here the prerequisites for eolian activity in the area are explained, followed by the criteria for the selection of the individual study sites. In chapter 2 selected dune fields and sand sheets are introduced. Chapter 3 outlines the methodology as a combination of field research, laboratory analysis and remote sensing techniques, along with a brief interpretation of their application and success rate. Chapter 4 investigates interactive processes between the cultural development and the physical landscape of the region. The next 4 chapters are focusing on research results and interpretation. Chapter 5 interprets the youngest eolian episodes resulting from the cultural de-velopment of the area, including a description and definition of so called "fenceline dunes" and "shinnery motts". Other dunes with very young buried horizons are also described in this chapter, and a comparison with outcrops in the Nebraska Sand Hills is performed. Chapter 6 interprets short-term, cyclic, drought related sand reactivations several hundred years ago by means of a Post Oak (Quercus stellata) tree ring record as established by STAHLE and CLEAVELAND (1988). In chapter 7 older Holocene reactivation cycles are introduced, investigating the idea of the existence of a warmer period, previously named the Altithermal, which so far has only been identified in the Southern High Plains. The last chapter (8) includes a brief statement of the study’s purpose along with the summary and discussion of results presented. This chapter will end with further implications of this research.
Thin, pyroclastic marker beds are preserved in argillaceous units of the Dwyka Group in southern Nambia and South Africa which are the earliest witnesses of volcanism in Karoo-equivalent strata of southern Africa. The aim of this study is to present the field appearance of these marker beds, to characterise their mineralogy, geochemistry and heavy mineral contents and to present new radiometric age data from their juvenile zircons. Carboniferous-Permian Karoo deposits in the Aranos Basin of southern Namibia include the glacially dominated, Carboniferous Dwyka Group and the shelf sediments of the overlying Permian Ecca Group. The Dwyka Group can be subdivided into four upward-fining deglaciation sequences, each capped by relatively fine-grained glaciolacustrine or glaciomarine deposits. The uppermost part of the second deglaciation sequence comprises a thick fossiliferous mudstone unit, referred to as the ”Ganigobis Shale Member”. An abundance of marine macro- and ichnofossils as well as extrabasinally derived ashfall tuff beds characterise the more than 40 m thick mudstones and provide the basis for an integrated high-resolution biostratigraphic and tephrostratigraphic framework. The Ganigobis Shale Member contains remains of paleoniscoid fishes, bivalves, gastropods, scyphozoa, crinoid stalks, sponges and sponge spicules, radiolaria, coprolites and permineralised wood. These mostly marine body and trace fossils record the extent of the first of a series of marine incursions into the disintegrating Gondwanan interior as early as the Carboniferous. Within the Ganigobis Shale Member 21 bentonitic tuff beds displaying a thickness of 0.1 and 2.0 cm were determined which in part can be traced laterally over tens of kilometres indicating an ashfall derivation. Further bentonitic tuff beds of the Dwyka Group were detected in cut banks of the Orange River near Zwartbas in the Karasburg Basin (southern Namibia). The 65 tuff beds vary between 0.1 and 4.0 cm in thickness. Due to a similar fossil content and age of the background deposits, the tuff beds are thought to have originated from the same source area as those from the Aranos Basin. Thin-sections reveal the derivation of the tuff beds as distal fallout ashes produced by explosive volcanic eruptions. The matrix consists of a micro- to cryptocrystalline clay mineral-quartz mixture. Rare fragments of splinter quartz, completely recrystallized ash-sized particles of former volcanic glass and few apatite and zircon grains are the only juvenile components. The tuff beds contain as non-opaque, juvenile heavy minerals mostly zircon, apatite, monazite and sphene but also biotite, garnet, hornblende and tourmaline. Geochemical analyses point to an original, intermediate to acid composition of the tuff samples. LREE enrichment and Eu-anomalies show that the parent magma of the tuff beds was a highly evolved calc-alkaline magma. Tectonomagmatic discrimination diagrams point to a volcanic arc setting. Bedding characteristics and the lack of any Carboniferous-Permian volcanic successions onshore Namibia makes an aeolian transport of the ash particles over larger distances likely. Siliceous ashes could thus have been transported by prevailing south-westerly winds from arc-related vents in South America to southern Africa. A second, more local source area could have been located in an intracontinental rift zone along the western margin of southern Africa which is indicated by north-south directed ice-flow directions in the Late Carboniferous. SHRIMP-based age determinations of juvenile magmatic zircons separated from the tuff beds allow a new time calibration of Dwyka Group deglaciation sequences II - IV and the Dwyka/Ecca boundary. Zircons of the Ganigobis Shale Member yield SHRIMP-ages of 302-300 Ma. This dates the uppermost part of the second deglaciation sequence in southern Namibia to the Late Carboniferous (Gzelian) and provides a minimum age for the onset of Karoo-equivalent marine deposition. The age of the uppermost argillaceous part of the third deglaciation sequence (297 Ma) was determined from zircons of a tuffaceous bed sampled in a roadcut in the Western Cape Province, South Africa. The deposits correlate with the Hardap Shale Member in the Aranos Basin of southern Namibia which are part of much more widespread Eurydesma transgression. The age of the Dwyka/Ecca boundary was determined by SHRIMP-measurements of juvenile zircons from two tuff beds of the basal Prince Albert Formation sampled in the Western Cape Province (South Africa). The zircons revealed ages of 289 - 288 Ma which date the Dwyka/Ecca boundary at about 290 Ma. According to these ages, deglaciation sequences II-IV lasted for 5 Ma on average.
The explosive expansion of the population of the Metropolitan Region of Curitiba raised a high increase in the demand for water resources and the uncontrolled settlement poses a large problem for the environment. The greatest menace to the water supply sources of this region is the urban occupation (invasion) into the areas that contain these resources. This occupation continues with its slow, silent, although progressive march, threatening precious and irreplaceable resources. From this background an area in the direct vicinity north-east of Curitiba has been studied. In this area a drinking water reservoir was constructed in the time that the study took place in the Iraí-basin. The Iraí-reservoir even though an area around the lake will be protected may be polluted by two tributaries which flow through more or less densely populated areas. In the study area on the same time wells have been constructed. To estimate what the impact may be from the possibly polluted reservoir on the aquifer a groundwater flow model has been constructed. On the same time to estimate the water balance and the spatial distribution of pollution vulnerability the hydrological model MODBIL has been used. Also other methods have been used to estimate the pollution vulnerability to make a comparison and because none of the methods takes every aspect into account. With the calibrated groundwater flow model for the situation before the construction of the Iraí-reservoir and after its construction, simple particle tracking transport models are constructed as scenarios how the water of the aquifer may be influenced.