580 Pflanzen (Botanik)
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During the last few years an increasing number of physiological processes in plants have been shown to be regulated by NO. NO plays important roles in growth and development, plant disease resistance, abiotic stress, and in above and underground plant organs. In recent years several enzymatic pathways and few non-enzymatic pathways were proposed for nitric oxide production in plants. The major goal of this work was to quantify NO production by plants and especially by roots, and to identify the enzymes responsible for NO production. As a major method, NO production by roots was followed through on-line measurement of NO emission into the gas phase by chemiluminescence (= direct chemiluminescence), and also by indirect chemiluminescence where trace amounts of oxidized products like NO2- and NO3- can be easily measured. Plants used were tobacco wild-type (N. tabacum cv Xanthi or cv Gatersleben), NR-free mutants grown on ammonium in order to prevent NR induction, plants grown on tungstate to inhibit synthesis of functional MoCo-enzymes, and a NO-overproducing nitrite reductase (NiR)-deficient transformant as well as barley, rice and pea. Induction of a hypersensitive response (HR) in tobacco leaves was achieved by using avirulent Pseudomonas syringae pv phaseolicola. At oxygen concentrations of <1%, even completely nitrate reductase (NR)-free root tissues reduced added nitrite to NO, indicating that in roots, NR was not the only source for nitrite-dependent NO formation. By contrast, NR-free leaf slices were not able to reduce nitrite to NO. Root NO formation was blocked by inhibitors of mitochondrial electron transport (Myxothiazol and SHAM), whereas NO formation by NR containing leaf slices was insensitive to the inhibitors. Consistent with that, mitochondria purified from roots, but not those from leaves, reduced nitrite to NO at the expense of NADH. The inhibitor studies suggest that, in root mitochondria, both terminal oxidases participate in NO formation, and they also suggest that even in NR-containing roots, a large part of the reduction of nitrite to NO was catalysed by mitochondria, and less by NR. The differential capacity of root and leaf mitochondria to reduce nitrite to NO appears to be common among higher plants, since it was observed with Arabidopsis, barley, pea, and tobacco. Nitrite and NADH consumption by mitochondria were also measured. Anaerobic, nitrite-dependent NO emission was exclusively associated with the membrane fraction, without participation of matrix components. It was also examined whether root mitochondria and mitochondrial membranes produce nitric oxide (NO) exclusively by reduction of nitrite or also via a nitric oxide synthase (NOS),- and to what extent direct NO measurements could be falsified by NO oxidation. In addition to chemiluminescence, Diaminofluoresceins (DAF) were used as an NO indicators for comparison. In air, mitochondria apparently produced no nitrite-dependent NO, and no NOS activity was detected by direct or indirect chemiluminescence. In contrast, with DAF-2 and DAR-4M an L-arginine-dependent fluorescence increase took place. However, the response of this apparent NOS activity to inhibitors, substrates and cofactors was untypical when compared with commercial iNOS and is considered an artefact. With iNOS, about 2/3 of the NO were oxidized to (nitrite + nitrate). Mitochondria also appear to consume NO without increasing oxidation to (nitrite+ nitrate). We therefore assume formation of NO to a volatile intermediate (eventually N2O3). It was recently shown that the hypersensitive response (HR) of tobacco triggered by the fungal elicitor cryptogein occurred independent of the presence or absence of nitrate reductase (NR). One conclusion was that NR-dependent NO formation played no role in the HR. Here we present evidence that the described scenario may be specific for cryptogein. Pseudomonas syringae pv. phaseolicola was infiltrated into tobacco leaves from WT plant and from the NiR-deficient NO-overproducing clone 271, grown either on nitrate or ammonium. Lesion development as well as bacterial growth and sugar concentrations in leaves and in the leaf apoplast was monitored. Lesion development was positively and bacterial growth was negatively correlated with nitrate nutrition and eventually with NO formation. Bacterial growth was positively correlated with ammonium nutrition and apoplastic sugar concentrations. Total (free and conjugated) SA content were always drastically increased by bacterial infection, but there was no clear correlation with NO production. In the presence of cryptogein, Pseudomonas growth was drastically reduced. This shows that the assumed interdependence of bacterial growth, NO production and the HR is complex and not unifactorial.
Brassicaceae and a few related plant families are characterized by possession of the glucosinolate-myrosinase system. Glucosinolates are amino-acid derived allelochemicals which are hydrolysed upon tissue damage by myrosinase enzymes to produce various degradation products which can be toxic for generalist insects. The larvae of the crucifer-specialist Athalia rosae, the turnip sawfly, sequester glucosinolates into their haemolymph. The role of the glucosinolate-myrosinase system for the interaction of the turnip sawfly with Brassicaceae was examined in this study from two different perspectives: variation within individual plants and between plant species. The plant responses to the feeding by herbivores and the short-term effects this induction had on insect behaviour were investigated in white mustard. Furthermore, plants can use multiple defences. Hence correlations of glucosinolates and myrosinase activities with other defences and nutritional quality and their long-term effects on the development of the insects were investigated in seven different plant species.
NO has been described as an important component involved in the development of the hypersensitive reaction (Delledonne et.al., 1998). Furthermore, NO induces expression of a set of defence gene, such as PR-1, PAL1 and chalcone synthase (CHS), and accumulation of SA (Durner et al., 1998). In this study, transgenic plants with altered NO levels were used to study the role of NO in plant defence. Arabidopsis plants which, due to expression of a bacterial NO dioxygenase, exhibit lower levels of NO than wild-type plants, show several weakened defence response, including the oxidative burst and expression of phenylpropanoid pathway genes. By contrast, constitutive expression of a bacterial NO synthase in Arabisopsis results in increased levels of endogenous NO. However, these plants do not show constitutively activated defence responses, but suffer from increased susceptibility to various strains of P. syringae. This might indicate that a gradient in NO production rather than constitutive elevation of NO is necessary to trigger plant defence responses. Nevertheless, NO seems to be important for regulation of the oxidative state in plant cells. This function of NO is important during leaf senescence. The data of the present work indicate that NO acts as senescence-delaying factor during plant development. The molecular action of NO in plants and signalling cascades in which NO is involved as second messenger are still poorly understood. Experiments addressing the selective quantification of NO in intact plant tissue, the identification of NO-target proteins as well as the function of NO-modified biomolecules might help to understand the role of NO in plants. Non-host resistance consists of several layers of defence that include preformed compounds existing in plants before pathogen infection and induced defences which the plant activates after recognition of a pathogen. The role of inducible defences in preventing multiplication of non-adapted bacteria is not clear. Our experiments suggest that to restrict non-adapted bacterial growth, pre-formed antimicrobial compounds and an early inducible cell wall-based defence might play an important role in Arabidopsis leaves. Upon inoculation with non-adapted bacteria, we have observed early, TTSS-independent up-regulation of PAL1 and BCB, two lignin biosynthesis genes which might be involved in papilla formation or other kinds of cell wall fortification. Moreover, Arabidopsis pal1 knockout lines permit significantly higher survival of non-adapted bacteria in leaves than wild-type plants, suggesting a functional importance of PAL1 up-regulation. Although non-host bacteria, like host bacteria, induce accumulation of SA and PR gene expression in a TTSS-dependent manner, SA-dependent or JA/ET-dependent defences do not directly contribute to non-host resistance. Moreover, non-adapted bacteria activate similar defence signalling pathways as do host bacteria. However, because of varieties in effector protein composition between different non-adapted bacterial strains, the activated signalling pathways might also include different compounds. The Arabidopsis ecotype Ler 0 is more susceptible to a non-adapted strain of P. syringae than ecotype Col-0. Although differences in glucosinolate content and composition between those ecotypes exist, they are probably not a major reason for the observed difference in non-host resistance. To further understand the mechanisms underlying non-host resistance, the generation of double or triple mutants with deficits in both cell wall-based defences and SA-dependent signal cascades is necessary. Moreover, the study of genome polymorphism and composition of secondary metabolites between Ler-0 and Col-0 can shed new light into the mechanisms of non-host resistance against bacterial pathogens. Additionally, experiments addressing papilla formation and callose biosynthesis in Ler-0 and Col-0 could help to further elucidate bacterial non-host resistance. Our data indicate that localized contact of Arabidopsis leaves with non-adapted bacteria, type III secretion-defective P. syringae strains and bacterial pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) induce systemic acquired resistance (SAR) at the whole plant level. This finding contrasts the general belief that an HR or other leaf necroses are required for SAR induction. The observed symptomless systemic response was abolished in all SAR-deficient mutants tested in this study, but was intact in the jar1 mutant, which is compromised in induction of ISR, indicating that non-host bacteria and PAMPs induce SAR in a mechanistically similar way than host bacteria. In addition, our data show that the extent of SA accumulation or PR gene expression induced at sites of virulent or avirulent P. syringae inoculation rather than the amount of tissue necroses or jasmonate accumulation determine the magnitude of SAR. The fact that systemic responses were also triggered after local treatment with type III secretion-defective P. syringae strains and bacterial PAMPs indicate that induction of SAR is TTSS-independent. Instead, recognition of general elicitors like flagellin and LPS play an important role in activation of the SAR process. To broaden the concept of PAMP-based SAR initiation, further general elicitors from bacteria and fungal pathogens should be tested for their capability to induce SAR. Screens for mutants with deficiency in SAR activation by individual PAMPs can help to identify new components involved in the SAR signalling cascade. Possible functions of PAMPs as mobile systemic signals should be tested in future experiments. By selection of candidate genes whose expression is up-regulated in Arabidopsis leaves infected with avirulent and virulent P. syringae and pathophysiological analyses of corresponding T-DNA knockout lines, FLAVIN-DEPENDENT MONOOXYGENASE1 (FMO1) was identified as a key SAR regulator. SAR triggered by P. syringae is completely abolished in fmo1 mutant plants, and pathogen-induced expression of FMO1 in systemic leaves is closely correlated with the capability of different Arabidopsis lines to develop SAR. According to our findings, we have proposed that the FMO1 acts in signal amplification in non-inoculated, systemic leaves to trigger SAR. Experimental verification of the postulated potential amplification cycle underlying SAR should be tested in future experiments. The generation of transgenic lines expressing FMO1::GFP will provide useful information about the cellular localization of the FMO1 protein. Moreover, a comparative metabolomic analysis using SAR-induced wild-type, fmo1 knockout and FMO1 overexpressing lines can be used to identify substrates and reaction products of the FMO1 monooxygenase. As the single yeast FMO (yFMO) provides oxidizing equivalents at the ER for correct protein folding, expression of FMO1 in yfmo mutant yeast combined with protein activity assays might indicate whether FMO1 exhibits functional similarities with yeast FMO, e.g. in assuring proper folding of ER-targeted proteins essential for SAR establishment. Identification of further genes involved in activation of systemic resistance and biochemical characterization of the corresponding proteins can help to understand the SAR process in more detail.
Lokalisation, Funktion und Regulation pflanzlicher Tandem-Poren-Kaliumkanäle in Arabidopsis thaliana
(2007)
Lokalisation - Alle TPKs bis auf TPK4, der in der Plasmamembran lokalisiert ist, sind im Tonoplasten lokalisiert. - Das 14-3-3-Bindemotiv bzw. der komplette N-Terminus spielt im Gegensatz zu den tierischen TPK´s keine Rolle beim Targeting (und evtl. auch beim Assembly), da ein Austausch der N-Termini bzw. Mutationen im 14-3-3- Bindemotiv keinen Einfluss auf die subzelluläre Lokalisation hat. - Im C-Terminus ist möglicherweise ein strukturelles Motiv bzw. eine Erkennungssequenz für das Targeting in unterschiedliche Zielmembranen lokalisiert. Eventuell ist hier auch eine Assembly-Domäne für den Zusammenbau der unterschiedlichen Kanaluntereinheiten vorhanden. TPK4 - Der Kaliumkanal TPK4 wird nach Agro-Infiltration in dem pflanzlichen Expressionssystem Nicotiana benthamiana exprimiert. - TPK4 ist auch in diesem Expressionssystem in der Plasmamembran der Zelle lokalisiert. - Die Ströme, welche aus Mesophyllzellen von TPK4 infiltrierten Blättern abgeleitet wurden, gleichen denen, von TPK4 exprimierenden Oocyten von Xenopus laevis. Somit hat TPK4 in beiden Expressionssystemen die gleichen elektrophysiologischen Eigenschaften. TPK1 - TPK1 bindet über die C-terminalen EF-Hände Calcium und wird durch diese Interaktion aktiviert. - TPK1 interagiert phosphospezifisch und isotypspezifisch mit dem 14-3-3- Protein GRF6. Diese Interaktion führt zur Aktivierung des Kanals. - Die Kinasen CPK3 und CPK29, welche das 14-3-3-Bindemotiv von TPK1 phosphorylieren um eine Interaktion mit 14-3-3-Proteinen zu ermöglichen, gehören zur Familie der CDPKs - Diese Kinasen sind selbst Calcium aktiviert und aller Wahrscheinlichkeit nach unter physiologischen Bedingungen inaktiv. Erst ein Anstieg der freien Calciumkonzentration führt zur Aktivierung der Kinase in der Zelle und damit zur Aktivierung des Kanals. - Das 14-3-3-Bindemotiv ist das einzige Target der CDPK´s im N-Terminus von TPK1 - Die Phosphatase, welche das 14-3-3-Bindemotiv von TPK1 dephosphoryliert gehört zur Familie der PP2A-Proteinphosphatasen. - Es ist möglich, dass die Kinase und damit auch der Kanal durch Salzstress und durch Kaliumunterversorgung aktiviert werden und somit die Signalkaskade für die Aktivierung von TPK1 über Kinasen/14-3-3/Calcium in einen stressphysiologischen Kontext involviert ist. - tpk1.3- und cpk3.1-Verlustmutanten zeigen eine Reduktion in der Keimungsrate unter Salzstress und limitierten Kaliumangebot. Es kann über einen funktionalen Komplex bestehend aus TPK1 und TPC1 zur Aufrechterhaltung der Na+/K+-Homeostase und der elektroneutralen Aufnahme von Na+ in die Vakuole unter Salzstressbedingungen spekuliert werden.
Ein pflanzensoziologisches Modell der Schattentoleranz von Baumarten in den Bayerischen Alpen
(2007)
The ecological niche, as a summary of the environment in which a tree species can live, is a central concept in vegetation ecology and its application in silviculture. While the fundamental niche focusses on the physiological constraints of survival and growth, the realised niche takes competition in real communities into account. To understand realised niches in a causal fashion requires knowledge of the life cycle of plant species. The concept of regeneration niche is based on the notion that establishment and juvenile growth are particularly sensitive stages. Obviously, silviculturalists must be particularly interested in regeneration niches. The database BERGWALD contains 4,934 phytosociological plots from mountain forests and related vegetation types of the Bavarian Alps. The detailed information on plant species composition (trees, tree regeneration, shrubs, herbs and bryophytes) and cover has so far been used extensively for deriving vegetation units, site types and groups of indicator species. In the present study the database content was analysed with regard to the ecology of tree species in general and their regeneration niche in particular. The availability of light as a crucial resource that changes during forest succession was estimated by calculating average Ellenberg indicator values (mL) based on total field and bryophyte layer composition. The relative frequency of plots across the mL gradient in the total database was juxtaposed to the occurrence of the 16 most common tree species in the tree and in the regeneration layer, respectively. [...] As expected, the realised niches of tree species on the light gradient corresponded broadly to Ellenberg's L-value of tree regeneration. As the regional climax, Abies alba and Fagus sylvatica have coincident optima of tree layer and juvenile occurrences in closed, mature stands. Ulmus glabra and Fraxinus excelsior, as species of lower altitude, exhibit niches most similar to these climax species, followed by Acer pseudoplatanus and Picea abies, two of the most frequent species, that occur from low elevations to the timber line. The intermediate role of these four species is confirmed, as regeneration occurs mostly at light levels higher than those found under adult trees of the same species. Against expectations, Taxus baccata clearly prefers stands with moderate to high light, as do Sorbus aria, Sorbus aucuparia and Alnus incana. While Larix decidua and Pinus cembra occupy very similar overall niches, tree layer and regeneration niches of Larix differ markedly, whereas coincident layer niches in Pinus cembra underpin its status as a climax species at tree line. Pinus sylvestris and Salix eleagnos are typical shade-intolerant pioneers, of which regeneration is practically restricted to non-forest vegetation. Pinus rotundata and Juniperus communis are small trees that are entirely restricted to open stands subject to geomorphological activity. The results demonstrate the potential of phytosociological databases for studying the niches of tree species. To be sure, such analyses are no replacement for physiological and experimental studies. The research community is invited to use this source as a reference framework and an empirical validation for more specialised research.
Hieracium fallax Willd. und weitere Hieracium echioides-Zwischenarten im nordwestlichen Bayern
(2007)
Die Grenze des riesigen eurasiatisch-kontinentalen Areals von Hieracium echioides Lumn. verläuft durch Mitteldeutschland, Zwischenarten aus der Hieracium echioides-Verwandtschaft (sect. Echinina) dringen westlich bis in die Oberrheinebene vor, sind aber im übrigen Süden und Südosten Deutschlands sehr selten oder fehlen. In den letzten Jahren wurden im Nordwesten Bayerns neue Wuchsorte von Hieracium auriculoides Láng (MTB 5526.31, 5924.44, 6125.13, 6223.22), H. calodon Tausch ex Peter (6123.21, 6125.13) und H. fallax Willd. (6223.21) nachgewiesen. Dies stellt den zweiten aktuellen Nachweis von H. fallax in Bayern dar, bemerkenswert ist ein Nachweis von H. auriculoides in der Rhön in ca. 700 m Meereshöhe.