610 Medizin und Gesundheit
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Alveolar (AE) and cystic (CE) echinococcosis are two parasitic diseases caused by the tapeworms Echinococcus multilocularis and E. granulosus sensu lato (s. l.), respectively. Currently, AE and CE are mainly diagnosed by means of imaging techniques, serology, and clinical and epidemiological data. However, no viability markers that indicate parasite state during infection are available. Extracellular small RNAs (sRNAs) are short non-coding RNAs that can be secreted by cells through association with extracellular vesicles, proteins, or lipoproteins. Circulating sRNAs can show altered expression in pathological states; hence, they are intensively studied as biomarkers for several diseases. Here, we profiled the sRNA transcriptomes of AE and CE patients to identify novel biomarkers to aid in medical decisions when current diagnostic procedures are inconclusive. For this, endogenous and parasitic sRNAs were analyzed by sRNA sequencing in serum from disease negative, positive, and treated patients and patients harboring a non-parasitic lesion. Consequently, 20 differentially expressed sRNAs associated with AE, CE, and/or non-parasitic lesion were identified. Our results represent an in-depth characterization of the effect E. multilocularis and E. granulosus s. l. exert on the extracellular sRNA landscape in human infections and provide a set of novel candidate biomarkers for both AE and CE detection.
Alveolar and cystic echinococcosis, caused by Echinococcus multilocularis and Echinococcus
granulosus respectively, are severe zoonotic diseases with limited treatment
options. The sole curative treatment is the surgical removal of the complete parasite
material. Due to late diagnosis, chemotherapeutic treatment often is the only treatment
option. Treatment is based on benzimidazoles, which merely act parasitostatic
and often display strong side effects. Therefore, new therapeutic drugs are urgently
needed.
Evolutionarily conserved signalling pathways are known to be involved in hostparasite
cross-communication, parasite development and survival. Moreover, they
represent potential targets for chemotherapeutic drugs. In this context the roles of
the serotonin- and cAMP-signalling pathways in Echinococcus were studied.
Genes encoding serotonin receptors, a serotonin transporter and enzymes involved in
serotonin biosynthesis could be identified in the E. multilocularis and E. granulosus
genomes indicating that these parasites are capable of synthesizing and perceiving
serotonin signals. Also the influence of exogenous serotonin on parasite development
was studied. Serotonin significantly increased metacestode vesicle formation
from primary cells and re-differentiation of protoscoleces. Inhibition of serotonin
transport with citalopram significantly reduced metacestode vesicle formation from
primary cells and caused death of protoscoleces and metacestodes. Furthermore, it
could be shown that serotonin increased phosphorylation of protein kinase A substrates.
Taken together, these results show that serotonin and serotonin transport
are essential for Echinococcus development and survival. Consequently, components
of the serotonin pathway represent potential drug targets.
In this work the cAMP-signalling pathway was researched with focus on G-protein
coupled receptors and adenylate cyclases. 76 G-protein coupled receptors, including
members of all major families were identified in the E. multilocularis genome.
Four genes homologous to adenylate cyclase IX were identified in the E. multilocularis
genome and three in the E. granulosus genome. While glucagon caused
no significant effects, the adenylate cyclase activator forskolin and the adenylate
cyclase inhibitor 2’, 5’ didesoxyadenosine influenced metacestode vesicle formation
from primary cells, re-differentiation of protoscoleces and survival of metacestodes.
It was further shown that forskolin increases phosphorylation of protein kinase A
substrates, indicating that forskolin activates the cAMP-pathway also in cestodes.
These results indicate that the cAMP signalling pathway plays an important role in
Echinococcus development and survival.
To complement this work, the influence of different media and additives on E. granulosus protoscoleces was investigated. Anaerobic conditions and the presence of FBS
prolonged protoscolex survival while different media influenced protoscolex activation
and development.
Taken together, this work provided important insights into developmental processes
in Echinococcus and potential drug targets for echinococcosis chemotherapy.
Targeting Echinococcus multilocularis Stem Cells by Inhibition of the Polo-Like Kinase EmPlk1
(2014)
Background
Alveolar echinococcosis (AE) is a life-threatening disease caused by larvae of the fox-tapeworm Echinococcus multilocularis. Crucial to AE pathology is continuous infiltrative growth of the parasite's metacestode stage, which is driven by a population of somatic stem cells, called germinative cells. Current anti-AE chemotherapy using benzimidazoles is ineffective in eliminating the germinative cell population, thus leading to remission of parasite growth upon therapy discontinuation.
Methodology/Principal findings
We herein describe the characterization of EmPlk1, encoded by the gene emplk1, which displays significant homologies to members of the Plk1 sub-family of Polo-like kinases that regulate mitosis in eukaryotic cells. We demonstrate germinative cell-specific expression of emplk1 by RT-PCR, transcriptomics, and in situ hybridization. We also show that EmPlk1 can induce germinal vesicle breakdown when heterologously expressed in Xenopus oocytes, indicating that it is an active kinase. This activity was significantly suppressed in presence of BI 2536, a Plk1 inhibitor that has been tested in clinical trials against cancer. Addition of BI 2536 at concentrations as low as 20 nM significantly blocked the formation of metacestode vesicles from cultivated Echinococcus germinative cells. Furthermore, low concentrations of BI 2536 eliminated the germinative cell population from mature metacestode vesicles in vitro, yielding parasite tissue that was no longer capable of proliferation.
Conclusions/Significance
We conclude that BI 2536 effectively inactivates E. multilocularis germinative cells in parasite larvae in vitro by direct inhibition of EmPlk1, thus inducing mitotic arrest and germinative cell killing. Since germinative cells are decisive for parasite proliferation and metastasis formation within the host, BI 2536 and related compounds are very promising compounds to complement benzimidazoles in AE chemotherapy.
Author Summary
The lethal disease AE is characterized by continuous and infiltrative growth of the metacestode larva of the tapeworm E. multilocularis within host organs. This cancer-like progression is exclusively driven by a population of parasite stem cells (germinative cells) that have to be eliminated for an effective cure of the disease. Current treatment options, using benzimidazoles, are parasitostatic only, and thus obviously not effective in germinative cell killing. We herein describe a novel, druggable parasite enzyme, EmPlk1, that specifically regulates germinative cell proliferation. We show that a compound, BI 2536, originally designed to inhibit the human ortholog of EmPlk1, can also inhibit the parasite protein at low doses. Furthermore, low doses of BI 2536 eliminated germinative cells from Echinococcus larvae in vitro and prevented parasite growth and development. We propose that BI 2536 and related compounds are promising drugs to complement current benzimidazole treatment for achieving parasite killing.
Background
The metacestode of the tapeworm Echinococcus multilocularis is the causative agent of alveolar echinococcosis, a lethal zoonosis. Infections are initiated through establishment of parasite larvae within the intermediate host’s liver, where high concentrations of insulin are present, followed by tumour-like growth of the metacestode in host organs. The molecular mechanisms determining the organ tropism of E. multilocularis or the influences of host hormones on parasite proliferation are poorly understood.
Results
Using in vitro cultivation systems for parasite larvae we show that physiological concentrations (10 nM) of human insulin significantly stimulate the formation of metacestode larvae from parasite stem cells and promote asexual growth of the metacestode. Addition of human insulin to parasite larvae led to increased glucose uptake and enhanced phosphorylation of Echinococcus insulin signalling components, including an insulin receptor-like kinase, EmIR1, for which we demonstrate predominant expression in the parasite’s glycogen storage cells. We also characterized a second insulin receptor family member, EmIR2, and demonstrated interaction of its ligand binding domain with human insulin in the yeast two-hybrid system. Addition of an insulin receptor inhibitor resulted in metacestode killing, prevented metacestode development from parasite stem cells, and impaired the activation of insulin signalling pathways through host insulin.
Conclusions
Our data indicate that host insulin acts as a stimulant for parasite development within the host liver and that E. multilocularis senses the host hormone through an evolutionarily conserved insulin signalling pathway. Hormonal host-parasite cross-communication, facilitated by the relatively close phylogenetic relationship between E. multilocularis and its mammalian hosts, thus appears to be important in the pathology of alveolar echinococcosis. This contributes to a closer understanding of organ tropism and parasite persistence in larval cestode infections. Furthermore, our data show that Echinococcus insulin signalling pathways are promising targets for the development of novel drugs.
The unique stem cell system of the immortal larva of the human parasite Echinococcus multilocularis
(2014)
Background
It is believed that in tapeworms a separate population of undifferentiated cells, the germinative cells, is the only source of cell proliferation throughout the life cycle (similar to the neoblasts of free living flatworms). In Echinococcus multilocularis, the metacestode larval stage has a unique development, growing continuously like a mass of vesicles that infiltrate the tissues of the intermediate host, generating multiple protoscoleces by asexual budding. This unique proliferation potential indicates the existence of stem cells that are totipotent and have the ability for extensive self-renewal.
Results
We show that only the germinative cells proliferate in the larval vesicles and in primary cell cultures that undergo complete vesicle regeneration, by using a combination of morphological criteria and by developing molecular markers of differentiated cell types. The germinative cells are homogeneous in morphology but heterogeneous at the molecular level, since only sub-populations express homologs of the post-transcriptional regulators nanos and argonaute. Important differences are observed between the expression patterns of selected neoblast marker genes of other flatworms and the E. multilocularis germinative cells, including widespread expression in E. multilocularis of some genes that are neoblast-specific in planarians. Hydroxyurea treatment results in the depletion of germinative cells in larval vesicles, and after recovery following hydroxyurea treatment, surviving proliferating cells grow as patches that suggest extensive self-renewal potential for individual germinative cells.
Conclusions
In E. multilocularis metacestodes, the germinative cells are the only proliferating cells, presumably driving the continuous growth of the larval vesicles. However, the existence of sub-populations of the germinative cells is strongly supported by our data. Although the germinative cells are very similar to the neoblasts of other flatworms in function and in undifferentiated morphology, their unique gene expression pattern and the evolutionary loss of conserved stem cells regulators suggest that important differences in their physiology exist, which could be related to the unique biology of E. multilocularis larvae.
SL-Trans-Spleißen ist ein Mechanismus zur Transkriptprozessierung, welcher bisher bei kinetoplastiden Protozoen, Trematoden und Nematoden beschrieben wurde. Im Rahmen der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde erstmals das Gen für einen Spliced Leader (SL) aus den Cestoden E. multilocularis und E. granulosus charakterisiert. Ausgangspunkt waren Studien zur Genregulation des E. multilocularis Gens elp, welches für einen Faktor der ERM-Familie kodiert. Es konnte gezeigt werden, daß elp über mindestens zwei unterschiedliche Transkripte kodiert wird. Für eines dieser Transkripte konnte gezeigt werden, daß ein 32 Nukleotide langes, nicht-proteinkodierendes Exon über konservatives Spleißen mit dem startmethionin-kodierenden Exon II der elp-mRNA fusioniert wird. Der entsprechende Transkriptionsstartpunkt und zugehörige Promotorstrukturen konnten auf dem E. multilocularis Chromosom identifiziert werden. Ein zweites Transkript enthielt anstelle des 32 nt Exon I von elp ein alternatives 36 nt langes Exon am 5‘-Ende, welches nicht Teil des genomischen elp Lokus ist. Im Rahmen der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde gezeigt, daß dieses 36 nt lange Exon einen Spliced Leader (SL) von E. multilocularis darstellt. Eine Analyse von E. multilocularis cDNA-Bibliotheken ergab, daß sich das 36 nt Exon nicht nur am 5‘-Ende der elp-mRNA befindet, sondern in identischer Form auch am 5‘-Ende von mindestens elf anderen mRNAs von E. multilocularis. Das zugehörige SL-RNA-Gen konnte isoliert und vollständig charakterisiert werden. Es befand sich auf einem 1513 bp langen Fragment, welches auf dem E. multilocularis Genom als mehrfacher Repeat angeordnet ist. Auf DNA-Sequenzebene konnte gezeigt werden, daß dieses Gen signifikante Homologien zu bereits bekannten SL-RNA-Sequenzen von Trematoden und Turbellaria nicht jedoch zu solchen von Nematoden und kinetoplastiden Protozoen aufweist. Die Sekundärstruktur der kodierten SL-RNA besitzt zudem strukturelle Charakteristika, die für SL-RNAs anderer Organismen bereits bekannt sind. Zusammengenommen lassen diese Daten den Schluß zu, daß es sich bei dem 36 nt langen Exon in der Tat um einen SL von E. multilocularis handelt. Die für E. multilocularis identifizierten trans-gespleißten mRNAs kodieren für Faktoren, welche an einer Reihe unterschiedlicher Prozesse in der Zelle beteiligt sind. Signifikante Unterschiede in den Spektren der trans-gespleißten Faktoren bei Echinococcus und anderen Plathelminthen können als Hinweis gewertet werden, daß keine generelle Korrelation besteht zwischen Trans-Spleißen einer bestimmten mRNA und der biologischen Funktion des Faktors. Ein zum SL-Gen von E. multilocularis hoch homologes Gen konnte zudem auf chromosomaler DNA des Hundebandwurms E. granulosus identifiziert werden. Trans-Spleißen wird demnach nicht nur vom Fuchsbandwurm, sondern auch vom Hundebandwurm zur Genexpression genutzt. Im Falle von elp besteht die ungewöhnliche Situation, daß ein identisches Protein zwei verschiedene Transkripte kodiert von denen eines konventionell und das andere trans-gespleißt wird. Der Regulationsmechanismus dieses alternativen Cis/Trans-Spleißens wurde in dieser Arbeit untersucht. Hierbei konnte gezeigt werden, daß den zwei elp Transkripten auch zwei unterschiedliche Primärtranskripte zugrunde liegen. Die dabei erlangten Daten stehen in Einklang mit dem gegenwärtigen Modell, daß alternatives Cis/Trans-Spleißen an einer Splice Akzeptorstelle ausschließlich vom Vorhandensein einer stromaufwärts gelegenen Splice Donorstelle abhängt. Weitere Studien haben gezeigt, daß die Expression der trans-oder cis-gespleißten elp-mRNA weder stadien- noch isolat-oder zytospezifische ist. Zusammenfassend konnten in dieser Arbeit erstmals umfassende Daten zum Mechanismus des Trans-Spleißens bei einem Cestoden erlangt werden, was sich für weitere molekularbiologische Untersuchungen an diesem Organismus hervorragend ausnutzen läßt. In einer abschließenden Studie wurde versucht einen weiteren ERM-homologen Faktor, der eventuell auch über alternatives Cis/Trans-Spleißen exprimiert wird, über PCR mit degenerativen Primern zu identifizieren. Es konnte jedoch neben elp kein anderer homologer Faktor bestimmt werden. Dieses Ergebnis entspricht den bereits bei anderen niederen Eukaryonten durchgeführten Untersuchungen.